2.3 Inhabitation in the Himalaya
2.4 Risks to Himalayan Cultures
2.5 Cultural Protection and Promotion
2.6 Initiatives for Preservation and Promotion of Himalayan Cultures
Himalaya, a mountain range in Asia, separates the Indo-Gangetic Plain from the Tibetan Plateau and is a rich genetic resource of Ethnic Diversity. There is great cultural diversity within the population of the Himalayan regions where religion is concerned. Three religions are dominant in the mountains: Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam. Four distinct ethnic strains, i.e., Indic people, Tibetan people, Afghan-Aranian and Burman are visible and present today. In general, the inhabitants of the northern slopes and the higher altitudes on the southern side of the Himalayas are Mongoloids and have remained ethnically pure because of relatively lower contact with outsiders and had waves of invasions and conquests and migrations through history, and are today inhabited by diverse and mixed ethnic groups, with Mongoloid, Negroid and Aryan strains.
The Central Himalayan region in inhabited by people commonly known as ‘Paharis' comprise a variety of subgroups which share basic cultural patterns but show local differences in such features as dialect, ceremonial forms, deities worshipped, house styles, dress and ornamentation, range of castes, and rules of marriage. In Western Himalaya Changpas are mostly nomads engaged in trans-human activities while Laddakhis, Dardi and Balti are engaged in primitive agricultural activities mostly concentrated in river valleys. Kashimiris, Gujjars and Bakkerwals inhabit the Pirpanjal and Kashmir valley mountains areas who speak Kashmiri, and Pahari/Gojri, respectively.
Nomadic pastoralism has been portrayed as one of the great advances in the evolution of mankind. People who specialize in livestock production requiring periodic movements of their herds are known as nomadic pastoralists, or, simply nomads. As such, these portraits of nomads offer a rare glimpse into a way of life that is rapidly vanishing. Menfolk in remote Himalayan region flourished by nature. Just as some travel for herding, many others travel out of their valleys and across the ranges for selling their wares at lowland markets, buying at the same time, goods that they cannot access in the closed high altitude valleys. Sheep, Goat and Yak wool is main source of trading. In terms of its diversity of peoples and languages, the greater Himalayan region is the most complex. There are hundreds of different languages spoken in the Himalayas. Himalayan people are highly clannish. Himalayan women usually enjoy a much greater level of freedom and participate equally with the men in agricultural practices and in cultural activities. Mountain regions had developed a rich base of indigenous traditional knowledge that is being rapidly eroded under the forces of modernization, as new methods/sciences make inroads and local value and promotion of ITK declines.
From time immemorial, the indigenous communities, all over the world, have been depending upon the ambient natural resources for their sustenance. This indigenous knowledge has evolved independently in a variety of ecosystems in different parts of the world (Jain and Sharma, 2000). However, due to changing perception of the user communities, commercialization and socio-economic transformation all over the world, there has been a general observation that the indigenous knowledge on sustainable use of resources has degraded severely (Gadgil et al., 1993), and needs to be documented before it is lost forever to posterity.
Ethnic group, a social group or category of the population that, in a larger society, is set apart. Ethnic diversity is one form of the social complexity found in most contemporary societies. Historically it is the legacy of conquests brought diverse peoples of area under the rule of a dominant group, i.e., rulers who in their own interests imported peoples for their labor or their technical and business skills; of industrialization, which intensified the age-old pattern of migration for economic reasons; or of political and religious persecutions that drove people from their native lands.
The Himalayas or Himalaya is a mountain range in the South Asia, which separates the Indo-Gangetic Plain from the Tibetan Plateau. This range is home to nine of the ten highest peaks on Earth, including the highest above sea level, Stretching in an arc over 3,000 kilometers of northern Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and the northwestern and northeastern states of India, the Himalaya hotspot includes all of the world's mountain peaks higher than 8,000 meters. This includes the world's highest mountain, Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) as well as several of the world's deepest river gorges. This immense mountain range, which covers nearly 750,000 km2, has been divided into two regions: the Eastern Himalaya, which covers parts of Nepal, Bhutan, the northeast Indian states of West Bengal, Sikkim, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh, southeast Tibet (China), and northern Myanmar; and the Western Himalaya, covering the Kumaon-Garhwal, northwest Kashmir, and northern Pakistan. While these divisions are largely artificial, the deep defile carved by the antecedent Kali Gandaki River between the Annapurna and Dhaulagiri mountains has been an effective dispersal barrier to many species. Broadening in an immense arc of 2500 km in length, along the boundaries and covering 5 Asian countries, the rugged terrain of the Himalaya range is broken intermittently by valleys and plateau that have allowed habitation.
Although a tremendously difficult terrain, the Himalayas are thus inhabited by a sizeable population of 65.57 million belonging to different indigenous tribes. Of this, 36.32 million reside in India (25% in western Himalayas, 54% in Central Himalayas and 21% in eastern Himalayas), 27.07 million in Nepal and 2.18 million in Bhutan.
Biogeographically, the Himalayan Mountain Range straddles a transition zone between the Palearctic and Indo-Malayan realms. Species from both realms are represented in the hotspot. In addition, geological, climatic and altitudinal variations in the hotspot, as well as topographic complexity, contribute to the biological diversity of the mountains along their east-west and north-south axes.
“Cultural diversity” refers to the manifold ways in which the cultures of groups and societies find expression where as ethnic diversity is variation in cultures prevalent amongst ethnic peoples. These expressions are passed on within and among groups and societies. Cultural diversity is made manifest not only through the varied ways in which the cultural heritage of humanity is expressed, augmented and transmitted through the variety of cultural expressions, but also through diverse modes of artistic creation, production, dissemination, distribution and enjoyment, whatever the means and technologies used.
There is great cultural diversity within the population of the Himalayan regions. Banerji and Pragnya (2016) have given a detailed account on cultural diversity in the Himalayas. Where religion is concerned, three religions are dominant in the mountains: Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam. In terms of livelihood practices, as mentioned above, some undertake terraced agriculture, some are pastoralists while others are traders. Even local administrative systems vary from statutory panchayat systems to traditional institutions. The cultural variations visible when moving laterally across the Himalayas, stem from the waves of migration across the Himalayan ranges and into the fertile valleys. Over the centuries, generations of people of different ethnic origins from its south, east, west and north, have migrated into the region and made it their home. Puranas, the ancient Hindu epic, mentions the Kinnars, Kilinds, and Kiratas as the original inhabitants of the Himalayas. History also mentions the names of Khasas and the Darads. Four distinct ethnic strains are visible today:
In general, the inhabitants of the northern slopes and the higher altitudes on the southern side of the Himalayas are Mongoloids and have remained ethnically pure because of relatively lower contact with outsiders; the southern slopes, especially the lower and middle ranges, have had waves of invasions and conquests and migrations through history, and are today inhabited by diverse and mixed ethnic groups, with Mongoloid, Negroid and Aryan strains. It is believed that settlement in the Himalayas began with a warriorlike Aryan tribe called Khas that migrated to the western Himalayas in 1500 B.C.; the Tibeto-Burman people of South-east Asia (called the Kiratas and reputed for their musical skills) moved into the central and eastern Himalayas in the early millennia. Bhotia nomads moved southwards from the northern slopes into the high Himalayan valleys and plateaux on the southern slopes in the early centuries AD. Although the pattern of settlements is variegated and complex, on the whole, north-western Himalaya has evolved under the Muslim influence, central and eastern Himalaya is essentially Hindu, while Buddhists holds sway in the northern flank.
The Central Himalayan region can be divided into the regions of Himachal and Punjab, Garhwal and Kumaon and the Nepal Himalayas. With the exception of a few Buddhists, the region is inhabited by people of the Aryan stock. People in the foothills of the Inner Himalayan region are loosely referred to as ‘Paharis' comprise a variety of subgroups which share basic cultural patterns but show local differences in such features as dialect, ceremonial forms, deities worshipped, house styles, dress and ornamentation, range of castes, and rules of marriage. These variations are often extremely limited in distribution so that it is possible for one acquainted with a region to identify readily the particular valley or ridge from which a person comes by his speech or dress. They are isolated from the Tibetan Bhotiyas by high mountains, but have trading contacts when the Bhotiyas come (to the) lower regions. The semi-nomadic Bhotiyas live in the northern regions (they) live in their villages only for short periods in the year. They go either to high altitudes with their herds during the summer months, or to the Bhabar near the plains for trade during the winter when the valleys are severely cold.
The people of this region display a flow of the Afghan-Iranian cultures from the west, with an impinging of the Indic cultures from the south and Tibetan cultures from the north. Pradyumna P. Karan divides the Western Himalayan realm into the Sub-Himalayan Kashmir (Poonch and Jammu), Pir Panjal, Valley of Kashmir, Ladakh and Baltistan, and the Kohistan and Gilgit regions. The Laddakh division of Jammu and Kashmir is represented by the Changpas in the highland areas of extreme north, Laddakhis in the plateau areas of central zones and Baltis, Bropkpas and Dards in the river valleys of Western zones. The Changpas are mostly nomads engaged in trans-human activities while Laddakhis, Dardi and Balti are engaged in primitive agricultural activities mostly concentrated in river valleys. Laddakhi, Dardi and Balti are the major languages spoken in this region. Kashimiris, Gujjars and Bakkerwals inhabit the Pirpanjal and Kashmir valley mountains areas who speak Kashmiri, and Pahari/Gojri respectively. The people in the upper reaches of the mountains follow Islam while the populations in the foothills are mostly Hindu. Both Ladakhis and Baltis are Mongolid in physical traits. While Ladakh's population is predominantly Buddhist, the Baltistan consists of both Muslims and Buddhists. It is therefore that Buddhist monasteries, prayer flags and chortens form significant elements of the cultural landscape in Ladakh and adjoining Baltistan.
Sahoo et al. (2013) have given details of some of the tribes of Western and Central Himalayas and the details are given below.
Himachal Pradesh: (5.7%) Gaddi, Kinnaura, Gujjar, Bodh, Labula, Khanpa (Gaddi).
Jammu & Kashmir: (11.9%) Balti, Bodh, Brog-pa, Champa, Mon, Purig-pa, Amci, Boto, Dard, Drukap, Changpa.
Uttarakhand: (2.9%) Jaunsari, Tharu, Bhotia, Bhoska, Raji, Gangwal, Gorkhali, Kinnauris, Gujjar, Naipali.
Amchi is a tribe in the high mountain region of Ladakh in northwest India, pharmacists/healers in Ladakh. They practice an old traditional medical system that employs a complex approach to diagnosis incorporating techniques such as pulse analysis and urinalysis and applies dietary and behavioral factors as well as medicines compounded from natural materials (e.g., mainly herbs and minerals) and physical therapies to treat illness. It is effective in all kinds of illness. It has proved particularly beneficial in the treatment of chronic diseases such as rheumatism, arthritis, ulcers, chronic digestive problems, asthma, hepatitis, eczema, liver problems, skin diseases, sinus problems, anxiety and problems connected with nervous system.
Banraut is a small tribe in higher regions of Kumaon in NW Himalayas.
Bhoska, also known as Buska, are indigenous people living mainly in the Indian states of Uttarakhand and U.P. They are mostly concentrated in Dehra Dun and Nainital in the Kumaon foothills of the outer Himalayas. They are also found in Bijnor district of U.P. where they are known as Mehra. Both communities have been granted scheduled tribe status.
Bhotia, also called as Bhot, Bot, Bhutiya, Bhutia are groups of ethno-lin- guistically Tibetan people living in the trans-Himalayan region that divides India from China and were originally a hill tribe. Their name, Bhotiya, derives from the word Bod (Bodyul), which is the classical Tibetan name for Tibet. The ancient language of Bot people is Boti. The Bot people are closely related to the Sikkimese Bhutia, the main ethno-linguistic group of Northern Sikkim that speaks the Sikkimese (Bhutiya) language. They are also closely related to Uttarakhand Bhotiya, several groups in the upper Himalayan valleys of the Kumaon and Garhwal of Uttarakhand Himalayas. These include the Shaukas of Kumaon and Tolchas and Marchas of Garhwal. The Bhotiyas are also related to the Ngalop, the main ethno-linguistic group of Bhutan speaking Dzongka, as well as several dispersed groups in Nepal and adjacent areas of India including Tibetans proper, Sherpa and many others.
Johari or Shauka, living in the Johar valley of Goriganga river in Munyasari Tehsil of the Pithorgaarh district. They are part of the larger Uttarakhand Bhotiy ethno-linguistic group, and one of the few of Uttarakhand tribes that show a rich cultural heritage and adhere to the caste system. Shaukas are followers of Hinduism and rely on the Hindu Brahmins to conduct religious ceremonies. Their main deity is Goddess Nanda Devi in Martoli and Milam.
Tharu, a tribe of about 0.1 million people inhabiting Terai region in U.P. and extending to Nepal. It is said that Tharus are descendants of Rajputs who were evicted from Rajasthan by some invaders, however, some experts say that they cannot be placed in any other constellation of tribes and castes of the province, Indo-Aryan or Australoid. Also the Rajput origin is not supported on the basis of serology. Thus, it is concluded that the Tharus are a Mongoloid people, or predominantly so, who have successfully assimilated non-Mongoloid physical features as well.
Every mountain slope is, from the anthropo-geographical standpoint, a complex phenomenon. It displays a whole range of cultural features/com- binations—a variety of occupations from commercial cropping and agro processing to nomadic pastoralists, every degree of density from congestion to vacancy, every range of cultural development from industrialization to nomadism. The isolation bred by the high mountain ranges has helped nurture a multiplicity of tribes with unique cultures that include languages, social structures, and spiritual traditions. Each tribe also has its own arts and crafts (weaving, metal craft, architecture, music and dance) and certain invaluable traditional knowledge systems (ethnobotany, medicine). Some of the tribes predominant in this region of North East India and the neighboring the area of Sikkim, Nepal, Bhutan, parts of West Bengal, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh (North East India) etc. Only in Arunachal Pradesh itself there are over 80 tribes and sub-tribes of Indo-Mongoloid origin.
Having acted as a natural and political barrier for centuries, the Himalayas have nurtured a number of communities, cultured and custom. The Hindu epics, talk about Kirates, Kinnars, Khasas and Darats, who were original inhabitants of the Himalayas. The inhabitant of Himalaya includes, Bhutiyas of Bhutan, Sikkimese from Sikkim consisting of three different groups- Lepchas, Bhutias and Nepalese, Ladakhis from Ladakh and Himachalis of Himachal. Ethnic Spectra of central and western Himalaya differ conspicuously from that of north of north-eastern region.
Cultural region indicates those areas that display relative consistency, homogeneity, and distinctiveness in inhabitants' lifestyle, in that there are a greater number of shared cultural elements within the region, than between the region and others. The cultural complex of the Himalayas may be differentiated into multiple cultural regions. Cultural variation in the Himalayas is both vertical and lateral. While vertical variation predominantly flows from ecological factors, lateral variation in cultures is mediated by ethnicity and migration.
The settlement patterns, occupations and ways of life of populations in the Himalayas are a reflection of human interaction with and adaptation to climate, relief and ecology. The key differentiator is that of livelihoods practiced and associated way of life. Guillet has analyzed the cultural patterns in mountain regions, with special reference to the Andes and the Himalayas, and drawn out what he calls the ‘cultural ecology of mountains' to interpret these patterns. This comprises two major interpretive schemas: ‘approaches to organismic interaction in mountain environments' and ‘production in mountain environments'.
The nature of interactions in mountain environments comprises the interrelation of human and biological features including flora and fauna; occupation and strategies for control amongst cultures; utilization of vertical life zones for human exploitation.
Production in mountain environments is a composite of response of populations and occupations to climate and altitude; the population's strategies, spatial and temporal factors, and internal and external pressures influencing agricultural intensification.
A majority of the people residing in the valleys and plateaus of the southern slopes of the Himalayan range are sedentary. Agriculture is the dominant occupation for most Himalayan communities, except for the people of very high altitudes and northern steppes who follow nomadic pastoralism. Different patterns of cultivation are however followed, depending on the nature of the terrain and soil in a particular Himalayan region. The foothills and the lower hills, by virtue of their rich, fertile soils, brought down by the Himalayan rivers, are relatively densely populated, and the predominant religion is Hinduism. The Greater and Trans Himalayas are by far more severe in terrain and climate. Populations in this region are therefore very sparse living in small communities widely dispersed across a vast, harsh terrain. Depending on the precise location and agro-climatic conditions, they are either sedentary, subsistence farmers or nomadic tent-dwelling pastoralists. The altitude-based occupational and associated cultural patterns in the Himalayas are as below:
Nomadic pastoralism has been portrayed as one of the great advances in the evolution of mankind. It is an adaptation by people to grassland areas of the world where the raising of livestock is more supportive of human life than the growing of crops. People who specialize in livestock production requiring periodic movements of their herds are known as nomadic pasto- ralists, or, simply nomads. The survival of nomads on the Tibetan Plateau and Himalaya provides examples of nomadic practices that were once widespread throughout Asia and Africa, but are now increasingly hard to find. As such, these portraits of nomads offer a rare glimpse into a way of life that is rapidly vanishing.
The lives of the nomads are tuned to the growth of the grass and the seasonal pulse of the grazing lands. The grasslands provide the theater in which the nomads and their animals interact to make a living. Over centuries, the nomads acquired complex knowledge about the environment in which they lived and upon which their lives depended, which enabled them to persist in one of the most inhospitable places on earth. But, they did more than just survive. The nomads created a unique, vibrant culture, about which, even today, so little is known.
Nomads possess a great body of indigenous knowledge about the environment, in which they live, the animals they raise for a living, and the wildlife that is found in their environs. Over thousands of years, nomads in the Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau acquire complex understanding about the environment in which they lived and upon which their lives depended. This was a major reason why they were able to persist in one of the most inhospitable places on earth. Unfortunately, nomads' vast ecological knowledge and animal husbandry skills are often not well recognized by scientists and development planners.
The arid lands on the northern flanks and the high altitude plateau of similar character in the southern side cannot support cultivation. A very small part of the rain-bearing winds can steal through the ranges that lie on their path to precipitate in these areas; even this is often unable to settle on the ground because of the winds that blow wild and unchecked on these flat tablelands. The little snow that does settle and provide moisture to the soil helps a soft downy grass grow in the summers. Hence the people of these regions adopted animal husbandry for their livelihoods, and follow a seasonal form of nomadism, moving with their families and herds (sheep, goats, yaks, camels) from one pastureland to the next during the summer, halting at one site just as long as its regeneration would not be affected by use, stocking up all the while for the barren, cold, but sedentary winters. These are large communities (by mountain standards) but dispersed over a vast terrain, with little contact amongst them. In the context of scarce rangeland resources, contact has often led to clashes over sharing of these scarce resources. The culture of the nomadic pastoralists that inhabit the very high altitudes therefore revolves around their herds, the produce from them (wool, milk) and the rangelands.
These are sedentary zones with village settlements in valleys and slopes, where the soils are infinitely more productive and support a wide range of crops. The sub-tropical and temperate zones are good for vegetables and orchards and are not terribly distant from the markets, and hence cash-cropping and horticulture is practiced. Communities at higher altitudes even in these zones however, practice subsistence cultivation, supplemented by animal husbandry and trading. These mid-latitudes are more densely populated and along with the sedentary nature of life, this has helped the development of more elaborate social structures and cultural forms.
At the Himalayan foothills, communities plant the fertile alluvial lands with grain crops and use flooding with river waters for irrigation. In the eastern Himalayas, the much-maligned ‘slash and burn' cultivation is followed, and in most other areas, Himalayan farmers painstakingly cut terraces into the uncompromising steep hillsides to plant them with one or two crops per year. Menfolk in remote Himalayan region flourished by nature. Just as some travel for herding, many others travel out of their valleys and across the ranges for selling their wares at lowland markets, buying at the same time, goods that they cannot access in the closed high altitude valleys. Sheep, Goat and Yak wool is main source of trading.
In terms of its diversity of peoples and languages, the greater Himalayan region is the most complex. This remarkable landscape includes the highest land barrier on the face of the planet, and linguistic evidence shows that this has shaped and channeled population movements in the past.
There are hundreds of different languages spoken along the length of the Himalayas. Most people speak languages belonging either to the Tibeto-Burman or Indo-European families, but there are also Austroasiatic, Dravidian, Daic and Altaic language communities settled in the mountain tracts, foothills and periphery of the Himalayas, and two language isolates, Burushaski and Kusunda.
The Himalayan region is characterized by considerable linguistic diversity and multilingualism as well. “The Himalayan reaches of South Asia have been described as one of the ten biodiversity ‘mega centers' of the world. But this diverse region is also home to almost 20% of all human languages, so the area should be thought of as a linguistic and cultural ‘mega center' as well, and as a key site for the common heritage of all humanity.” Language communities of the Himalayas include the Indo-European language family, the Dravidian language family, the Tibeto-Burman language family, the Austro-Asiatic language family, as well as some language isolates. A study has listed as many as 51 languages in the Himalayan region, in the western and central regions, predominantly of the Indo-Aryan group in the eastern, predominantly of the Tibeto-Burman group. The languages of the rituals (Sanskrit, Tibetan) are usually well developed and documented, and some of the more widely used languages such as Nepali, Burmese, etc., also have detailed dictionaries. Classical literature is available in the language of the rituals, and neo-classical and modern literature in the more dominant languages in use. Long contact between the different languages have also caused linguistic borrowing and change and the languages as they exist today and the literature of the current times is a reflection of the migration patterns, patterns of dominance-submission among communities, social structures and trade relations. Baram, Black Mountain Monpa, Bhutan, Bumthang, Byangsi, Chamling, Choyo, Dhimal, Dumi, Dzongkha, Gongduk, Guiqiong, Hayu, Indian, Jero, Kulung, Lepcha, Lhokpu, Limbu, Lohorung, Manchad, Mangde, Namuyi, Nepal, Pakistan, Sampang, Sinhalese, Sulung, Sunwar, Thadou, Thangmi, Tibet, Trung, Tshangla, Tosu, Toto, Wambule, Yamphu and Zaiwa are most of the languages spoke in the Himalayas.
A majority of the people residing in the valleys and plateaus of the southern slopes are sedentary. The foothills and the lower hills, by virtue of their rich, fertile soils, brought down by the Himalayan rivers, are relatively densely populated, and the predominant religion is Hinduism. The Greater and Trans Himalayas are by far more severe in terrain and climate. Populations in this region are therefore very sparse living in small communities widely dispersed across a vast, harsh terrain. Depending on the precise location and agro-climatic conditions, they are either sedentary, subsistence farmers or nomadic tent-dwelling pastoralists prevailing in the lap of Himalaya.
Since fording the high mountain ranges that separated the Himalayan valleys was possible only at great risk to life, each valley and each distinct community developed its own socio-cultural solutions to the challenges of life, virtually cut-off from the rest of the world. Yet, the common geographical factors helped shape cultures that were highly akin one to another. One and all, the people of the Himalayas worship the mountains as their preserver and protector and life-giver. All communities are strongly religious, nature-dependent and clannish; except for inhabitants of the arid wilderness on the northern flanks and the dense forests of the eastern ranges, where the people are fierce and warrior-like - they successfully rebuffed the British armies during the Raj era - the Himalayan people are essentially peace- loving. The Himalayas also boast of a rich tapestry of traditional knowledge, spanning domains, such as architecture, medicine and agro-forestry that reflect the particular ecological conditions of the region. One positive result of the physical isolation of the region has been the near intact preservation of centuries old knowledge base. Society in the higher altitudes is quite liberal albeit male dominated; lower Himalayas has a more conservative society. Mountain women carry out all sedentary activities including farming, gathering fodder and Fuel wood, etc., while men manage herds and carry out trading activities.
All communities are deeply spiritual and strongly religious. The religious institutions hold great importance in the lives of the people: such as the Hemis monastery in Leh, the Tashigong Monastery in Pooh, Kinnaur and the Tabo monastery in Spiti. Apart from institutionalized religious practices, tribal practices that are mostly animistic and characteristic of nature worship are prevalent in most parts of the Himalayas. Thus, most communities have myths and legends where the gods and goddesses of the rivers and mountains play out epic tales that are narrated till today.
To claim that this feature is unique only to the tribal populations of the mountains would be grossly unfair to their counter parts in the plains. But the geographical isolation of the mountains makes this a rather striking feature of the people living within them. One and all, the people of the Himalayas worship the mountains as their preserver and protector and life-giver. Nature and its relationship with the human are intrinsic in all the systems and institutions governing the functioning a particular community. Natural resources are looked upon as living entities interacting with the human and animal population. Forests, trees, rivers, mountains and lakes are worshipped. Religion and medicine is centered on nature and its practice aided with natural resources. Traditional livelihood practices of agriculture or pastoralism are also mostly in sync with the cycle of death and rejuvenation in nature.
The Himalayas also boast of a rich tapestry of traditional knowledge, spanning domains, such as architecture, medicine and agro-forestry that reflect the particular ecological conditions of the region. One positive result of the physical isolation of the region has been the near intact preservation of this centuries old knowledge base.
Cliffs are completely forgotten cultural landscape elements that support a variety of species of plants and animals in India. As humans have special fascinations to such areas often cliffs across the country are considered sacred. Cliffs elsewhere have been found to support undisturbed ancient woodland, dominated by tiny, slow-growing and widely spaced trees. Vertical cliffs often support populations of widely spaced trees that are exceptionally old, deformed and slow growing. Some of the most ancient and least-disturbed wooded habitats on Earth are found on cliffs, even if such sites are close to intensive agricultural and industrial development. The age of the trees on cliffs may indicate the age and growth rates of the entire plant communities on the cliffs. Cliffs across the world may support ancient, slow-growing, open woodland communities that have escaped major human disturbance, even when they are situated close to agricultural and industrial activity, which has destroyed or altered most other natural habitats (Peterken, 1996). Examples of such habitat in India abound. Cliffs in Udaipur and Kota districts of Rajasthan were surveyed (7 cliff with ancient vegetation). Cliffs were found to have more than 25 species of trees, several species of shrubs and herbs. Areas close to Bhopal have more than 50 cliffs in central India in a radius of about 100 kms. All the 7 cliffs surveyed in Rajasthan are sacred. They are often part of the sacred corridors along the riverbank escarpment with several meters of precipitous fall. Attempts have been made to regenerate the Gaipernath Cliff with the traditional species occurring in the area (Lannea coromandelica, Boswellia serrata, Sterculia urens, etc. about 25 species). The result was very poor initially. But local ethnoforestry techniques of tucking the branch cuttings of coppicing species in whatever little crevices area may have were successful. Also, depositing the seeds (same species that occur) in crevices with the ball of moist earth has been found promising.
Himalayan people are highly clannish. While the Hindu and Islamic societies are very hierarchical, the Mongoloids have several distinct groups based on territory, language and tribal customs. Himalayan women usually enjoy a much greater level of freedom than in other parts of the peninsula. They participate equally with the men in agricultural practices and in cultural activities, and there is no seclusion of women as is seen in the plains of India. Society in the higher altitudes is quite liberal albeit male dominated; lower Himalayas has a more conservative society. Mountain women carry out all sedentary activities including farming, gathering fodder and Fuel wood, etc., while men manage herds and carry out trading activities.
The Himalayan communities have a wealth of traditional art forms and crafts, that include Thangka painting, wood carving, carpet weaving, and traditional music and dances. These art and craft forms follow a distinct Himalayan style that is indigenous to the Himalayas, characterized by Tibetan, Nepali and Kashmiri religious cultures and span the areas under the sway of these particular cultures. Himalayan style art is generally religious- esthetic in nature, and comprises the iconography, composition, symbols and motifs drawn from the forms of religions of Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam. Crafts of the Himalayan region are in keeping with the available resources, climatic conditions and terrain of the Himalayas. The seclusion of the region and the long periods of hibernation during the severe winters allows considerable time for crafts work. Most crafts also serve certain functions, for clothing, food, and various social, cultural and spiritual traditions, and the isolation of the Himalayan worlds has necessitated self-reliance in their production. Many Himalayan communities therefore developed superior craftsmanship- in bamboo and wood carving, silver and gold articles, weaving of shawls, carpets and rugs.
As with other aspects, geography, geology and climate, apart from lifestyle and esthetic considerations, play a big role in the architectural styles that have evolved in the Himalayan region. The flat-roofed, earthen structures of the western Himalayas and the higher altitudes characterized by low precipitation, the timber and stone constructions of the mid-altitude ranges in the central and eastern Himalayas, are attuned to the materials, the climate, as well as the religio-esthetic and lifestyle considerations of the region. While the material differs - construction tends to follow a distinctive style across the Himalayan belt. All housing is typically of two stories, the lower floor being used for storage and cattle, and the upper floor for living. It is also important to note that there have been migrations into the Himalayas from very early times for various reasons, to gain strategic access to the great Indian plains, to establish ownership on Himalayan kingdoms or even to satisfy one's requirement for spiritual quest. All these factors combined over a period of time to change significantly the complexion of the local populace.
There have been waves of migration from Nepal to Sikkim and Kumaon, for instance, and from Tibet, as a result of which, it is extremely difficult to separate the different racial strains. Population movement is a continuing phenomenon in the Himalayas and hence its current character too is in flux. People from the plains move seasonally into the mountains and those from the higher altitudes move to lower altitudes during summers; those from the northern flanks keep migrating in waves to the southern slopes.
The high mountain ranges result in physical isolation of the communities that inhabit this region and restrict movement and communication, factors that have led to the maintenance of the cultural sovereignty of the Himalayan people. With increasing connectivity, this is fast eroding however. A world in transition, the mountains lie at the cross roads, sometimes taking advantage of the change that is fast enveloping and same time clinging to its uniqueness, its heritage. As every small town in these mountains looks forward towards more shopping malls, more English schools and fast food joints, the ancient culture of every hill and mountain is stared at by every person, be it a second generation ‘pahari,' a policy maker or a development practitioner, as something that needs to be preserved, because it yet has not been understood and because there is so much more yet to learn from it. Ecological degradation due to such anthropogenic activities is the main danger these days.
Climate change is the most challenging environmental crisis in the present 21st century world. Human activities like excessive use of fossil fuels and land use change (deforestation and forest degradation) are fueling the global warming process. Non-linear changes in the natural system and species extinction have been increasing as a result of anthropogenic influence on the global climate. The snowball effect of the greenhouse gas emission is fueling the global warming, has severe impact on the existing ecosystem. Glaciers are sensitive to the climate change and several studies have shown that the worldwide glacier cover has declined significantly as a result of increasing temperature. Glacial cycles are mainly affected by the localized cooling and warming, during which glaciers advance and retreat (WWF-Nepal, 2005). The Himalayan Glaciers have been declining over at least the past 150 years (Wake, 2000) and increased in temperature, i.e., 1°C over the past two decades (Hasnain, 2000) in the Himalayan region, is accelerating the rate of glaciers melting significantly. There are several evidences of the glaciers melting, for instance the Khumbu Glacier has receded over 5 km since the first climb of Mt. Everest in 1953 (WWF-Nepal, 2005).
The rate of melting does not only influenced by the changing climate but also affected by the size and aspect of the glaciers. Smaller glaciers fragment and melt faster than the bigger ones, and those facing south are also receding more quickly (BBC, 2005). So, chance of disappearing small glaciers and disturbance in their ecosystem is very high. In addition, the glaciers receding also influenced the resizing of glacial lakes and formation of the new lakes. Moreover, warming up does not only melt the glaciers, but also reduce the ice formation process.
Mountain regions had developed a rich base of indigenous traditional knowledge that is being rapidly eroded under the forces of modernization, as new methods/sciences make inroads and local value and promotion of ITK declines. The mountain ITK systems themselves - socio-political, education, environmental conservation, medicine, religious practices, etc. - lack recognition among the mainstream. Although ‘visible' as exotic, for touristic purposes, they are ‘invisible' and appear to lack credibility enough to be recognized at par with mainstream systems. This has in turn has led to the erosion of many traditional agricultural, medicine, food, education systems and knowledge and loss of many languages, under the onslaught of external influences after the exposure of these regions to wider population and influences. For example, the Lepchas in North Sikkim are now labeled as the ‘Vanishing Tribe' because their indigenous systems of medicine, art, culture, livelihood practices, language, etc. are fast eroding as they have been pushed to the peripheries of their own lands in Sikkim and Darjeeling. In Dzongu, the Lepcha Reserve in North Sikkim which is also the last bastion of this vast dwindling tribe, there are only a handful of traditional medicinal experts called Bongthings.
Medicinal practices carried out by the ethnic peoples are appreciated all over world. Mainstream medical practice questions the validity of traditional systems of healing of the Himalayas and although efforts are being made to preserve the knowledge in these practices, it still is in the danger of being appropriated for commercial use. The spread of many cultural forms (language, arts and crafts) to new generations has not continued, and they have also not evolved to modern lifestyles and needs, hence leading to declining use and endangerment of traditional cultural forms. The multilingualism practiced in the Himalayas is also a cause for the death of many Himalayan languages. The language of the rituals (Sanskrit, Tibetan) tends to survive, although primarily as a script, while more dominant languages of neighboring areas are adopted for regular use.
The knowledge base on Himalayan ecology and environment has evolved over the years. The enrichment has been, and hopefully will continue to be, interdisciplinary and multidimensional. And the studies that are being undertaken in recent years have, to a large extent been driven by contemporary areas of concern, be it, nutrient dynamics, carbon sequestration, climate change, ecosystem services, etc. The mountains and its people have so far been either totally neglected from what was proposed to be a ‘democratic' process of development or were taken for granted as top-down, homogenized processes of development were thrust on them. The development paradigm promoted in the Himalayas as elsewhere in the world, has been based on the Unilinear Theory of Cultural Evolution which perceives the western way of life as the ideal. The living systems of medicine, nature worship, barter, agriculture, etc. which is mostly based on subsistence needs and a symbiotic relationship with nature is threatened by a developmental policy that is based on a western economic model of growth sustaining itself on the rapid exploitation of all human and natural resources. Although most of the communities in the mountainous regions have their own unique traditional systems and institutions of education, medicine, and religion, larger development has been almost blind to these. This is despite the fact that research has clearly indicated the value of these traditional systems and local cultural forms. For instance, ‘Years of research have shown that children who begin their education in their mother tongue make a better start, and continue to perform better, than those for whom school starts with a new language. The same applies to adults seeking to become literate' (UNESCO, 2003).
Development, as is characterized mostly in terms of western concepts of societal relationships or the human nature interface have had a substantial effect in dramatically changing the existing institutional structures traditionally existing within mountainous communities. It is changing values and behaviors, and younger generations in particular, are forsaking their traditional culture to adopt mainstream cultures that they perceive to have significant economic and social benefits. The Himalayas have been shaken with examples of development projects like hydropower dams, limestone mines and roads usurping right of communities over sacred landscape and seriously endangering not only culture but basic livelihood and survival. This has led to the sudden loss of an entire resource base, owing to a majority of development projects in these mountains, uprooting people physically and culturally. Sadly, the developmental process consisting of an Environmental Impact Assessment does not take into account social and cultural costs of a developmental project. Therefore, local peoples' concerns regarding marginalization, the need to preserve landscapes for religious and spiritual beliefs, do not find value in the cost benefit analysis of neither the project proponents nor the Government.
Lack of information regarding global and national policy changes makes mountain communities vulnerable to global threats like that of biopiracy. International regime favors a system of patents and individual rights, a practice that is diametrically opposite to the mountain culture of sharing knowledge and resource. Recent legislation like the Biological Diversity Act of India, the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights Act, etc., which seek to protect the rights of these communities over their resource and knowledge need to also develop mechanisms to protect this very culture of use of these resources, the wisdom and of sharing and community ownership.
Culture plays an important role in the development agenda of any nation. It represents a set of shared attitudes, values, goals and practices. Culture and creativity manifest themselves in almost all economic, social and other activities. A country as diverse as India is symbolized by the plurality of its culture. The mandate of the Ministry of Culture revolves around the functions like preservation and conservation of our cultural heritage and promotion of all forms of art and culture, both tangible and intangible. The Ministry's task is to develop and sustain ways and means through which the creative and esthetic sensibilities of the people remain active and dynamic. The functional spectrum of this Ministry is wide, ranging from generating cultural awareness at grassroots level to promoting cultural exchanges at international level. In order to achieve these objectives, the Ministry undertakes various activities that flow from subjects allocated under the Government of India's Allocation of Business Rules.
Government policies towards the tribes in the Himalayan foothills have to some extent, led to the tribes maintaining their traditional lifestyle. Historically, the political status granted to the Himalayan tribes was always distinct from the rest of India. These communities had not been controlled by any of the empires that had a stronghold in larger India, and the region was populated by autonomous feuding tribes. During British colonialism, efforts were made to protect the sensitive northeast frontier, followed a policy called the “Inner Line”, where non tribal people were allowed into the tribal areas only with special permission. Post independence governments have continued this policy of protecting the Himalayan tribes as part of the strategy to secure the border with China. This policy has generally saved the northern tribes from the kind of exploitation that those elsewhere in South India have suffered. In Arunachal Pradesh, for instance, tribal members control commerce and most lower-level administrative posts. Government construction projects in the region have provided tribes with a significant source of cash and access into wider society. Some tribes have made rapid progress through the education system.
The biggest impediment that the preservation of intangible cultural forms faces is the fact that the erosion of these forms is very difficult to determine. The need for preservation is often felt too late. Multilingualism for instance gradually leads to the indigenous language lying in disuse.
Recognizing this, most State policies and programs aimed at the preservation of intangible cultures, such as language and music, aim to provide avenues for continuing use of these intangible cultural forms. Competitions, festivals, awards, etc., are orchestrated events that enable the display/practice of the cultural forms. Some examples of local cultural festivals in the Himalayan region that are helping to revive/continue the use of cultural forms, are as follows:
The courtyard of HemisGompa - the biggest Buddhist monastery in Ladakh is the stage for the famous ‘Hemis' festival that celebrates the birth anniversary of Guru Padmasambhava. The colorful two-day pageant falls on the 10th day (Tse-Chu) of the Tibetan lunar month.
Initiated very recently, the Carnival provides a platform to showcase the wide cultural diversity in the small district of Darjeeling. It is held mainly in the month of October every year. Traditional knowledge systems, particularly of medicine, that are being eroded under the force of modern systems, need to be addressed likewise through modes that promote their practice and use. Traditional medicine clinics are set up, and camps are held to promote traditional healthcare. The Govt. of India has several schemes for the revitalization, promotion, and even professionalization of these traditional systems of medicine, towards adapting them to modern-day user requirements.
Various methods of documentation, publication and dissemination are also used, and serve to preserve as well as maintain the use of these cultural forms. Digital forms of documentation, e-dissemination and media broadcasts are the primary modes. Thus, endangered language dictionaries, traditional pharmacopeia, music and dance recordings, are ways to document and preserve. Extensive, rigorous research however needs to precede this. Some examples of work in progress on documentation of intangible heritage include:
Preservation of material, tangible cultural forms is by far more easy than of the intangible. Architectural heritage has known methods and regulations and processes as well, for their preservation, preservation of other material forms too, such as paintings and various material artifacts, have well-developed scientific methods.
Degradation is however, can only be controlled to an extent to extend the life of the artifacts. There are aims of conservation- to slow the process of natural decay, and to remove the parts that have already been spoilt. Both preventive conservation (taking steps in advance to slow the degradation of products), and curative conservation (redress degradation that has already occurred) are undertaken. A few conservation efforts of Himalayan heritage buildings have been undertaken, both at community and at State/institutional level.
Recognition of a material heritage as worthy of preservation is frequently half the battle. The State and other multilateral bodies have therefore multiple mechanisms to determine and declare the preservation-worthiness of sites/monuments, etc. Both natural and cultural heritage sites would qualify to be covered under material heritage and hence are covered by the World Heritage List, which assures those listed a degree of specific preservation attention. Thus, in 1999, the UNESCO and the World Heritage Committee inscribed the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway (popularly called the Toy Train) on the list of World Heritage Sites.
Documentation is a great tool for preserving the knowledge that underlies the particular material objects that are under threat. The Tibetan Architecture Documentation Centre, for instance, seeks to preserve, document, disseminate and encourage the natural development of the architecture of ancient Tibet.
In the contemporary world, cultural traditions are disappearing as the drive towards cultural globalization and homogenization seems relentless. Facing these problems, museums need to make a statement to not only “collect artifacts and document lifeways before those cultures or memories of them disappear. The greater goal is for museums to play a role in the conservation of those cultures, to actually help those cultures survive in the contemporary world” (Kurin, 1991). The term Ecomuseum refers especially to a new idea of holistic interpretation of cultural heritage, in opposition to the focus on specific items and objects, performed by traditional museums. The idea is gaining ground especially in relevance to the increasing need to preserve the vanishing cultures around the world, the human equivalent to endangered species and to combat the possibility of a monoculture of the human race. It involves, as mentioned above, a holistic interpretation of cultural heritage as intrinsically linked to culture, people and the environment. Most ecomuseums, therefore, follow a community based, ‘bottom-up' planning and management structure and offer to the visitor a one window approach to the variant aspects of a particular region, its culture and people. Examples of Ecomuseums: Ha Long Bay, Vietnam: a demonstration project of the UNESCO and facilitated by Vietnam, it is located on the World Heritage Area of the Ha Long Bay, which is also referred to as the microcosm of Vietnam. It is based on the principle of ‘appropriate heritage interpretation' and aims to achieve ‘a balance between area-centered and people-centered approaches to environment and cultural conservation'. “The Ecomuseum concept views the entire Bay as a living museum... An important feature of this approach is that it views human activity, past and present, as fundamental components of the total environmental resource. The culture, history, traditions and activities of the human population on and around the Bay are as much a part of the heritage as the caves and plants on the island and are in continuous interaction with it.” (Galla, 2002). Belize: The Ecomuseum is reflective of the dynamic relationship between the Belizean culture and the environment it evolves in. The ecomuseum features exhibitions that include several of Belize's important tropical treasures, nature artistries, butterfly corridor and Belize stone collection.
Cultural industries have evolved as a measure for the promotion of products and services based on the creative acumen, and have also helped in the continuation of traditional cultural skills. Traditional arts and crafts may be commercialized, and the economic motive would provide cultural actors of these traditional cultural forms with a new lease of life. Frequently this would require the traditional product/service to mutate in form. Marketability might call for a degree of modification to adapt the products/services to new user requirements and preferences. The traditional purpose, often social or spiritual, would also, naturally be overlaid by commercial considerations. The essential skills involved however, tend to survive this route.
Local and regional communities are fast catching up on the international trade fundas, like for example Kullu shawls being now protected under the Geographical Indications Act and Kinnaur is pushing the same for Kinnauri shawls. The irony here is whether this exclusive protection mechanism focused on economic benefit and trade and dangerously moving towards exclusivity, will in future mar the hitherto simple, intangible culture based on common sharing and benefit.
Traditional knowledge is being exploited at an alarming rate by the modern herbal medicine, pharmaceutical, food, perfume, and cosmetics industries. Indigenous and local people are increasingly becoming victims of piracy (illicit bioprospecting). The concern is that patents are being granted for non-original inventions that are directly or indirectly based on traditional knowledge and therefore do not meet the fundamental requirements for patentability. The wound healing properties of turmeric and the pesticidal properties of neem were both patented in two of the most notorious patent cases (the Turmeric Patent and Neem Patent) in which the legal patent system failed to recognize, or search for, prior rights over such ‘inventions'. These patents were based on the biological resources and associated traditional knowledge and practices of indigenous communities in the Indian subcontinent and the Amazon, which were obtained without respect for indigenous peoples' rights over their resources, intellectual efforts, and developments. The holders of traditional knowledge need to establish their rights over such knowledge to ensure that they reap the benefits of their cultural discoveries and products and receive compensation for their investment in generating, holding, and promoting this knowledge for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
Unfortunately, modern intellectual property rights (IPR) law is based on the notion of individual property ownership, which is an alien concept to many indigenous and local communities in the Himalayan region. Such laws favor corporate agencies and individual creators of innovations/prod- ucts. Traditional knowledge is dynamic and is usually the combined effort of many community members and evolves over time; hence, it is not easy to identify the creator. Global IPR regimes as well as national IPR laws need to be amended to ensure the protection of traditional knowledge holders and to recognize and reward indigenous and local communities for their intellect and creativity. This would encourage further invention and maintain biodiversity in situ. To conserve the ethnic knowledge of the Himalaya some initiatives needs to be implemented which includes documentation of cultural assets; building community capacity for culture management; sustainable community-based interventions aimed at culture preservation and development; museum and Botanical Gardens; community museum; museums as heritage interpretation centers; community museums in the Himalayas; cultural industries for the high altitude.
The modern time of urbanization, globalization, inclusive development in a multicultural society can only be possible through the understanding of the uniqueness of every culture. This understanding then needs to be translated into support to strengthen the community on the same grounds as it belongs and to allow its development to take place through informed choice buttressed by a belief and pride in its own heritage and understanding and respect for new/other. Indian Traditional Knowledge is the secret key to protect cultural heritage of the Himalaya and protect it from dispassion.
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