The western Himalayas and the subjacent States of Punjab and Rajasthan are considered as forming the so-called Soma land, where the Aryans lived and created the ancient vedic literature. The Aryans used soma, whose botanical identity is still unresolved. This paper discusses soma plant and soma juice (soma rasa) in relation to the various psychoactive plants known from the soma land. It is concluded that soma, in all likelihood, does not denote any single plant and probably is a mixture of more than two or three psychoactive plants available in that region. It is also likely that “soma” may represent a secretory principle produced in the brain that acts as a psychoactive and hallucinatory trigger.
Soma is considered as a great deity, cosmic power, spiritual principle as well as a plant as per vedic thought (Frawley, 2012). For example, in Rig Veda soma is projected as a mystic entity attributed to ‘light,' ‘dawn,' ‘Sunshine,' ‘luminous,' ‘bird,' ‘child,' ‘deity,' ‘constellation,' ‘moon,' ‘a sacred plant' etc. The Vedas are known to be the products of the Aryan tribe, who are also called the Vedic people. The modern idea is that the vedic people were a primitive nomadic racial tribe (the Aryans) which, as per the prevalent west-centric theory, invaded north-west India around the third to second millennium BCE from Central Asia-Eastern Europe region (Talageri, 2000), although this idea has been contested by many who hold that vedic Aryans are part of north western Indian region (see detailed arguments in Frawley, 2010). The idea that Rig Veda and other Vedas are said to have been composed all through their migration to India and not exclusively in this region of India after this Aryan invasion took place is also contested; these, according to those who contest the invasion theory, are the ideas that are used to interpret the vedic text but are not ideas that are actually found within the vedic text. These two contrasting theories on Aryans and their vedic texts are to be remembered by the reader of this article while the identity of the some plant is being discussed.
The Rig Vedic soma is also a divine and sacred plant. It is considered as the lord of herbs. It played a very important role in the cultural life of the Aryans (Shah, 2015). Of the 10,552 hymns of Rig Veda 1028 hymns are on soma and in the IXth book or Mandala alone there are 114 hymns on soma. According to Wasson (1972) the Vedic hymns have played a very important role in the religious life of the Aryans in which “the rapturous experience produced by the soma led the Brahmanas to clothe celebration of the sacrament in an amazing ritual, perhaps without parallel in history.” Soma-worship was called hoama. Soma drink was also consumed on ceremonial occasions, rituals, hoamas, yagnas, and before and during chanting of Vedic hymns. In fact, Hymns were composed once soma drink was taken (Padhy and Dash, 2004), in an inebriated mood; these hymns were often composed on the worship and adoration of soma plant (Shah, 2015). This divine king of herbs is one of the greatest healing plants of the Rig Veda; it is also believed to generate all other plants and hence it is given the biggest oblation. The Satapatha Brahmana says that it is “the nobility and the other plants the common people.”
Soma, as per description of vedic texts, is a psychoactive plant (or plants) in that it is a stimulant, a depressant, inebriant, psychomimetic, analgesic, tranquilizer or a hallucinogen (as per the definitions of Cotton, 1997 and Saini et al., 2011). A stimulant acts like coffee, tea, cocoa or Ephedra, a depressant is opposite to a stimulant and acts like Aswagandha (Withania som- nifera), an inebriant like any alcoholic drink; an analgesic like opium poppy, a tranquilizer like some Solanaceae alkaloids and, above all, an excellent hallucinogen like the fly-agaric mushroom, Amanita muscaria or Cannabis sativa. The hallucinogens, are substances that “act on central nervous system (CNS) to bring about a dream-like state marked by extreme alterations in consciousness of self, in the understanding of reality in the sphere of experience, and usually by serious changes in perception of time and space; they almost invariably induce a series of visual hallucinations, often in kaleidoscope movement, usually in rather indescribably brilliant and rich and unearthly colors, frequently accompanied by auditory and other hallucinations and a variety of synesthesias” (Schultes, 1963). Hallucinating agents, as a very recent study on LSD has shown, make the human brain a more ‘complete,' unified and integrated entity. These effects, as the above study show, might account for the religious feelings that people have after taking the hallucinating drug and also to the profound altered state of consciousness where normal sense of self is broken down and replaced by a sense of reconnection with themselves, others and the natural world.
The Aryans may be said to have used soma to practice a kind of shamanism, which the authors of the present article would like to call “Vedic shamanism.” Shamanism, a Siberian term, is used to describe a complex of religious and ethno-botanico-medico beliefs and practices. Its spiritual leader, called a shaman, has special skills of divination and healing, especially of body disorders of spiritual origin. In many primitive societies, the shamans are both healers and magico-sorcerers and act as intermediaries between the society and the supernatural world. Shamans develop their powers through their own experiences, while subject to some altered state of consciousness—as mentioned in the previous paragraph—which is induced through stimulants, depressants, analgesics, psychomimetics and most frequently, through the use of hallucinogens (Cotton, 1997). Aryans shamans/priests had used soma-induced shamanism during rituals, Yagnas, hoamas, etc. as a means to influence deities, spirits of ancestors and other supernatural powers, both benevolent and malevolent, and particularly as an attempt at ancestral reverence. They pour soma rasa into the holy fire as offering to these (Padhy and Dash, 2004). Thus, they tend to treat ailments, illness and other disorders by mending the soul; alleviating the trauma affecting the soul/spirit restores the physical and mental body of the individual to balance. The “Vedic shamanism” also obtains solutions to problems afflicting the community. Readers should keep in mind that vedic shamanism, like any other shamanism, cannot be strictly defined as medicine, although healing is its main objective. Drinking of soma rasa is believed to bestow a long life, to remove sins of a person, act as a ‘medicine' for the infirm, give protection against human wickedness and bad omens, encourage truth and destroy untruth and condemn false dignity (Padhy and Dash, 2004). Ceremonies, rituals, chanting of vedic hymns, specific outfits, perfuming with incense, lighting holy fire and invocations as done by vedic priests are in fact part of the Aryan shamanistic world. These shamanistic techniques imply consumption of soma that is regarded as sacred and not to be wrongly called hallucinogenic, since for the western world and for people who believe in modern science alone, the vedic shamanistic world remains strange, mysterious and blatantly superstitious. Thus, the pillar of Aryan culture and its productive system is its shamanism.
In general, soma is prepared in three forms: (i) Cooked with grain or barley (yava), milk or curd; (ii) the juice extracted by pressing; and (iii) very elaborately prepared where ghee and/or honey are used and sometimes fermentation is used (Frawley, 2012). The soma rasa has a sharp taste, sweet -smelling and yellow/brownish yellow in color.
According to Frawley (2012), Yaska, an ancient Indian Scholar, considered Sushoma as the present day Indus, which is the main river of Punjab. Sushoma, which can be split into Su-soma, means ‘good soma'. This name, according to Frawley (2012), also makes sense as the name of the Indus, especially in its upper reaches, particularly above Kashmir in the Himalayas, as there the river is famous for soma. The great ancient Ayurvedic physician/sur- geon, Sushruta, had mentioned the upper reaches of the Indus River as the very important place of the soma, in his classical work Sushruta Samhita (Bhishagratna, 1981). One another region for soma is Munjavat, as per one hymn in Rig Veda. This may refer to the present day Munjan region just north of the Hind Kush in Afghanistan (the Badakshan region), across the mountains from the Indus (Frawley, 2012). Sushruta had also mentioned that in the Himalayas Arbudas, Sahyas, Mahendras, Malayas, Sriparvathas, Devagiris, Giris, Devasahas, Pariyatras, Vindhyas, Devasundas and Hladas are the other places of occurrence inhabitant of the soma plant. The second greatest diversity of somas, however, comes from Kashmir and the little manasa in Kashmir. What Sushruta mentioned as Arjikiya, an important region soma, is Kashmir or greater Kashmir (Frawley, 2012), the latter may have extended east into the Beas or north into Ladakh and Leh.
Two other Himalayan regions where soma was known to occur are the Sharyanavat and Pastyas, the former perhaps being the most important vedic region of soma. As per a hymn in Rig Veda, Lord Indra, the dragon- Slayer was reported to have drunk the soma at Sharanyavat. Sharanyavat is perhaps the greater manasa lake (Manasarovar) at the foot of Kailas
or Meru in Tibet, from which the river Sutlej flows. But Munjavat and Sharyanavat mean places “abounding with reeds” (probably denoting a marshy region).
Thus, the lands of soma in the W. Himalayan region are essentially restricted to the upper Indus and Kashmir, although Vedic culture included parts of Afghanistan, this appears to be only its Western fringe zone (Frawley, 2012). The Punjab region in the plains also formed a part of the Aryan vedic culture. It is this geographical region that one should keep in mind while analyzing the botanical identity of soma; our search for soma identify should be ideally restricted to plants belonging to this geographical region.
The botanical identification of soma should be proceeded on the basis of the following: (i) the detailed technical description of the soma plant as available in the vedic and other classical literature and corroborating this description with the descriptions of plants which are considered as probable candidates for soma; (ii) the phytogeography/location of soma plant as detailed in the vedic and other texts and compare it with that of the candidate species. The vedic Aryans spent most part of their existence in the western Himalayan mountain regions and in the plains of northwest India (Punjab and part of Rajasthan) even if we accept the theory that they migrated to this territory from Eastern Europe/Central Asia. Most vedic scholars agree that the hymns of Vedas were composed in the territory where they got settled and lived. Since they frequently conducted yagnas, hoamas, rituals and acts of vedic shamanism their requirement of soma should have been regular very heavy and should have been satisfied by some materials that were easily available to them in and near their living territory; (iii) the effects, as described in vedic hymns, of the soma on humans who consume it and compare them with that caused by plants now considered as soma; and (iv) the features of the soma drink/rasa as prepared by the vedic Aryans and compare them with those of the candidate species.
If we consider all the above identification procedures, we may say that the identity of the soma plants has not been made thus far to the satisfaction of all. No plant under the name ‘soma' is now in use anywhere in the world and particularly in the North West of India and adjacent regions (Shah, 2015) defined above as Lands of soma. A serious hunt for vedic soma plant has been made by a number of botanists, vedic scholars, indologists, psychologists and others, but in vain. The detailed description of the soma plant as available in the vedic and other ancient classical texts are as follows: no leaves, no flowers, no fruits, no seeds, no roots, with a pillar-like stem (ansu) and a cap (murdhan / siris ), red in color, stem resembles swollen udder, dazzling under day (hari) and silvery white at night (Wasson, 1968, 1972), not mere a plant but a creeper, somewhat twisting, semi-shrub with a series of leaflets, shoots contain an acidulous milky juice, etc. (Padhy and Dash, 2004). None of the plants so far suggested as soma have all these characters. It is also not clear whether these characters describe the whole soma plant or a part of the plant that is collected, probably dried, and used for the preparation of the soma drink. It also looks, to the present authors that at least some of the above descriptive terms have been picked out from the various hymns of the Vedas out of context and that accurate translations of the concerned vedic terms have not been made. Although vedic literature has been translated by many western scholars, since the “Vedas are filled with mantras, symbols, cryptic statements, codes” etc., the real meaning of the vedic texts is yet unknown (Frawley, 2012) or ambiguous to a large extent.
The following plants have been suggested so far as the candidate species for soma: Ruta graveolens (Roxburgh, 1814), Sarcostemma brevistigma (Roxburgh, 1820-1824) and a few more species, Ephedra species (Chopra et al., 1958; Mahdihassan, 1963, 1991), Amanita muscaria (Wasson, 1968, 1972), Peganum harmala (Damania, 2004), Cannabis sativa (by Mukherjee, 1921-1922; Swamy, 1974), Tamarix species (Damania, 2001), species of Nymphaea and Nelumbium (Spess, 2000), Periploca aphylla (species of Ceropegia (Usman Ali and Narayanaswami, 1970), Papaver somniferum (Sarianidi, 2003), Asclepias acida, Basella cordifolia, Eleucine cora- cana, Ichnocarpus frutescens, Saccharum, Sorghum species, Vitis vinifera, Humulus lupulus and Saussurea lappa (see Padhy and Dash, 2004) some orchids and lilies.
Sushruta Samhita mentions 24 soma plants, growing mainly on Himalayan lakes and named after vedic meters (Frawley, 2012). These 24 soma plants were classified by him according to differences in their habitats, structure, epithets, and potencies (Frawley, 2012). They are as follows: Amshumat, Munjavat (A reed, probably Cyperus rotundus), Chandramah (An aquatic plant with a golden colored raw drug), Rajataprabha (a bulbous plant), Durvasoma, Kaniyan, Svetaksha (yellowish drug), Kanakaprabha (yellowish drug), Pratanavan, Talavrinta, Karavira (Nerium oleander), Amshavan (tubers shine like silver), Svayamprabha, Mahasoma, Garudahrita (drug yellowish), Gayatrya, Traishtubha, Pankta, Jagata, Shankara, Agnishtoma (used in ritual fire), Raivata, Yathokta, and Udupati. None of these except Karavira could be botanically identified so far. All these kinds of somas secure for the user a mastery of chanting vedic hymns. The best kind of soma is Chandramah which is found to be floating here and there in the Indus River in its upper ranges. The Munjavat and Amshumat somas are reported to be present in the same region. Gayatriya, Traishtubha, Pankta, Jagata, Shankara, etc. float on the manasarovar lake of Kashmir. He mentions an additional 18 soma-like plants, which are nervine herbs.
The Atharva Veda specifically mentions five great plants among which soma is the best; this list includes marijuana (Cannabis), barley, dharba (Kusha or durva) and sahas, whose identity is unknown, along with soma.
Let us first take Amanita muscaria, the fly-agaric mushroom which Wasson (Wasson, 1968, 1972) suggested and defended as the Rig Vedic soma plant. He asserted that the Rig Vedic hymns had actually described this mushroom. There are also some Rig vedic hymns describing syena or superna (a hawk) that are often trained to bring from the high mountains the soma plant (here believed as Amanita muscaria) (Talageri, 2000). There are three important points that dispute Amanita as soma: (i) Amanita muscaria is not known from Kashmir/W. Himalayas and adjacent regions, described earlier in this paper as the lands of soma (Shah, 2015); (ii) many vedic scholars including Brough (1972) and Ingalls (1971) have rejected Wasson's contention that this mushroom was soma; they had based their rejection on internal evidence available in Rig Veda; and, (iii) the archaeological study made by Sarianidi (2003) at the Margiana temple site at Gonur Tepe showed remnants (of 2500 B.C.E.) of Aswamedha Yagna, which included big vessels in which soma drink was kept, along with pounders and pounding containers. The ingredients of this drink included Ephedra (in the form of ephedra alkaloids) Cannabis and poppy (in the form of seeds). Sarianidi (2003) concluded that the excavations belonged to the Aryans and that they left the use of Amanita muscaria when that was in Margiana. However, Wasson (1972) believed that Aryans left this mushroom when they reached the North Western plains of India. The conclusions of Sarianidi and Wasson are based on Aryan invasion theory that is contested by many people. Moreover, the lands of soma discussed earlier in this article does not include the Margiana region. Frawley (2012) also emphasized that while it cannot be said for certain that this mushroom was not a kind of soma for some people, the vedic somas are described in very different ways.
Ephedra is suggested as the soma plant. It has ephedrine which increases blood pressure and heart beating, decreases appetite, makes the user feel energetic, promotes concentration, etc. Its vernacular names include ‘huma' and ‘suma' (Shah, 2015). Six species of Ephedra including E. gerardiana and E. intermedia are available in the somaland which was already defined in this article and hence it is most likely that this taxon was used as soma itself or as its substitute or as one of the constituents of some rasa.
Cannabis sativa is also a strong candidate for soma, having been suggested so by many investigators. It is also a strong psychomimetic hallucinogen, with tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) as a primary psychoactive chemical. Cannabis has been a host of more than 540 chemicals (Kuddus et al., 2013; Grotenhermen and Russo, 2002). Although a native of Western and Central Asia, it has been cultivated (in many places has become feral) for more than 4,500 years. It is found in the W. Himalayas (the somaland and is used extensively) legally and illegally. Kuddus et al. (2013) has a given more than 45 uses which induces hallucinogenic, analgesic narcotic, psychotropic, sleep-inducing effects.
Another strong candidate for soma is the opium poppy plant. It has among other alkaloids morphine, which includes sleep and relieves pain. It also brings about a feeling of euphoria. Both opium poppy and blue poppy (Mecanopsis latifolia) are known to occur in the somaland. It is likely to have been used as soma, as it substitute or as an important constituent of soma rasa.
Spess (2000) had suggested that soma may be a species of Nymphaea or Nelumbium. Although these appear to have alkaloids as well as gluco- sides that may act of psychoactive compounds that cause the effects of the soma drink. Susruta Samhita characterizes some varieties of soma as floating water plants on lakes such as Manasa in Kashmir. This as well as the fact that soma is said to govern female water spirits suggest the possibility of these water plants as being soma. The flowers of some species of Nymphaea have been shown to induce ecstasy similar to that caused by 3,4-methylene- dioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) (popularly called “Ecstasy”). Some species of water lilies are known as soma in some tribal languages of this region. Rig vedic hymn IX 69.5. Characterizes Nymphaea as Amrita (=ambrosia). However, Shah (2015) states that it would be difficult to accept the water lilies as soma.
The Atharva veda related soma to Kushta (Saussurea lappa). It is found in Western Himalayas. The major chemical compounds of this plants are 5 a-hydroxy-B-costic acid; 11a,13-dihydroxydehidrocostuslactone; 11,13-dihydro-7,11-dehydro-13-hydroxy-3-desoxyzaluzanin C; 8 a-hydroxyl- 11B H-11,13-dihydrodehydrocostuslactone; Soulangianolide A; Syringaresinol; Scopoletin. One or more of these chemicals may have psychoactive effects on humans.
Species of Tamarix are reported in western Himalayas (The Soma land) and some species are reported to contain isotamarixen, matairesinol, tetepathine, kaempferol, 4'-methylkaempferol, 4',7-dimethylkaempferol, hexacozyl-3-caffeate, ferulic acid and 3-methoxyl methyl gallate. The Manna reported in Bible is a psychoactive substance and refers to a species of Tamarix. Whether the Western Himalaya Tamarix species have psychoactive principles are not is not known.
Ruta graveolens was suggested has a soma plant by Roxburgh (1814). This species available in western Himalayas and one of the chemicals, Robustine, is known to be a psychoactive compound.
Peganum harmala, Sarcostemma spp., Periploca aphylla, Basella cordifolia, Asclepias acida are all arid region plants and all distributed in Punjab and adjacent Rajasthan region which where also occupied by the Aryans. All these contain chemicals of Psychoactive nature. Perhaps these might have served as substitutes of soma plant or added as mixture to the soma mixture in the arid regions. Species of Sorghum and Saccharum, Vitis vinifera and Eleucine coracana might have been suggested as soma plants since their fermented products produce an alcoholic inebriant mood.
From the above, it is very clear that the search for one single soma plant is misleading (Frawley, 2012). Importantly, soma is likely to be part of an entire science of sacred plant preparations and not just one plant in particular. Frawley (2012) feels that the soma is a “mixture of various herbs purified or prepared with substances like milk, ghee and honey, fermented and strained in various ways.” Many plants listed earlier may form part of this mixture. It is therefore, questionable whether the word ‘soma' represents a plant at all and whether there existed a plant by the name ‘soma'. It was also suggested that soma was probably a part of human brain secretion which “releases a flood of bliss” throughout the body (called the inner soma) (Frawley, 2012). It is the main subject of vedic hymns and probably of all ancient shamanic practices though outer somas were also important. ‘Soma' may also represent a transformative substance that is found in some plants or a mixture of plants that has mind-altering properties through substances produced in the brain. As per Ayurveda, soma is the fundamental liquid of life or Kapha, the biological water humor.
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