CHAPTER 6
ASHTAVARGA PLANTS: A REVIEW
CONTENTS
6.4 Brief Account on Candidate Ashtavarga Species
6.5 Substitution and Adulteration
6.6 How Are Ashtavarga Plants Administered?
6.7 Conservation of Ashtavarga Plants
ABSTRACT
This review concerns ashtavarga, a group of eight ayurvedic plants, that is used in order to revitalize, rejuvenated and to prolong the life span of humans. The review gives the list of these eight plants and also the most commonly used substitute and adulterants. An account on each of these plants along with their chemical constituents, pharmacognostic features (whatever is available) and therapeutic activities are provided. The method of administration is also given. The factors that threaten the species and the conservation strategies to be followed are provided. Finally the list of future research that needs to be undertaken on ashtavarga plants is also provided.
6.1 AYURVEDA
Ayurveda, a science of life and health, is often considered as the fifth veda (Thirumulpadu, 2010). Its origin is reported to start with Lord Brahma, the Creator. It is an age-old system of medicine of the world and a way of living life (Caldecott, 2006). This medical system was enhanced by numerous Rishis and Saints of India, notable among them being Ashwani Kumar, Atreya, Bhardwaja, Dhanwantri, Charaka, Susruta, Vagbhata and others. Way back from the old era of Ashwani Kumar’s who had a vast knowledge on plants and their therapeutic uses, Ayurvedic concept of preventing and curing the diseases essentially thorough the herbs and herb-based medication has survived (Balkrishna et al., 2012), in spite of the rapid growth of western allopathic medicines. Moreover Ayurvedic medical principles and medical principles and medicines have tested critically through Western Scientific methods and are found to be valid and effective.
6.2 RASAYANA
The documentation of Ayurvedic literature is divided into eight branches or limbs called Astanga, The eight ashtangas are as follows: (i) Kaya cikitsa: general internal medicine; (ii) Bala cikitsa: treatment of infants and children; (iii) Graha cikitsa: treatment of spiritual possession and medical astrology; (iv) Urdhvanga cikitsa: treatment of the eyes, ears, nose and throat; (v) Salya cikitsa: treatment requiring the use of a knife; (vi) Damstra cikitsa: treatment of animal-inflicted wounds, poisoning, etc.; (vii) Jara cikitsa: treatment of aging; and (viii) Vrsa cikitsa: treatment of impotence and sterility.
In these eight branches, Jara cikitsa and Vrsa cikitsa together come under Rasayana Tantra. The word Rasayan literally means the path that rasa takes (rasa: the primordial tissue of plasma; ayana: path). According to Ayurveda, the qualities of the rasa-dhatu influence the health of other dhatus (tissues) of the body. Any herbal plant that improves the quality of rasa is called a rasayana, these rasayana plants are said to possess the following properties: prevent aging, re-establish youth, strengthen life, strengthen brain and mind, prevent diseases, and promote healthy longevity. According to the words of Charaka, by taking rasayana, one obtains longevity, vitality and vigor, gets a sharp memory, intellect and freedom from diseases, gets a lustrous complexion and horse power. Sushruta describes a rasayana as one which is antiaging, increases life-span, promotes intelligence and memory and increases resistance to diseases. Rasayana may also be compared to alternatives, which work as blood cleansers by their diuretic and antihepatotoxic action. Alternatives also restore the proper functions of the body and increase health and vitality (Pathak et al., 1992; Hoffmann, 1998). Thus, rasayanas help in systemic rejuvenation. Simply taking a spoonful of the rasayana medicine is not rasayana therapy even if it gives relief to some symptoms. The term should be employed only if it performs in a methodical manner. The state of the body is controlled largely by the conditions of the mind and, hence, in rasayana therapy particular attention is given to avoid passions and emotions and to keep the patient in peace and tranquility with thoughts focused on truth, non-violence and kindness. It is alongside the above that the prescribed rasayana treatment regimen has to be strictly followed.
6.3 ASHTAVARGA
The literary introduction of ashtavarga first comes in Caraka Samhita where all the eight ashtavarga plants were described but not given the name ashtavarga. Ashwani Kumar gave some of the ashtavarga plants to Cyavana rishi to revitalize and rejuvenate him. But here also ashtavarga name was not mentioned. In Susruta Samhita these eight plants were collected described for the first time, without mentioning the word, ashtavarga. It was Sarangadhara, who first used the word ashtavarga in the formulation called ashtavarga churna in subsequent ayurvedic literature the word ashtavarga became firmly established (Balkrishna, 2012; Balkrishna et al., 2012). However the botanical identity of these eight ayurvedic plant names were not clearly established and even now there is some confusion in this regard. It was Balkrishna (2012), who after using several ayurvedic texts and Nigantus, established in fairly satisfactory manner the botanical identity of these eight ayurvedic ashtavarga plant names. These names are accepted in this review and are given in Table 6.1.
TABLE 6.1 Ashtavarga plants: Botanical identity and its substitute species
 |
*Source: Balkrishna (2012); Balkrishna et al. (2012).
Ashtavarga plants are restricted normally to natural habitats of NorthWest Himalaya. These plants are very good Rasayanas with rejuvenating and health promoting properties and this group of plants is reported for restoring the health immediately; they are known for their antioxidant properties (Mathur, 2003; Pandey, 2005; Sharma and Balkrishna, 2005). These eight plants respectively were named as Kakoli, Kshirkakoli, Jivaka, Rsabhaka, Meda, Mahameda, Riddi, and Vriddhi. Their respective botanical identity, family to which they belong and the substituted/adulterated plants are given in Table 6.1.
6.4 BRIEF ACCOUNT ON CANDIDATE ASHTAVARGA SPECIES
6.4.1 ROSCOEA PURPUREA
Roscoea purpurea (Family Zingiberaceae) commonly known as “Rasgari” in Nepal and “Kakoli” in India is a perennial herb of about 20-40 cm tall underground rhizome. It is widely distributed in Nepal, Pakistan, Tibet, India and Bhutan. In India it is found in Central and Eastern Himalaya in alpine grassland, steep, grassy hill sides, damp gullies and stony slopes of Uttarakhand, Assam and Sikkim states between 1800 and 2900 m in altitude (Balkrishna et al., 2012; Watanabe et al., 2013). Rhizomes are widely used as a tonic, aphrodisiac and remedy for wounds and urinary troubles in traditional medicine (Kunwar and Adhikari, 2005). It is also the main part which is used in many formulations. The ethanolic extract of its rhizomes shows immunostimulant potential in mice (Sahu et al., 2010). The rhizome is also well-known for its therapeutic values in treating (i) thoracic diseases like cough, asthma, sinus; (ii) abdominal diseases like renal and urinary bladder diseases; (iii) musculo-skeletal diseases like guot; (iv) dermatological diseases; (v) neurological/psychological disorders; (vi) tuberculosis, remittent fever, general debility; (vii) rejuvenation enhancement, virility strengthening and alexipharmic treatment; and (viii) used as antirheumatic, febrifuge, galactagogue, hemostatic, expectorant and sexual stimulant (Balkrishna, 2012). Its ayurvedic dynamics include: sweet in taste, cold in potency, pacifies vata and pitta (Singh, 2006). Pharmacognostic studies have shown the presence of multiseriate medullary rays and ovoid to ellipsoidal starch grains in the rhizome (Rath et al., 2015). The chemical constitution of this plant is given in Table 6.2.
TABLE 6.2 Chemical constituents of Ashtavarga plants
6.4.2 LILIUM POLYPHYLLUM
Lilium polyphyllum (Family: Liliaceae) is a perennial herb up to 50-150 cm in height; plant with narrow bulb, long narrow, sub equal fleshy scales. Stem is slender. Leaves alternate, flower tepals dull yellow or greenish outside, white within with purple streaks. Widely distributed in Pakistan (Chitral, Kurram valley, Swat, Hazara, Murree), Nepal, West China, Tibet and Afghanistan up to an elevation of 1800-3700 m. In India it is found in Western Temperate Himalayas up to an elevation of 2000-4000 m in
Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh (Balkrishna et al., 2012). It is commonly called Ksirkakoli in India. Therapeutical actions of rhizome include cooling, spermopiotic effect (Singh, 2006), and against cough, bronchitis, vitiated conditions of pitta, seminal weakness, burning, sensation, hyperdiapsis, intermittent fever, hematemesis, rheumatalgia and general disability. Bulbs show the bitter, refrigerant, galactagogue, expectorant, aphrodisiac, diuretic, antipyretic and tonic properties. Preliminary pharmacognosy and phytochemical studies were done on market and genuine materials (Rath et al., 2011). Cyclohexylethylamine and macdougallin were reported by Raval et al. (2015) from the bulbs of Lilium polyphyllum. The bulbs are mainly used as tonic in emaciation and as a source of energy. The soothing, astringent and anti-inflammatory properties are the key characters which help in the reduction of pitta in the human body while taking the drug. Its ayurvedic dynamics include: sweet in taste, cold in potency, pacifies vata and pitta (Singh, 2006). Pharmacognostic studies show that the leaves this plant have a hypostomatic condition with anomocytic stomata; ellipsoid pollen with reticulate surface and oil drops inside; bulb with eccentric type starch grains (Dhyani et al., 2009). The chief chemicals of this species are listed in Table 6.2.
6.4.3 CREPIDIUM ACUMINATUM
Crepidium acuminatum (Family: Orchidaceae) (Syn: Microstylis wallichii Lindl. and Malaxis acuminata D. Don). Terrestrial in habit sometime epiphytic. Plant with pseudobulbs 5-25 cm in height, perennial, and tender. Widely distributed in Bhutan, Cambodia, China and Australia up to 1400 m height. In India it is found in temperate and subtropical Himalayas at an altitude of 1200-2100 m in Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and in Khasi hills at an altitude of 1500-1800 m. It is also found in Andaman Islands, Travancore, Anamallay hills and Madhya Pradesh (Balkrishna et al., 2012). Commonly known as “Jivaka”, the part which is mainly used is the pseudobulb, which has therapeutic actions like cooling effect, febrifuge and spermopiotic, and acts against hematemesis, fever, semen related weakness, burning sensation, dipsia, emaciation, tuberculosis, general debility, bleeding diathesis and phthisis, its ayurvedic dynamics are: sweet in taste, cold in potency, pacifies vata and aggravates kapha (Singh, 2006). A detailed phyto-pharmacognosy study of rhizome was made by Rath et al. (2011). The studies by the former author distinguished the genuine sample from market samples. Anonymous (2011) has listed a detailed list of anatomical, powder, and phytochemical characters for this species. It is also proven that ethanolic extract of pseudobulb exhibit analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities in experimental animals. The major chemicals of this species are listed in Table 6.2.
6.4.4 MALAXIS MUSCIFERA
Malaxis muscifera (Family: Orchidaceae) (Syn: Microstylis muscifera (Lind.) Ridl) is a rare, terrestrial perennial, herb, 15-45 cm in height. This endangered medicinal orchid is commonly called as “Rishbhaka.” It is distributed in Afghanistan, Bhutan, Nepal, China and Pakistan up to an elevation of 2100-4100 m. In Himalaya Mountains it occurs between 2500-3700 m of temperate to sub alpine areas, mainly in Dayara in Uttarkashi, Panwali Kantha and Maggu in Tehri, Baniyakund, Chopta, Tungnath and Madhyamaheshwer in Rudrapryag, Rudranath, Kunwari Pass and Dronagiri in Chamoli district of Garhwal Himalaya (Chauhan et al., 2008). The part used is pseudobulb which having aphrodisiac, hae- mostalic, antidiarrheal, styptic antidysentric properties and its tonic used in sterility, vitiated conditions of pitta and vata, semen related weakness, internal and external hemorrhages, dysentery, fever, emaciation burning sensation and general debility. It has cooling effect and acts as a febrifuge and spermopiotic. Its ayurvedic dynamics include: sweet taste, cold in potency, pacifies vata and kapha (Singh, 2006). Rath et al. (2011) has given the pharmacognostic features of the bulbs of this plant and have specifically mentioned about mucilage cells and acicular calcium oxalate crystals. Table 6.2 gives a list of major chemicals of this plant.
6.4.5 POLYGONTUM VERTICILLATUM
Polygonatum verticillatum (Family: Liliaceae), is commonly known as “Meda.” It is distributed in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. An erect tall perennial herb of 60-120 cm tall. Leaves are whorled, sessile, 10-20 cm long, linear or lanceolate, acute, glaucous beneath, occasionally ciliolate on margins and veins. The flowering and fruiting takes place June to October. It is distributed in the temperate Himalayas (Garhwal Himalaya) at an altitude of 1800-3900 m (Naithani, 1984; Gaur, 1999; Vashistha, 2006),
Sikkim at an altitude of 2600-4000 m and Himachal Pradesh (Balkrishna et al., 2012). The thick fleshy creeping sympodial rhizome is used against pain caused by for pyrexias, for burning sensation, phthisis and for treating general debility. Therapeutically shown properties include aphrodisiac, emollient, appetizer, tonic and galactagogue (Balkrishna et al., 2012). The plant shows properties like antinociceptive activity in pain model and also proven in attenuation of both peripheral and central pain mediators (Khan et al., 2010, 2011), antimicrobial activities (Khan et al., 2012a; 2015 and 2016b) antipyretic and anticonvulsant activity (Khan et al., 2013b), bronchodilator activity (Khan et al., 2013a), tracheorelaxant and anti-inflammatory activities (Khan et al., 2013c), antispasmodic and antidiarrheal property through activation of K+ channels (Khan et al., 2016a), has strong antioxidant potential (Khan et al., 2016c), The plants possess diuretic properties and the rhizome of this species is eaten as food in the Kurram valley (Anonymous, 1969). Its ayurvedic dynamics include: sweet taste, pacifies pitta and aggravates kapha (Singh, 2006). The pharmacognsostic character was described by Lal et al. (1978). The chemical constitution of Meda is given in Table 6.2.
6.4.6 POLYGONATUM CIRRHIFOLIUM
Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Family: Liliaceae) is commonly called “Mahameda.” It is also a tall erect, perennial herb, 60-120 cm high with whorled (3-6) sessile, linear leaves having tendril-like tips. Flowers white, green purplish or pink on short stocks and the fruit is round blue-black berry. The plant is found in the temperate Himalayas (Garhwal, Gulabkoti, Sitapur, Sutul and Khirsu) at altitudes of 1200-4200 m (Naithani 1984; Gaur 1999). The fleshy and thick rhizome have a cooling, and mild laxative, effect, it is also a galactagogue, aphrodisiac, depurative, febrifuge, expectorant and tonic. It heals wound. Compounds extracted from its rhizome exhibit fungicidal activities. P. cirrhifolium is reported to be used as a tonic and vulnerary. A root infusion with milk is used as an aphrodisiac and as a blood purifier for tumors and piles. Investigations in China have reported hypoglycemic, hypotensive, antibacterial and antifungal effects. Its ayurvedic dynamics are: sweet in taste, cold in potency, pacifies vata and pitta (Singh, 2006). Rhizome shows actinocytic stomata in the lower leaf epidermis, cortex with the polygonal to isodiametric cells, scattered amphivasal vascular bundles, numerous starch grains and presence of both raphides and druses in idioblastic cavities. Powder shows simple and compound ovoid, concentric starch grains (Anonymous, 2011). The important chemicals of this plant are given in Table 6.2.
6.4.7 HABENARIA INTERMEDIA
Habenaria intermedia (Family: Orchidaceae) is commonly called as “Riddhi.” This terrestrial orchid is a perennial herb with tuberous roots, shows monopodial growth; stem terete, 25-50 cm long, bears four to many leaves; leaves are rounded at the base, long and acuminate. The flowers are hermaphrodite. It is distributed in the grassy slopes at altitudes of 2000-3000 m in Himalaya region, mainly Kashmir to Sikkim, Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh (Chauhan et al., 2007) and in Pakistan, Bhutan, Nepal up to an altitude of 2000-3300 m (Balkrishna et al., 2012). Rhizomes are emollient, brain tonic, aphrodisiac, depurative appetizer, antihelmintic, and a rasayana (Rejuvenator). Used to treat the burning sensation, thirst, fever, cough, asthma, muscular, pain, sprains, arthritis, sciatica, insanity, leprosy, skin diseases, anorexia, worms emaciation, gout and general debility. Habenaria intermedia show the protective effect against acute and chronic physical and psychological stress against animal model which be effective like genuine plant (Habbu et al., 2012). Anonymous (2011) has listed the salient pharmacognostic characters which includes long unicellular hairs, raphide crystals, and mucilage canals. Its ayurvedic dynamics includes: sweet in taste, pacifies vata and pitta but aggravates kapha (Singh, 2006). Table 6.2 provides a list of chemical known so far from this plant.
6.4.8 HABENARIA EDGEWORTHII
Habenaria edgeworthii (Family: Orchidaceae) is commonly called Vrddhi. It is a tuberous terrestrial orchid, erect, tall up to 30-60 cm. In India, it is distributed in Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and North West Himalaya region at an elevation of 2500-3000 m on grassy pastures and is also reported in Pakistan and Nepal (Balkrishna et al., 2012). The rhizome is emollient, brain tonic, aphrodisiac, depurative, appetizer, anthelmintic, and a rasayana. It is used to treat burning sensations, thirst, fever, cough, asthma, muscular-pain, sprains, arthritis, sciatica, insanity, leprosy, skin diseases, anorexia, worms, emaciation, gout, and general debility. Its ayurvedic dynamics include: sweet in taste, pacifies vata and kapha (Singh, 2006). The chief chemicals of this species are given in Table 6.2.
6.5 SUBSTITUTION AND ADULTERATION
Ashtavarga Plants are very rare and its availability depends on largely proper identification and in proper time of collection, once season of collections gone, demands Ashtavarga will increase with increased price and also leads to substitution and adulteration. There are many herbs which are used as substitutes or adulterants in Ashtavarga formulation in different regions and in different countries. The ancient well-known Ayurvedic physician Bhavamisra (1500-1600 A.D.) suggested few substitute species for ashtavarga in his book “Bhavaprakasa Nighantu”, which been highlighted by Chunekar and Pandey (1969). The following substituted plant species as per Bhavamisra and subsequent Ayurvedic Physicians are mentioned in Table 6.1.
Bhavamisra suggested the following substitutions: Kakoli and Ksir Kakaoli can be substituted by Withania somnifera; Jivaka and Rshbhaka can be substituted by Pueraria tuberosa; Meda, Mahameda can be substituted by Asparagus racemosus; and Riddhi and Vrddhi can be substitutes by Dioscorea bulbifera and Tacca aspera or T. integrifolia
Later many physicians substituted additional plant species for Ashtavarga plants. And as per their usage the following are the substitutions (Puri, 2003):
| For Jivaka | Tinospora spp. or Centaurea behen |
| For Rshbhaka | Orchis spp., or Bamboo manna or Salvia haematodes |
| For Meda | Orchis mascula |
| For Mahameda | Paederia foetida, Asparagus adscendens |
| For Kakoli | Curculigo orchioides |
| For Ksir Kakaoli | Chlorophytum arundinaceum or Chlorophytum borivilianum |
| For Riddhi | Sida spp. herb or seed |
| For Vrddhi | Orchis latifolia or Sida rhomboidea |
Withania somnifera is used as substitute for Kakoli and Ksirkakoli, therapeutically used for Raktavikara (disorder of blood), Balya Rasayana (Rejuvenating agent) and Vajikara (Aphrodisiac) with combination of other few herbs, due to these therapeutic values it been substituted for Roscoea purpurea in Ashtavarga (Anonymous, 2003).
Curculigo orchioides rhizome contains yucagenin, a sapogenin and known alkaloid lycorine. Two crystalline compound 21-hydroxytetracontan-20-one and 4-methylheptadecanoic acid reported through hexane extract from the rhizome (Misra et al., 1984). Therapeutically rhizome having sweet, cooling, bitter, emollient, diuretic, aphrodisiac, depurative, appetizer, carminative, viriligenic, antipyretic used against asthma, bronchitis, jaundice, diarrhea, cuts, wounds, dyspepsia, colic, vomiting, ophthalmia, lumbago and gonorrhea (Nadkarni, 1954; Mathew et al., 2005) used as substitute species for kakoli and ksirkakoli. Species like Chlorophytum arundinaceum, C. borivilianum are also used as substitute for Kakoli and Ksirkakoli.
Pueraria tuberosa, Dioscorea bulbifera, Tinospora cordifolia and species of Malaxis are substituted for Crepidium acuminatum, these species are having therapeutic values same like Genuine Ashtavarga species.
Tubers of Pueraria tuberosa reduce dryness of body and eases bowel movement. It strengthens the body and boosts its immunity. Vidaarikanda (Pueraria tuberosa) rejuvenates male reproductive system and increases quality and quantity of semen. This helps to increase sperm count and sperm motility.
Dioscorea bulbifera tubers significantly having the properties like purgative, deflatulent, aphrodisiac, rejuvenating, antihelmintic and used in treating the diseases like diabetic disorders, polyuric and skin disorders with infections by microbes (Subasini et al., 2013). These tubers were roasted raw and cooked for treating leprosy, asthma, cough and cold. Powder form of the tubers is used to treat tuberculosis (Ahmed et al., 2009). Dioscorea bulbifera tubers are used in the place of Crepidium acuminatum (Jivaka) as well as for the Habenaria intermedia (Riddhi) under Ashtavarga group of plants.
Ashtavarga Kvatha Curna (AST) which is mentioned in Bangladesh National Formulary (BNF) consists of eight medicinal plants equally mixed and used for treating Vata roga (neurological diseases) (Hamid et al., 2011). The plant which is used in AST is given in Table 6.3.
As the above table shows, none of the plants which used in AST, is a genuine entity of Ashtavarga plants. The plants which are used in this formulation may have the therapeutic value for treating neurological diseases. However, how they are grouped under Ashtavarga is a leading confusion that needs to be cleared. Plants like Sida and, Zingiber are known to be rasayana plants. These eight species can be adulterated in the place of genuine herbs due to the unavailability of genuine Ashtavatrga herbs in any region.
TABLE 6.3 Ashtavarga Kvatha Curna (AST), which is mentioned in BNF
Fritillaria roylei (Family: Liliaceae) also noted for cooling and spermo- piotic therapeutic values that are characteristic of genuine Ashtavarga plants (Singh, 2006). This species is also reported as antiasthmatic, antirheumatic, febrifuge, galactogogue, hemostatic, ophthalmic and oxytocin properties (Usher, 1974).
6.6 HOW ARE ASHTAVARGA PLANTS ADMINISTERED?
Ashtavarga is normally used as a polyherbal formulation. Often it is also used by many physicians as a herbomineral formulation (Singh, 2006). The Ayurvedic literature explains the unique way of administration of plant-based drugs in different formulations that are related to the patients and diseases. The ingredients and parts used were different according to the strength and percentage of sickness caused by the diseases. On the basis of information in the Sanskrit texts, quite a number of minerals/gems/poison- ous substances are included in these formulations. They are often used as catalysts for the drug to get into the human body and on the disease causing taught. Ambergris, saffron and musk with many herbs were heated in high temperature to convert into ash-like (bhasma) and become partly soluble in water for bioavailability to the human system (Puri, 2003). Ashtavarga is formulated with minerals in two different ways as all rasayana herbs depend on the patients and diseases: (i) Makardhawaj, where gold is used as a catalyst; (ii) Ras Sindur, without gold. Most of ashtavarga herbs mixed in equal amount and taken as churna. Ashtavarga plants which are used in the common formulation were as follows: Ashtavarga churna, Chyavanprash rasayan, Vachadi taila, Chitrakadi taila, Mahakalyan ghrita, Mahamayura ghrita, Jivaniya ghrita, Nagabala sarpi, Vajikaran ghrita, Brahini gutika and Jivaniya gana Churna, and specific formulation which other than common formulations are listed in Table 6.4.
Capsule formulation which used for improving the vigor and vitality by intake of 2 capsules thrice a day contains these eight herbs of ashta- varga are added of about 30 mg along with makardhvaja (15 g); Rasa sindhur (15 mg); abhraka bhasma (30 mg); praval bhasma (30 mg); Loh bhasma (30 mg); bang bhasma (30 mg); shudh shilajit (30 mg); Amruta (30 mg) kavacha beej (100 mg); yasthimadhu (30 mg); shatavari (30 mg); musali sweta (20 mg); harar (20 mg); bahera (20 mg); amla (20 mg) (Panda, 2005).
Ayurvedic formulation for treating the male reproductive dysfunction also contain most of the Ashtavarga herbs along with many other herbs (Mishra, 2004).
Rare species of Ashtavarga like Polygonatum species (Meda and Mahameda) were collectively used as tonic, in treating pain in the kidney and hips, swelling and fullness in the abdominal region, clear the accumulation of fluids in bone joints, skin eruptions and cough (Nautiyal and Nautiyal, 2004).
Most of tribal communities and folk healers use the Ashtavarga herbs individually, for example Polygonatum verticillatum can be used as food, as raw or cooked, or as drug; very little quantity is used for treating gastric complaints as well as paste be applied to wounds (Nautiyal et al., 1998; Gaur, 1999).
TABLE 6.4 Ashtavarga candidate used in various formulations of Ayurveda
| Botanical name | Formulations | Dosage |
| Roscoea purpurea & Lilium polyphyllum | Chitrakadi taila, Nagabala sarpi | Powder 3-6 g or as directed by the Physician |
| Crepidium acuminatum & Malaxis muscifera | Himvana agada | As directed by the Physician |
| Polygonatum verticillatum & Polygonatum cirrhifolium | Indrokta rasayan | As directed by the Physician |
6.7 CONSERVATION OF ASHTAVARGA PLANTS
The Western Himalaya is known for its sacred and potent medicinal plants which are described in Ayurveda. About 350 medicinal plants which have been used in Ayurvedic formulations are located in Himalayan region. Pharmaceutical sector is using about 175 plants species which are present in Himalaya region and most of them are found only above 1800 m elevation (Nautiyal et al., 2001).
Many of these species are also used by the local folk healers and tribal communities in their daily life as a food and or drug. Among these high value medicinal plants species Ashtavarga species are more in demand, as like Aconitum, Berberis, Dactylorhiza, Ephedra, Fritillaria, Podophyllum, Picrorrhiza, Nardostachys, Taxus, etc. (Kumar et al., 2012) and other closely related and substitute species which are used in the place of genuine Ashtavarga candidates. Both genuine and substituted ashtavarga candidates are often exported and used after paying very high price. Overexploitation of ashtavarga plants in traditional folk, ayurvedic and Chinese medical systems is the main reason for their scarcity (Kant et al., 2012). This often leads to adulteration and substitution.
The Ashtavarga ecosystems of the Himalaya are also affected by recent changes in vegetation and new crop introduction in the hill area, this along with habitat fragmentation process, occupation, spreading of invasive species, plantation of timber trees and other anthropogenic interferences. Most of Ashtavarga plants are habituated in the grassland ecosystem which is often cleared by humans at least in a year by manmade fire to make grasses to grow much better so that grazing by cattle is facilitated. Fire destroys Ashtavarga plants found in the grassland ecosystem. Studies made by Bhatt et al. (2014) have shown both species of Polygonatum of Ashtavarga group have become highly vulnerable in Uttarakhand. Similarly, Poonam et al. (2011) have found these two species to be threatened in Garhwal Himalayan region.
All ashtavarga herbs are very rare and highly priced medicinal plants which should be properly protected by forest department and habitat should be regularly monitored. Implementation of in-situ conservation in the ecosystem will help in protecting the herbs as well as the associated plant species. Ex-situ conservation of rare, endangered herbs of ashtavarga will help to maintain the species and to propagate them in large numbers and in quick time. In vitro micropropagation on Polygonatum verticillatum has been done by Bisht et al. (2012).
6.8 FUTURE STUDIES
A critical reading of this review reveals that there are still several issues regarding Ashtavarga plants that need to be attended to in future. The foremost concerns the issue of substitutes and adulterants. From very early days of ashtavarga use, all the eight species have been substituted, perhaps validly, by ayurvedic physicians. Although they may be therapeutically similar to genuine candidates no detailed phytochemical studies has been done either in genuine candidates or in their substitute to categorically established their phytochemical similarity, this need to be done urgently. Moreover, market gets only the rhizomes/tubers/bulbs collected often by non-botanists and detailed pharmacognostic studies have not been made so far to distinguish the genuine candidate from the substitutes/adulterants. This also needs to be done immediately. The third aspects that needs to be done relates to the effects of individual vis-a-vis combined formulations on humans in order to check the relative roles of the individual components of ashtavarga. Also to be done in this connection is the correct amount of individual components to be added in the formulations. The treatment methods and dosages also need to be standardized. The last but not the least aspect that needs attention is to protect and conserve the ashtavarga plants at the war footing and also to cultivate them either in vivo or in vitro in order to not to lose them.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to Dr. M. Majeed, Founder and Chairman, Sami Labs Ltd., Bangalore for providing facilities and sustained encouragement to S. John Adams during the course of study. They are also thankful to Dr. S. Natarajan, Executive Vice President and Prof. K. V. Krishnamurthy, Consultant, R&D, Sami Labs Ltd., Bangalore for helpful suggestions and guidance.
KEYWORDS
- ayurveda
- jivaka
- kakoli
- ksirkakoli
- mahameda
- meda
- rasayana
- rejuvenation
- riddhi
- rsabhaka
- vrddhi
REFERENCES
1. Ahmed, Z., Chishti, Z. M., Johri, R. K., Bhagat, A., Gupta, K. K., & Ram, G. (2009). Antihyperglycemic and antidyslipidemic activity of aqueous extract of Dioscorea bulbifera tubers. Diabetologia Croatica. , 38 (3), 63–71.
2. Anonymous (1969). The Wealth of India: A dictionary of Indian raw material and industrial products, 8 (pp. 192–193). New Delhi: Publication and Information Directorate CSIR.
3. Anonymous (2003). Ayurvedic Formulary of India, Part 1. 2nd revised English edn. (Government of India, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, New Delhi, 33-34.
4. Anonymous. (2011). Ayurvedic Pharmacopeia of India, Vol. 1 Part. V. Ministry Of Health And Family Welfare Department of Ayush, Government of India, New Delhi.
5. Antoniuk, V. O. (1993). Purification and properties of lectins of Polygonatum multiflorum (L.) All. and Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All. Ukr. Biokhim. Zh. , 65 (1), 41–48.
6. Balkrishna, A. (2012). Secrets of Ashtavarga Plants. Mahashri Dayanand Gram, Haridwar, Uttarakhand: Divya Prakashan.
7. Balkrishna, A., Srivastava, A., Mishra, R. K., Patel, S. P., Vashistha, R. K., Singh, A., Jadon, V., & Saxena, P. (2012). Ashtavarga plants-threatened medicinal herbs of the North-West Himalaya. Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants. , 2 , 661–676.
8. Bhatt, D., Kumar, R., Tewari, L. M., & Joshi, G. C. (2014). Polygonatum cirrhifolium Royle and Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) Allioni: Status assessment and medicinal uses in Uttarakhand. India. J. Medicinal Plant Res. , 8 , 253–259.
9. Bisht, S., Bisht, N. S., & Bhandan, S. (2012). In Vitro micropropagation in Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All. An important threatened medicinal herb of Northern India. Physiol Mol Biol Plants. , 18 , 89–93.
10. Caldecott, T. (2006). Ayurveda. Mosby Elsevier, Philadelphia, USA: The divine science of Life.
11. Chauhan, R. S., Nautiyal, M. C., & Prasad, P. (2007). Habenaria intermedia D.Don- an endangered medicinal Orchid. The McAllen International Orchid Society Journal. , 8 , 15–20.
12. Chauhan, R. S., Nautiyal, M. C., Prasad, P., & Purohit, H. (2008). Ecological features of an endangered medicinal orchid-Malaxis muscifera (Lindley) Kuntze in the western Himalaya. The McAllen International Orchid Society Journal. , 9 (6), 8–12.
13. Chunekar, K. C. & Pandey, G. S. (1969). Bhavprakash Nighantu (in Hindi). Varanasi, India: Chokhamba Vidya Bhawan.
14. Dhyani, A., Bahuguna, Y. M., Semwal, D. P., Nautiyal, B. P., & Nautiyal, M. C. (2009). Anatomical features of Lilium polyphyllum D. Don ex Royle (Liliaceae). J. American Science. , 5 , 85–90.
15. Gaur, R. D. (1999). Flora of district Garhwal, North West Himalaya (with ethnobotanical notes). Srinagar Garhwal: Transmedia.
16. Habbu, P. V., Smita, D. M., Mahadevan, K. M., Shastry, R. A., & Biradar, S. M. (2012). Protective effect of Habenaria intermedia tubers against acute and chronic physical and psychological stress paradigms in rats. Rev. Bras. Farmacogn. , 22 , 568–579.
17. Hamid, K., Ullah, M. O., Kabir, M. S., Paul, A. K., Alam, M. Z., & Choudhuri, M. S. K. (2011). Changes in lipid profile of rat plasma after chronic administration of Ashtavarga Kvatha Curna (AST)-an ayurvedic formulation. Biology and Medicine. , 3 , 26–31.
18. Hoffmann, D. (1998). The Herbal Handbook. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press.
19. Javed, N. K., Ansari, S. H., Mohammad, A., & Iram, N. (2012). Phytoconstituents from the bulb of Lilium polyphyllum D.Don. Intern. Res. J. Pharmacy . 3 (2), 146-148.
20. Kant, R., Verma, J., & Thakur, K. (2012). Distribution pattern, survival threats and conservation of ‘Ashtavarga’ orchids in Himachal Pradesh. Northwest Himalaya. Plant Archives. , 12 , 165–168.
21. Khan, H., Saeed, M., Gilani, A. U., Khan, M. A., Dar, A., & Khan, I. (2010). The antinociceptive activity of Polygonatum verticillatum rhizome in pain models. J. Ethnopharmacol. , 27 , 521–7.
22. Khan, H., Saeed, M., Gilani, A. U., Khan, M. A., Khan, I., & Ashraf, N. (2011). Antiociceptive activity of aerial parts of Polygonatum verticillatum: attenuation of both peripheral and central pain mediators. Phytother Res. , 25 , 1024–30.
23. Khan, H., Saeed, M., Gilani, A. H., Mehmood, M. H., Rehman, N. U., Muhammad, N., Abbas, M., & Hag, I. U. (2013a). Bronchodilator activity of aerial parts of Polygonatum verticillatum augmented by anti-inflammatory activity: attenuation of Ca2+ channels and lipoxygenase. Phytother Res. , 27 , 1286–92.
24. Khan, H., Saeed, M., Gilani, A. H., Muhammad, N., Hag, I. U., Ashraf, N., Rehman, N. U., & Haleemi, A. (2013b). Antipyretic and anticonvulsant activity of Polygonatum verticillatum: Comparison of rhizomes and aerial parts. Phytother Res. , 27 (3), 468–71.
25. Khan, H., Saeed, M., Gilani, A. H., Muhammad, N., Rehman, N. U., Mehmood, M. H., & Ashraf, N. (2016a). Antispasmodic and antidiarrheal activities of rhizomes of Polygonatum verticillatum maneuvered predominately through activation of K+ channels: components identification through TLC. Toxicol Health. , 32 (4), 677–85.
26. Khan, H., Saeed, M., Mehmood, M. H., Rehman, N. U., Muhammad, N., Hag, I. U., Ashraf, N., El-Tahir, K. E., & Gilani, A. H. (2013c). Studies on tracheorelaxant and anti-inflammatory activities of rhizome of Polygonatum verticillatum. BMC Complement Altern Med. , 13 , 197.
27. Khan, H., Saeed, M., Muhammad, N., Ghaffar, R., Khan, S. A., & Hassan, S. (2012a). Antimicrobial activities of rhizomes of Polygonatum verticillatum attributed its total flavonoidal and phenolic contents. Pak. J. Pharm Sci. , 25 , 463–467.
28. Khan, H., Saeed, M., Muhammed, N., Khan, F., Ibrar, M., Hassan, S., & Shah, W. A. (2012b). Report: Comprehensive nutrients analysis of rhizome of Polygonatum verticillatum. Pak. J. Pharm. Sci. , 25 (4), 871–875.
29. Khan, H., Saeed, M., Muhammad, N., & Perviz, S. (2016b). Phytochemical analysis, antibacterial, and antifungal assessment of aerial parts of Polygonatum verticillatum. Toxicol Ind Health. , 32 (5), 841–847.
30. Khan, H., Saeed, M., Muhammad, N., Rauf, A., Khan, A. Z., & Ullah, R. (2016c). Antioxidant profile of constituents isolated from Polygonatum verticillatum rhizomes. Toxicol. Ind. Health. , 32 (1), 138–142.
31. Khan, H., Saeed, M., Rauf, A., Khan, M. A., & Muhammad, N. (2015). Antimicrobial and inhibition on heat-induced protein denaturation of constituents isolated from Polygonatum verticillatum rhizomes. Nat Prod Res. , 29 , 2160–3.
32. Kumar, R. K., Sruajani, M. S., Arya, J. C., & Joshi, G. C. (2012). Impact of climate change on diversity of Himalayan medicinal plant: A threat to Ayurvedic system of medicine. Intern. J. Res. Ayurveda and Pharmacy. , 3 (3), 327–331.
33. Kunwar, R. M. & Adhikari, N. (2005). Ethnomedicine of Dolpa district, Nepal: the plants, their vernacular names and uses. Lyonia. , 8 , 43–49.
34. Lal, V. K., Wahi, A. K., & Khosa, R. L. (1978). Pharmacognosy of the rhizome of Polygonatum verticillatum. Indian J. Pharmaceutical Sci. , 40 , 225.
35. Mathew, S., Joy, P. P., Savithri, K. E., Sakaria, B. P., & Kochurani, K. (2005). Variation in phenolic glycosides in kali musli (Curculigo orchioides). J. Med. Arom Plant Sci , 27 (1), 43–48.
36. Mathur, S. R. (2003). Yogtarangini. Varanasi, India: Chaukhambu Vidhya Bhawan.
37. Mishra, L. C. (Ed.). (2004). Scientific basis for Ayurvedic Therapies. USA: CRC Press. Boca Raton.
38. Misra, A., Srivastava, S., Verma, S., & Rawat, A. K. S. (2015). Nutritional evaluation, antioxidant studies and quantification of poly phenolics in Roscoea purpurea tubers. BMC Res Notes. , 8 , 324.
39. Misra, T. N., Singh, R. S., Upadhyay, J., & Tripathi, D. N. M. (1984). Aliphatic hydroxy ketones from Curculigo orchioides rhizomes. Phytochemistry , 23 (8), 1643–1645.
40. Miyazaki, S., Devkota, H. P., Joshi, K. R., Watanabe, T., & Yahara, S. (2014). Chemical constituents from the aerial parts and rhizomes of Roscoea purpurea. The Japanese J. Pharmacognosy. , 68 (2), 99.
41. Nadkarni, A. K. (1954). Indian Materia Medica, (3rd ed.)., Vol. 1. India: Popular Book Depot Bombay.
42. Naithani, B. D. (1984). Flora of Chamoli, Vol. 2 (p. 654). Howrah: Botanical Survey of India.
43. Nautiyal, B. P., Pandey, N., & Bhatt, A. B. (1998). Floristics and vegetational composition in an alpine zone of North West Himalayas. In B. D.Sharma & T.Kumari (Eds.), Himalayan natural resources: ecothreats and restoration study (pp. 28–83). New Delhi: Indus Publishing Company.
44. Nautiyal, S., Rao, K. S., Maithuri, R. K., Senwal, R. L., & Saxena, K. G. (2001). Traditional knowledge related to medicinal and aromatic plants in tribal societies in a part of Himalaya. J. Med. Arom. Plant Sci . 22 (4A), 23(1A), 538-541.
45. Nautiyal, M. C. & Nautiyal, B. P. (2004). Agrotechniques for high altitude medicinal and aromatic plants (pp. 149–155). Dehradun: Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh.
46. Panda, H. (2005). The complete technology book on herbal beauty products with formulations and processes. Delhi, India: Asia Pacific Business Press Inc..
47. Pathak, B., Dwivedi, K. K., & Shukla, K. P. (1992). Clinical evaluation of Snehan, Swedana and an ayurvedic compound drug in sandhivata vis-a-vis osteoarthritis. J. Research and Education in Indian Medicine , 11 , 27–34.
48. Poonam, B., Pratti, P., & Prasad, N. B. (2011). Polygonatum verticillatum (Linn.) All. and Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle: Two threatened vital healers from Ashtavarga nurtured by Garhwal Himalaya. India. J. Plant. Develop. , 18 , 159–167.
49. Puri, H. S. (2003). Rasayana: Ayurvedic Herbs for Longevity and Rejuvenation. New York, NY: CRC Press.
50. Rath, C., Kumari, S., Bishnupriya, D., Mohanty, R. C., Renu, D., Padhi, M. M., & Ramesh, B. (2011). Phyto-pharmacognostical studies of two endangered species of Malaxis (jeevak and Rishibhak). Pharmacognosy Journal. , 3 , 77–85.
51. Rath, C., Suman, K., Dhar, B., Mohantly, R. C., Dixit, R., Padhi, M. M., & Babu, R. (2011). Pharmacognostical & Phytochemical studies of Roscea procera (Kakoli) and Lilium polyphyllum (Ksheerkakoli) in comparison with market samples. Pharmacognosy Journal. , 3 (25), 32–38.
52. Rath, C., Tewari, D., Singh, A., & Mangal, A. (2015). Significance of pharmacog- nostical & phytochemical study in the identification of an important Ashtavarga plant Kakoli- Roscoea purpurea Smith. Nat Prod. Chem. Res. , 3 , 6.
53. Raval, S. S., Mandavir, M. K., Manatma, M. K., & Golakiya, B. A. (2015). Separation and identification of phytochemical from Lilium polyphyllum D. Don (Kshirkakali), An ingredient of Ashtavarga. J Cell & Tissue Research. , 15 (3), 524–527.
54. Sahu, M. S., Mali, P. Y., Waikar, S. B., & Rangari, V. D. (2010). Evaluation of immunomodulatory potential of ethanolic extract of Roscoea procera rhizomes in mice. J. Pharma Bioalled Sci. , 2 (4), 346–349.
55. Sharma, B. D. & Balkrishna, A. (2005). Vitality strengthening Ashtavarga plants (Jeevaniya & Vayasthapan Paudhe), Uttaranchal (India). Divya Yog Mandir: Divya Publishers.
56. Singh, A. P. (2006). Ashtavarga: Rare Medicinal Plants. Ethnobotanical Leaflets , 10 , 104–108.
57. Sood, S. K., Rana, S., & Lakhanpal, T. N. (2005). Ethnic aphrodisiac plants. Jodhpur: Scientific Publishers India.
58. Srivastava, S., Misra, A., Kumar, D., Srivastava, A., Seed, A., & Rawat, A. (2015). Reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography—ultraviolet pholediode array detector validated simultaneous quantification of six bioactive phenolic acids in Roscoea purpurea tubers and their in vitro cytotoxis potential against various cell lines. Pharmacognosy Magazine (supp.) ,S488–495.
59. Subasini, U., Thenmozhi, S., Sathyamurthy, D., Vetriselvan, S., Victor, G., Rajamanickam, G. V., & Dubey, G. P. (2013). Pharmacognostic and phytochemical investigations of Dioscorea bulbifera L. International J. Pharmacy & Life Sciences. , 4 (5), 2693–2700.
60. Thirumulpadu, K. R. (2010). Ayurveda and Veda. pp. 15-22. In: Glimpses of Wisdom. I-AIM, Bengaluru, India.
61. Usher, G. (1974). A dictionary of plants used by man. London, U.K.: Constable and Company Ltd..
62. Vashistha, R. K. (2006). Ecophysiology and agro-technology of two important Himalayan herbs: Angelica glauca. Edgew. and Angelica archangelica Linn.: D. Phil. Thesis submitted to H. N. B. Garhwal University, Srinagar (Garhwal), Uttarakhand, India.
63. Watanabe, T., Rajbhandari, K. R., Malla, K. J., Devkota, H. P., & Yabara, S. (2013). A handbook of medicinal plants of Nepal supplement I (pp. 254–255). Kanagawa: Ayurseed Life Environmental Institute.