How might we cite a biblical passage in a speech when translations vary considerably? According to some Bible translations, for instance, the apostle Paul says that wives should “fear” their husbands. Others say that wives should “respect” them (Eph. 5:33). Should we select the translation that best supports our MAIN IDEA?
This is not just an issue regarding Bible knowledge. It pertains to all knowledge. As I said in the last chapter, we usually need to consult authorities on our topic. For instance, we should consult experts on topics like climate change, social media addiction, and fake news. But who are the authorities? How can we know for sure?
The easiest way for most of us to access information about nearly any topic is through online research. But the internet is peppered with biased and false information.
This chapter addresses both how to find and evaluate credibility, especially for online sources. As servant speakers, we need to rely discerningly on the most credible authorities.
Step 1: Define Topical Language
Initially, we need to explore how others, especially authorities, talk about our topic. This helps us clarify our topic before doing more in-depth research. We define our topic as clearly as possible.
SERVANT SPEAKING TIP
Briefly review the material on the websites of the top five links provided by two or three different search engines (such as Bing, Google, and DuckDuckGo) to explore the existing language about your topic.
Sources use different language, often with subtle but important meanings. For example, what is the difference between “global warming” and “climate change”? Similarly, what does the word “addiction” mean in a phrase such as “social media addiction”? What is “online bullying” or “online dating”? Experts do not always agree on terminology. Generally speaking, the sources who define terms clearly are more credible. The less credible sources use similar language loosely, without definitions.
In a speech on casual business dress, a student found various definitions online and then checked with some area companies’ human resources departments. He discovered that organizational policies differed, as did online definitions. His MAIN IDEA was that even before going for a job interview, one needs to check with people who work at the location about appropriate dress. And he explained how to use a university alumni database to connect with current employees to ask them what attire they would recommend for interviewees at their companies.
IN THE SPOTLIGHT
Initial Online Research
Wikipedia is one of the best places to begin exploring topical definitions, but we should not use it exclusively or cite it as a credible source since it relies on other sources. Wikipedia publishes information contributed by various individuals, some of whom are experts. Also, material submitted for particular topics is reviewed by experts and revised as needed. Wikipedia’s footnotes, “Further Reading” sections, and “External Links” provide additional sources.
SERVANT SPEAKING TIP
When speaking on topics related to current issues and events, track related topical keywords on social media to gain a general sense of how people think and feel about the topic.
Step 2: Consult with Research Experts
Once we have defined our topic with preliminary research, we need to make sure that we know how to research it well. We might ask two or three knowledgeable people how they would research the topic before we get too deeply into our own online research. Otherwise, we might waste considerable time searching the internet.
Research librarians offer excellent advice. Library websites often list staff with contact information. Library information desks are staffed with people who can answer our questions or direct us to others. Some have research librarians available online for immediate chat.
SERVANT SPEAKING TIP
Always do preliminary research to define your topic before seeking expert advice on the best ways to research it. Otherwise, it will look like you are just trying to get others to do the research for you.
Instructors
Many teachers are helpful sources for the best research methods. If we have already done our preliminary topical research, and consulted a librarian, most instructors will gladly suggest how we might proceed. They might recommend specific books, articles, websites, or other people to consult.
Experts at Teaching Skills/Processes
When we are speaking informatively to teach a skill or demonstrate a process, our research might include how to teach our topic. Some experts on our topic might not know how to teach it well. A great chef is not always a terrific cooking teacher.
The phrase “how to teach,” used with our topic (e.g., “how to teach personal finance”), usually produces valuable online results. When I searched that topic online, the first listing that came up was a Forbes article titled “How to Stop Boring Students When Teaching Personal Finance.”
Sometimes we can interview local experts who teach particular skills. If there are significant differences of opinion about how best to instruct others on our topic, we can ask experts to help us understand and evaluate the variations. We might be able to use them as primary research sources for our topic as well. A professor of personal finance or a financial adviser probably has helpful tips for teaching the topic.
Step 3: Find Authoritative Sources
Most persuasive and informative speeches are based partly on secondary research about what others say about a topic. We need to locate the most trustworthy secondary sources. By citing them, we gain audience credibility.
Broadly speaking, secondary research includes public websites, periodicals/media websites, and perhaps some scholarly/research publications and books.
Search Public Websites
The easiest way to research speech topics is on the open internet. We need to find information on trustworthy websites and beware of personal websites, such as many blogs, podcasts, and video materials produced by nonexperts. Adding “edu” (educational websites) or “org” (nonprofit websites) to our searches often helps. Most search engines’ “advanced search” options also provide a way to find recently published information. We can also return to Wikipedia and further explore footnoted sources.
Search Fee-Based Periodicals/Media Websites
Not all websites are fully accessible, even though links to the sites might appear in our online search results. Some allow a limited number of free monthly searches—such as the New York Times, Wall Street Journal, Washington Post, Atlantic, and Medium. Many of those that charge for access are available free at libraries.
Search Books
Books are among the best sources for servant speakers. They can provide depth, analysis, and bibliographies. Many authorities write books.
SEARCH A LIBRARY
We should search a nearby library’s book catalog, in person at the library or online via its website, using our topical keywords—such as “social media addiction” or “how to do a video interview.” Then we can note the Library of Congress (LOC) call number for each book on the topic. Finally, we can go directly to the library’s bookshelves where those books are located and see what other books are available on the same shelves.
If we are having trouble finding relevant books via LOC numbers, we can search the US Library of Congress book catalog, which is one of the largest collections of English-language books in the world.1 Many libraries can borrow books from other libraries for us. We might discover the one book that is exactly what we need.
SEARCH GOOGLE BOOKS AND GOOGLE SCHOLAR
Google Books (https://books.google.com) is a major collection of searchable books and other print materials. Most book and many periodical publishers allow their material to be searched on the site. The “advanced book search” feature includes ways of searching by author, topic, and publication. Google Scholar is a similar database focused primarily on scholarly sources.
Some publishers allow only short book excerpts to be displayed in Google Book search results, but usually we can access enough context to know if we ought to track down a copy of the book at a library.
SEARCH AMAZON
Online bookseller Amazon (http://amazon.com) is searchable both for books and within most individual books (the “Look Inside” feature). The website’s “Advanced Search” for books includes keywords for author, title, publication dates, and more. Often, only the first part of a book is fully readable, but usually authors summarize their MAIN IDEAs in an introduction or first chapter. Moreover, publishers provide book endorsements on Amazon as well as on most back covers, viewable on the site. The endorsements help us evaluate an author’s credibility.
Step 4: Evaluate the Credibility of Secondary Sources
When we use secondary sources, we need to evaluate their credibility (trustworthiness). Are they honest and truly knowledgeable—even legitimate experts? If we are speaking about Scripture, for instance, we need to consult biblical authorities rather than just popular writers or speakers. Instead of merely accepting the validity of all the information we find, we should focus on information from the most respected and authoritative sources.
If we are persuading our audience to support a public referendum on a voting rights proposal, we need to know whom we can trust on the issue, especially related to the likely impact of adopting or rejecting the proposal. If we are informing our audience about diet programs, we need to find the most objective sources, even if they disagree.
This is not easy. Surfing the internet can be like walking through a supermarket and asking the average customer for advice on purchasing the most nutritious bread. We need to know what we mean by nutritious and find nutritional experts who can help us.
Check the Sources of Quotations
Popular quotations are notoriously suspect. Just because a quotation appears in a print publication or online does not mean that it is true, accurate, or properly attributed. Even well-known books of quotations do not confirm the quotation’s validity. Two respected collections are the Oxford Dictionary of Quotations and the Yale Book of Quotations. The internet includes websites run by experts dedicated to determining if quotations attributed to particular well-known persons are true and accurate.
I have been unable to document the source of a quote frequently attributed to St. Francis of Assisi: “Preach the gospel always; if necessary, use words.” From what I can tell, variations of the quotation have been used in thousands of books and many more articles, as well as on plaques, in greeting cards, and even on T-shirts. Ironically, during his lifetime Francis was better known for his preaching than his lifestyle.2
Check Sources’ Credentials
When we quote others directly or use information from them, we need to consider their credentials—their qualifications or achievements related to our topic. What makes them an authority on our topic?
This is critically important for online research. The visual attractiveness of a website and its high search-engine ranking do not guarantee credibility. Neither does an apparent authority’s notoriety, including how often the person is quoted.
Credibility includes four major criteria: educational background, professional membership, publications, and endorsements.
What is the person’s education? Did they attend a university? What level of education do they have—perhaps a master’s or doctoral degree? What fields are their degrees in?
PROFESSIONAL MEMBERSHIP
Is the person a member of and presumably involved in a professional association? Normally their biography would indicate such activity. We can visit the organization’s website for information.
PUBLICATIONS
Has the person published any articles and books, or only a blog? Are the person’s articles/essays in popular magazines and newspapers or in scholarly journals? Articles in the latter are generally reviewed by other authorities and demonstrate accepted expertise on a subject.
Just because a book is a best seller does not guarantee that the ideas in the book have been reviewed by experts. If the person has written books, are they for a general public audience or for other authorities? Among the most authoritative publishers are university presses (e.g., The University of Chicago Press) and other academic publishers. Among the least-respected publishers are so-called vanity presses like Amazon’s own CreateSpace, which essentially lets anyone publish a book. Some self-published books are excellent; we just need to determine the credibility of those who have endorsed the book. Amazon lists publishers and the major endorsements for most books.
In general, books by Christian authors and Christian publishing houses need to be similarly scrutinized.
ENDORSEMENTS
Who has recognized the author’s work? Often endorsements are listed on the back of books or on the author’s or publisher’s website. Sometimes there will be additional endorsements in the book’s first few pages, which can be previewed on Amazon. If the endorsers are themselves experts who meet the above criteria, chances are the author is a credible source.
Examine Websites’ Credibility
The existence of a website does not make the content credible. Websites’ credibility includes three major elements: personal versus organizational sponsorship, the quality of writing, and sources.
PERSONAL VERSUS ORGANIZATIONAL SPONSORSHIPS
Many websites are essentially personal blogs that may not be credible. Some experts do have their own highly respected websites that help general readers understand their work. If the personal website does not provide a substantive biography, chances are the person is not an authority on the topic.
Organizationally sponsored websites are more likely to be authoritative. For instance, the prestigious Mayo Clinic’s website has more credibility than one for an individual physician or a local medical practice. Similarly, the website for the National Communication Association is more authoritative than one for any individual communication expert.
QUALITY OF WRITING
The quality of writing on a website often reflects the quality of thought. Highly personal and opinionated writing suggests a lack of thoughtfulness. Grammatical errors and awkward prose suggest that the writer is not a careful thinker.
SOURCES
What secondary sources does the website cite? Does it use specific, verifiable citations, including publications with page numbers? Or does the site seem to speak only in generalities, suggesting that the writing is not based on careful research?
Step 5: Use Sources Honestly
Our own credibility as servant speakers includes not just our speech content and style but also how we use sources. The sources we cite, and what we claim about them, can lead our audience-neighbors to accept or question our trustworthiness.
Identify Plagiarism
Plagiarism is passing off someone else’s ideas and expressions as our own. Failing to give credit to the source of an idea, let alone for specific quotes or data, is plagiarism. So is using ideas from someone else’s publications or speeches without acknowledging them as a source. When we plagiarize others, we fail to respect them as our neighbors. We become poor stewards of knowledge.
SERVANT SPEAKING TIP
Cite the sources of all borrowed ideas, quotations, and definitions. Briefly include each person’s title and/or publication.
Avoid Fabrication
Fabrication is making up data, examples, findings, or other information. Not only should we never fabricate but we need to cross-check our sources against other sources to make sure that we are not victims of others’ fabrication.
Unintentional fabrication includes uncritically accepting and then passing along as fact what someone else says or writes that is objectively false. For instance, is a company’s logo truly a satanic symbol? Do microwave ovens actually cook food from the inside out? Can music affect us subliminally? What does the Bible say about drinking alcohol?
No matter how many times people claim something is true, we still need to verify it in order to avoid unintentional fabrication.
One way to avoid even unintentional fabrication is by checking secondary sources against primary ones. If one source quotes another source, verify the original. When this is not possible, acknowledge that the quotation is from a secondary source: “Author and communication professor Quentin Schultze, PhD, quotes Augustine as saying . . .”
IN THE SPOTLIGHT
Citing Sources and Using Quotations in Speeches
Step 6: Cite Sources in Speeches
We usually should cite our sources in our speeches. Some audience members might want to follow up with their own research on our topic. And we gain credibility by citing credible sources.
In most cases we will not be able to cite in our speech all the credible sources we examined during our research. Speeches that continually cite sources are boring and awkward. We probably do not want to cite more than two or three sources per minute in a typical speech. If needed, we can quickly summarize our main sources in our speech introduction, but that is awkward as well.
One option is to list on a screen projection or distribute on a printed handout the full citations for our research sources. Then we can simply direct our audience to the list and use only the last names of our sources when we refer to them.
Normally, however, we adequately cite sources, with their credentials, when we refer to them in our speech.
Conclusion
Researching our speech topic is somewhat like studying the Bible. We need to avoid letting our own assumptions and superficial conclusions dictate how we understand a topic. We are not biblical authorities, so we depend on experts to help us. Otherwise, we might just pass along our ignorance to others. In effect, we have to become mini-authorities on our narrowed-down topics.
FOR DISCUSSION