CHAPTER 10
ETHNO-CONSERVATION PRACTICES IN NORTH WESTERN HIMALAYA, INDIA
CONTENTS
10.2 Sacred Natural Sites in Himachal Pradesh
ABSTRACT
The North Western Himalaya is considered reverent and the entire mountain stretch is known as “Dev Bhumi” (God’s land) and the indigenous communities in the region practice several traditional practices which often oriented at the sustenance of the natural resources. Many Sacred Natural Sites (SNS) in the region has been conserved since the conservation of nature or natural objects has been considered necessary for survival and sustenance of human beings. Although these Sacred Natural Sites are protected by social taboos and religious faith but they are not immune to anthropogenic disturbances. The number of such sacred groves and other sacred places are declining due to modernization, urbanization, loss of faith in traditions and culture and heavy biotic pressure. In this chapter, an attempt has been made to collect information on different SNS in three North Western Himalayan States of India especially, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Jammu & Kashmir.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Nature worship is an age-old traditional belief based on the premise that all creations of nature have to be protected and conservation of natural resources has been considered necessary for survival and sustenance of human beings (Khan et al., 2008). Nature or natural objects such as trees, groves, gardens, water bodies, caves, landscapes and mountains are often regarded sacred and revered. Traditional customs and beliefs of human society have played a major role in biodiversity conservation worldwide (Ramakrishnan, 1998). The inhabitants of North Western Himalaya which extends along the mountain chain from western Nepal (west of the Kali Gandaki valley) through three northern states of India namely Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir (Balokhra, 1998) also revere mountains, lakes, forests, grasslands and many other landscapes in the nature. Since mountains and landscapes in the mountains are sacred, the indigenous communities living in the region are still maintaining and preserving the important natural resources available in the region often in pristine conditions (Brandis, 1897). These practices are being followed by the people of various religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism in this region.
The North Western Himalaya is considered reverent and the entire mountain stretch is known as Dev Bhumi (God’s land) that prompt the local people to practice a number of rituals often oriented at the sustenance of the natural resources and ecosystem services received from these natural resources (Sivakumar et al., 2014). Such form of nature worship presents an alternative view of conservation that is led by norms and taboos rather than formal legal frameworks. Mostly such practices were originated near forest fringe villages mainly based on religion which greatly helped in sustaining the pristine natural resources. A wide variety of habitats and species that are excluded from formal protected areas are being protected and hold considerable potential for biodiversity conservation.
Several authors have documented the various sacred natural sites in the North Western Himalaya. In this chapter an attempt has been made to collect information on different Sacred Natural Sites (SNS) in three North Western Himalayan States of India especially, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Jammu & Kashmir.
10.2 SACRED NATURAL SITES IN HIMACHAL PRADESH
Himachal Pradesh is often referred as Dev-Bhoomi (land of Gods and Goddess) and almost all major peaks have stories and legends associated with them (Anonymous, 2014). Himachal Pradesh is very diverse and rich in its culture and there are many Gods and Goddesses, who form an integral part of its ancient rituals and traditions. There are thousands of temples of varying sizes and other holy places spread all over the state. The people here are God fearing and live in close harmony with each other, irrespective of any religion. In tribal district of Kinnaur, both Buddhism and Hinduism religions are followed and there is a visible sublime harmony amongst them.
10.2.1 SACRED MOUNTAINS IN HIMACHAL PRADESH
Hills and mountains (Parvat) have special significance within Himachal Pradesh and have traditionally been regarded as abodes of Gods. Mountains are also held sacred due to their association with deities, mythology and legends. There are many revered mountain peaks in Himachal Pradesh and people from different parts of the country make trek to these peaks especially during the auspicious month of ‘Sawan’ (August). Kinner Kailash (Kinnaur District), Shrikhand Mahadev (Kullu District) and Manimahesh (Chamba District) are the three famous peaks related to Lord Siva. The other important peaks are Churashwar Mahadev (Sirmour District) and Kamru Nag (Mandi District). The Manimahesh Peak (5,653 m) in Chamba district is one of the most important religious sites in Himachal Pradesh and the Manimahesh Lake at the base of this peak is also a sacred place. The Kinnaur Kailash (6,500 m) is a mountain in the Kinnaur district and it is considered sacred both by Buddhists and Hindus in the state. Sri Khand Kailash is situated in Shimla and Kullu Districts and people undertake this arduous trek to coincide with the ‘Ashada Poornima’ as per the Vikrami calendar.
10.2.2 SACRED WATER BODIES IN HIMACHAL PRADESH
The Himachal Pradesh state has been blessed with many sacred water bodies (streambeds and riverbeds and lakes, ponds, hot springs) which are center points of cultural and tourist activities. These water bodies, apart from their ecological significance, play a crucial role in biodiversity, wildlife habitat and socio-economic aspects. A total of 271 high altitude Lakes were delineated constituting 575 ha area that accounts for less than one per cent of total wetland area of the state. Maximum number of lakes (230) in the state is of very small (<2.25 ha area) size (Anonymous, 2013). Some of the important sacred lakes included Manimahesh (Chamba District), Suraj Tal (Lahaul & Spiti), Renuka (Sirmaur), Bhrigu (Kullu), Prashar and Rewalsar Lakes (Mandi). Manimahesh Lake is considered one of the most holy lakes in India as it’s near the Manimahesh Kailash Peak in the Pir Panjal Range in Chamba district. Every year numerous devotees of Lord Shiva flock to this lake to take a holy dip. The Suraj Tal Lake in Spiti Valley of Lahaul & Spiti District is considered holy because it’s the Lake of the Sun God. Bhrigu Lake is situated in Kullu district near Gulaba village and this holy Lake is devoted to sage Bhrigu, who held penance on the banks of the lake. Prashar Lake is dedicated to Sage Prashar in Mandi District and a majestic three- roof pagoda style temple of Prashar Sage is also built on the side of lake. Rewalsar Lake is popularly known as Tso Pema by the Buddhist in Mandi district of the state and it is a sacred Lake of Hindus, Buddhists and Sikhs. This Lake is surrounded by small hills and a statue of Padmasambhava is visible in midst of the lake. Renuka Lake in Sirmaur District of Himachal Pradesh is named after Goddess Renuka - the Mother of Lord Parshuram. It is the largest lake in circumference in Himachal Pradesh and a holy lake. Another Lake Khajiar in Chamba district is held sacred to Khajjinag—after whom the place is named. Lama Dal and Gadarsu Lakes are the other sacred lakes in Chamba District.
10.2.3 SACRED VALLEYS IN HIMACHAL PRADESH
There are many valleys in Himachal Pradesh among which Kullu valley is popularly known as the “Dev Bhumi” or “the valley of Gods.” It is one of the largest, most fertile and most populated valleys of Himachal Pradesh and each cluster of villages in Kullu has its own deity called the “devta” and there are number of sacred groves and forests attached to each of the local deity. The Deovan of Kullu valley in Himachal Pradesh is an integral part of the devta system, a unique socio-cultural religious institution of this region. It is estimated that there are about 365 devta in the Kullu valley. Naturistic and animistic forms such as Nag (snakes), Vanshiras (forest guardians) and Jognies (fairies) as well as various Gods of the Hindu pantheon are worshipped as devta. Specific forests adjacent to villages are said to belong to the respective devta and these forests are called deovan (Vasan and Kumar, 2009).
Another valley in Kullu district is Parvati valley which is closely related to Goddess Parvati. Manikaran is a place in the Valley which has hot springs and the Hindus believe that Manu (the Hindu equivalent of Noah) recreated life in Manikaran and it is therefore a sacred area. The valley has got many village temples and a Gurudwara (a place of worship for the Sikhs). In the valley there is a spiritual site called Kheerganga which is a meadow at 2960 m where Shiva is said to have meditated for 3000 years. The hot springs at Kheerganga are extremely important for Hindu and Sikh pilgrims as well as many others who believe the waters have sacred healing properties.
10.2.4 SACRED GROVES IN HIMACHAL PRADESH
Sacred groves and sacred plants are being considered as an important component in all societies of Himachal Pradesh. Their history may be traced back to Vedic periods, the Ramayan period and the Buddha period. Most importantly, sacred groves provide a continued reminder that human cultures and biodiversity have evolved together and encouragement of such a link is likely to be a key element in an ecologically and socially secure future. There are a number of sacred groves and forests attached to various local deities in Himachal Pradesh (Table 10.1). Being the relicts of conserved natural forests these sacred groves are locally known as “Deovan” and are deeply associated with religious beliefs that they are abode of ‘Forest God’. Sacred groves are more or less pockets of climax vegetation serving as repository of biodiversity and genetic resources and harboring several wild relatives of crop plants, plants of medicinal, ethno-botanical, mythological and ecological importance.
In Himachal Pradesh, the sacred groves are reported from Kullu, Shimla, Kinnaur, Mandi, Kangra and Lahaul and Spiti districts. All these districts have dense forest cover according to maps of Forest Survey of India except Lahaul and Spiti where the groves are useful in maintaining the perennial source of water in harsh environmental conditions. Groves of various sizes are existing; however larger groves spread over few hectares are used for controlled use of resources by the local people. There are about 10,000 temples in the State with well-defined management committees. Almost all the major deities in the State have their own groves and hence the State can be called as “Land of Deities and Sacred Groves” (Sharma, 2000). Apart from bigger groves, temples with one or few trees are found throughout the different parts of Himachal Pradesh.
Traditionally the sacred groves in Himachal are the locations where the local village deity resides and a grove is created around the temple. These groves are thus culturally associated with the local communities and almost all cultural and religious festivities are often conducted here. In most cases the sacred groves, there is a big, aged tree on the base of which a platform holds many deities - mainly ancient spirits or demons - placed for worship and periodical offerings like sacrifices (Ma Hadimba Temple, Manali; Nag Temple, Tani Jubbar District Shimla are typical examples). It is the place where the people, attached to the local deity come together during the many fairs and festivals and other religious festivities. Hadimba temple in Manali harbors sacred deodar forests (Cedrus deodara) of 12.2 hectare. The timber/ wood obtained is utilized for repair and maintenance of the temple. Such traditional and cultural attitudes, though based on religious faith, have made significant contributions to the protection and conservation of various species of trees and plants.
Sacred groves are found in all the broad vegetation types of this region namely subtropical (1000-1500 m), temperate (1500-3200 m) sub alpine and alpine (3300 m and above). In the temperate regions, the sacred groves have Cedrus deodara as dominant tree species with a few associated species viz.
TABLE 10.1 Sacred natural sites in Himachal Pradesh
Pinus roxburghii, P. wallichiana, Quercus semecarpifolia; in drier areas such as in parts of Kinnaur the groves are predominantly Cedrus deodara and Juniperus polycarpos, while in lower Himachal the dominant species include Shorea robusta, Ficus religiosa and F.benghalensis with some associated species like Populus ciliata, Acacia catechu, Cassia fistula, Tectona grandis, etc.
In spite of the importance of sacred groves, the available information on sacred groves of Himachal Pradesh especially the number of sacred groves, their status and their biodiversity value is meager (Fernandes, 1993; Chhatre et al., 1998; Singh et al., 1998; Sharma, 2000; Vasan, 2001; Thaplyal et al., 2012; Rajasekaran, 2013; Rajasekaran and Shalu, 2015). Kumar et al. (2004) described 41 plant species, which have been worshiped and venerated by people of Himachal Pradesh. Singh et al. (1998) gave a brief account of social, cultural and ecological dimensions of sacred groves, forests and pastures of Chhakinal watershed, Kullu District. A total of 514 sacred groves have been documented by Thaplyal and Verma (2015), considering biodiversity, culture, religion and history of the landscapes.
10.2.5 SACRED GROVES IN KULLU DISTRICT
As stated earlier Kullu Valley is popularly known as the valley of Gods and each cluster of villages in the region has its own deity called the “devta” and there are number of sacred groves and forests attached to each of the local deity. Most of the sacred groves in Kullu Valley come under Himalayan moist temperate forest type (Group 12) of Champion and Seth (1968). The ownership of the sacred groves is with temple committees for some sacred groves while some are in State forestlands. The size of the groves varies from a few trees to large tract of forests. All the families in the village use the sacred groves for marriage ceremonies, temple festivals and for social gatherings. Generally in the forests of deities like Nagas (snake), Vanshiras (forest guardians), and Joginies (fairees), which are manifestations of animistic and natural spirits, rules regarding use of their deobans are more stringent.
The sacred grove of Bakhu Nag devta (Snake God) in the relatively remote Uptukka village in Kullu District is one of the best-conserved grove. There is another sacred grove in Banaugi village in the district for Ringarishi sage.
The village is in a remote place with flat lands and irrigated fields while the grove is with moderately dense deodar trees (Vasan and Kumar, 2009). Other devta such as Adi Brahma of Khokhan village has grove in Rohgi village, Devta Jamlu has grove at his birth place at Mohra Bari and Malana, Shringi (Shringa Rishi) at Chaheni Kothi, Chuaung Bhagwati at Dhara village in Manikaran Valley, Manu Maharaj in Shainshar of Sainj Valley. Sacred groves are also found in Chaheni Kothi (Kullu), Boodhi Nagin (Saryolsar in Kullu) and Balo Nag (Outer Seraj, Kullu).
Rajasekaran et al. (2008) inventoried 33 sacred groves in Kullu valley, of which 19 are situated on the left bank of river Beas while 14 sacred groves on right bank of the Beas River. Out of 33 sacred groves studied in the Kullu Valley, 25 are associated with the male deity and 8 with female deity. Only male priests are allowed to do the rituals in all the sacred groves. Similarly the temple committee, constituted to look after the rituals were found dominated by male members in most of the sacred groves.
In all the studied sacred groves, annual rituals and ceremonies are performed to propitiate the deity. During these rituals sacrifices of animals (mainly goat) and vegetable items (Coconut, lemon) were made. The presiding deities are believed to look after the well being of the people, and also protect the groves by administering punishments to the offenders. People take oath/vows for wish-fulfillment when there is a crisis, particularly bearing on health, and offerings were made. Enforcement of the rules of management of sacred grove is primarily through religious beliefs of villagers. Although no separate institutions exist to enforce these rules or to punish transgressors but the temple committee plays an important role in management. It is believed that the deity itself punishes transgressors.
Sacred groves are managed on the basis of rules of use which are specific to each sacred grove and there is a significant distinction made between using the sacred grove for the deities own use such as in temple repairs and in communal cooking during devta fairs and the use for human needs like fuel wood, fodder, poles and timber. Human use is believed to be determined according to deity’s willingness and wishes. Sacred groves have important socio-cultural functions, in addition to the religious functions. Several festivals are performed at sacred groves. In Kullu valley also social gathering takes place in the sacred grove on the occasion of festivals like Kahika, Chachauli, Faagni, Birshu, Panchmi, Shaun and wedding ceremonies as well.
10.2.6 FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF SACRED GROVES IN KULLU VALLEY
Rajasekaran et al. (2008) documented 224 plant species belonging to 72 families, 172 genera from the sacred groves of Kullu valley. They reported that Asteraceae (29 species), Rosaceae (19), Lamiaceae (15), Ranunculaceae (9) and Poaceae (9) are dominant families in the sacred groves. Out of 224 identified plant species, the number of trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses and twiner were 35, 22, 164, 2 and 1, respectively. Angiosperm, gymnosperm and pte- ridophyte share 91%, 3% and 6% plant diversity, respectively. Among the sacred groves, plant diversity was highest in Halan-I, Karal, Jana sacred groves followed by Rujag, Gramag, Sukhsau (Prini) and Pahnala.
The forests of the sacred groves were found dominated by tree species like Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana, Abies pindrow, Quercus spp., Ulmus villosa, Alnus nitida, Juglans regia, Cupressus torulosa, Aesculus indica and Prunus armeniaca. However, Cedrus deodara was found dominant species in most of the sacred groves except in Bhalyani and Halan-1 where Ulmus villosa and Quercus dilatata were principal tree species, respectively. The height and GBH of trees growing in sacred groves were found to be higher than that of trees growing in adjacent forest. The maximum GBH of Cedrus deodara (1200 cm) was recorded in Pichhla Gramag followed by Jana sacred grove (980 cm). The very old deodar trees maintained in sacred groves such as Jana, Pichhla Gramag, Rujag and Larankelo may be useful in future forest tree-breeding programs and also act as a gene pool.
Presence of considerable number of shrubs species also added to the diversity of forest composition of the sacred groves. Predominant shrub species growing in most of sacred groves were Prinsepia utilis, Urtica dioica, Rosa brunonii, Berberis lycium, Sarcococca saligna, Zanthoxylum armatum, Buddleja asiat- ica, Coriaria nepalensis, Spiraea canescens and Sageretia theezans. Common herbs found growing in most of the sacred groves were Gnaphalium affine, Gallium aparine, Sigesbeckia orientalis, Achyranthes bidentata, Verbascum thapsus, Thalictrum foliolosum, Cynoglossum glochidiatum, C. zeylanicum, Viola canescens, Fragaria indica, Rumex hastatus, R. nepalensis, Solanum nigrum, Polygonatum verticillatum, Oxalis corniculata, Origanum vulgare, Geranium nepalense, G. wallichianum and Erigeron annuus. Among grasses Cynodon dactylon and Oplismenus undulatifolius were common species growing in most of the sacred groves.
Among pteridophytes Pteris multifida, P. cretica and Onychium contiguum were commonly found in most of the sacred groves. Other Pteridophytes recorded in the sacred groves were Adiantum venustum, A. capillus-veneris, Asplenium trichomanes-ramosum, A.dalhousie, Athyrium attenuatum, Diplazium maximum, Onychium lucidium, O. contiguum, O. nepalense, Polypodiodes microrhizoma, Pteridium aquilinum, Pteris dactylina and Woodwardia unigemmata.
Sacred groves serve as repository of medicinal plants such as Ajuga brac- teosa, Thalictrum foliolosum, Achyranthes bidentata, Pistacia integerrima, Plantago major, Picrorhiza kurrooa, Aconitum heterophyllum, Taxus wal- lichiana, Viola canescens, Valeriana jatamansi, Rheum moorcroftianum, Verbascum thapsus, Rumex hastatus, R. nepalensis, Berberis lycium, Salvia moorcroftiana, Plectranthes rugosus, Solanum khasianum, S. nigrum, etc. Morchella esculenta (Guchhi) a wild mushroom is exploited from some of the sacred groves which fetches very handsome money in local market (Rs. 7000 to 10,000/kg).
Important venerated plants reported from various sacred groves are Cedrus deodara, Xanthoxylum armatum, Berberis lycium, Cupressus toru- losa, Cynodon dactylon, Quercus leucotrichophora, Rosa brunonii, Buxus wallichiana and Prinsepia utilis. Deodar is venerated as the ‘tree of god,’ closely linked with Shiva worship and often a Shiva temple is found near a cluster of deodars. It is considered sacred and plays an important role in religious ceremonies. Thin slices of its wood are burned with butter and other plants on the occasion of births, marriages, deaths and other ceremonies. The bright yellow pollen grains are used for brightening metallic idols. In Kullu valley of Himachal Pradesh, the Nag and Devi temples are frequently found in cedar groves and the trees are then regarded as sacred and they are not cut.
10.2.7 SACRED GROVES IN SHIMLA DISTRICT
In Shimla District most of the villages have village deities (Gram Devta) and one or more trees are dedicated to the deity. In most villages, a single individual of either Cedrus deodara or some other species were found. If it were a single tree then it could not be cut even for the repair/construction of the temple. If the timber of trees was more than one, then occasionally they are allowed to cut with the permission of the village deity for repair and maintenance of temple.
One of the biggest sacred groves is reported from Shipin in Shimla District which have very old deodar trees and there is an interesting practice to protect the sanctity of the grove: those who pass through the grove dust their clothes before leaving the grove to make sure they do not carry anything belonging to the deity (Usha Bande, 2003). Similarly the Sacred grove of Dev Kothi in the Kotkhai-Rohru area is also with very old trees. Sacred groves are still preserved in pristine conditions in Dodra-Kwar which is a remote area in the District. The forest is rich in temperate biodiversity housing numerous important tree species like Abies pindrow, A. spectabilis, Acer cappadocicum, A. caesium, A. villosum, Aesculus indica, Carpinus viminea, Cedrus deodara, Corylus colurna, Juglans regia, Picea smithiana and Taxus baccata are some of the tree species conserved in the grove. The sacred grove is also a store house some of the threatened medicinal plants like Aconitum deinorhizum, A. heterophyllum, A. violaceum and A. leave, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Podophyllum heterophyllum, Picrorhiza kurroa, Angelica glauca, Trillium govanianum, Paris polyphylla, Delphinium vestitum, etc.
In Theog sub-division, thirteen sacred groves with a total area of 35 ha were associated with the village of Bagaghat, Chibbar, Gajari, Janog, Kalindi, Khalasi, Manan, Standa, Shari, Tarapur and Thaanadhar. Out of the total of thirteen groves, six were below 2.0 ha in size, while the groves at the villages of Kuthan and Manan between 2 and 3 ha. The groves of Shari, Tarapur and Kalindi were between 5 and 7 ha (Anonymous, 2006; Narta et al., 2012).
In Rohru sub-division a total of seven sacred groves with a total area of 6-8 ha. were found associated with the villages of Bachaunch, Bhamnoli, Devidhar, Pujarli, Samarkot, Narayan, and Tikkri. The presiding deity of the groves was a male deity (Gram Devta), located in a well-constructed and properly maintained temple. All the groves were located on private land. The groves of Bhamnoli and Devjdhar are thought to be very ancient. The groves of Bachaunch, Samarkot, Pujarali, and Narayan villages were estimated to be over 100 years in age (Anonymous, 2006; Narta et al., 2012).
The sacred grove in the village of Bhanchuch in Rohru Thesil of Shimla District is of 60.85 ha size. This sacred grove is associated with the deity of “Devta Sahib Bondra.” Although people have rights in the sacred grove associated with the temple, the ownership of the land/sacred grove is with the Rohru Forest Division, H.P. State Forest Department. The temple is managed by a temple committee which performs certain rituals like “Bhunda” which is a sort of Maha Yagya performed for saving resources and people from evil spirits. This grove supports the catchment of a small rivulet called Shikadi Khad which provide major water supply to the villagers in the lower basin. This sacred grove also plays an important role in maintaining the ecology of the region which is essential for a good harvest.
A unique traditional strategy of biodiversity conservation can be found at Deoban in the Ransaar valley of Chauhara block of Rohru Tehsil in Shimla district. This forbidden forest is a well-protected sacred grove in which entry and any anthropogenic disturbance is a taboo. The sacred grove of Jakh Devta of Dodra village is a rich repository of biodiversity and one of the best examples of biodiversity conservation in the region. This grove is now being maintained as a Medicinal Plant Conservation Area (MPCA) under a National Medicinal Plants Board (NMPB) project, under the aegis of Himalayan Forest Research Institute (HFRI), Shimla. Sacred groves of Hateshwari Devi of Hatkoti at Khashdhar, Bhimakali at Sarahan, Dom at Kuthan, Chikhreshwar at Thoeg, Koteshwar Mahadev at Kumarsain, Siphin at Mashobra, Devta Palthan at Sholi, Devta Nag at Naldehra are some of the other sacred groves in the district (Vasan and Kumar, 2009; Narta et al., 2012; Thaplyal and Verma, 2015).
10.2.8 SACRED GROVES IN KINNAUR DISTRICT
In Kinnaur, the practice of maintaining sacred groves has been a common practice. The people in the region follow Hinduism and Buddhism in the District. At Sungra, Bhaba and Chagaon there are big groves of Maheshuras while at Kothi and Ropa, the sacred grove have been dedicated to Goddess Chandika. Some of the deities are believed to be the owners of the alpine pastures located above the villages and any outside grazier wishing to graze his herds in these lands is required to seek permission from the deity for doing so; more often a goat/sheep is sacrificed to appease the presiding deity. The amount so required to be paid to the deity is called ‘Dev Kar’. Nag Devta is the prominent deity of the region and their temples at Brua, Sapni and Sangla have representative sacred groves. Other prominent sacred groves are under the ownership of the deity of Badrinath at Kamru and Devi Mathi of Chitkul, who besides these also have ownership to vast alpine pastures. The sacred grove of Chitkul Mata is now being maintained as a Medicinal Plant Conservation Area (MPCA) under a National Medicinal Plants Board (NMPB) project, of HFRI Shimla. The Buddhist people revere sacred grove at Kaalchakra Gompa in Rekong Peo which has many old C. deodara trees.
The part of Kinnaur District comes under Cold desert region so the groves in some parts of the state has one or few trees like the evergreen juniper tree (Juniperus polycarpos) growing near Nako Lake.
10.2.9 SACRED GROVES IN MANDI DISTRICT
Sacred groves in Mandi district are primarily dominated by deciduous trees and the vegetation in the valley area is sub-tropical and tends to be temperate on the hill tops. The sacred grove associated with Hurang Narayan of Chuhar Valley is one of the important groves in the district. Hurang Narayan is respected as the most revered god of this valley and its village grove is thick forest around the village. People are not allowed to cut wood from this forest for their use and no one can enter the forest with sharp arms. Smoking too is prohibited in the village and no one can enter this village with any tobacco product and also with leather materials. People here have been following these rules from time immemorial and no one has the courage to break these rules. Other sacred groves in Chohar Valley include Pashakot, Saila Devta, Phungani Devi and Hurang Narayan Ki Dadi (Grandmother of Hurang Narayan). Dhumavati (The goddess of smoke in Mandi), Devi Mandasan (Devi Dhar in Mandi), Tunga Bhagwati Uttttarsal (Mandi), Jawalapur Shor (Mandi), Margo Mahadev at Chattri (Mandi), Kamru Nag (Mandi), Baglamukhi (Seraj Mandi) are some of the other important sacred grove in the District.
10.2.10 SACRED GROVES IN OTHER DISTRICTS OF HIMACHAL PRADESH
Sacred groves are also reported from Lahaul & Spiti District which is a cold desert area in the state. Since there is sparse tree cover in the cold desert area sacred groves mostly have one or few trees or alpine pasture with no tree cover. There is an aged twisted poplar (Populus ciliata) of Tabo Gompa in Spiti sub-division of Lahaul & Spiti district which is sacred to the Buddhist people (Anonymous, 2012).
In Chamba District also sacred groves are maintained by village Gods and Khajji Nag grove at Khajjiyar and Mani Mahesh grove at Bharmaur are the important sacred groves in the District. The vegetation is mostly subtropical forests in other Districts so C. deodara is not found in these places instead Ficus religiosa, Aegle marmelos and F. benghalesis are recorded in the sacred groves. Most of the temples have a tree or bush within its boundary, considered sacred: the trees normally are Ficus religiosa, F. bengalen- sis, F. racemosa, Nyctanthes arbor-tristis, Mangifera indica, Bombax ceiba, Cassia fistula, Ziziphus mauritiana and Populus ciliata.
In Kangra Gods and Goddesses have mango groves in the valley and C. deodara and other pines in the Dhauladhar range. In Bilaspur, Una and Hamirpur, Mango and bamboo groves are associated with the local deities. In Nurpur area, five sacred groves namely Brij Raj Swami Temple, Divkeshwar Mahadev, Kotewali Mata, Panjaser, Kripa Ram Brahamachari Ashram Sukhar were documented for plant diversity. The result of this study showed that local people still depend on medicinal plants and these plants play crucial role in primary health care system (Sharma et al., 2014a). Ethnobotanical study was carried out in Sada Shiv sacred grove, located in Shivalik ranges of district Kangra, Himachal Pradesh (Sharma et al., 2014b). During the studies on Shivbari sacred grove in Una district, it was found that this 25 ha sacred area harbors almost 2% of the flora of Himachal, including 23 plant species having high market demand (Jaryan et al., 2010).
10.2.11 TRADITIONAL TEMPLE MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE
The sacred groves and traditional Temples in Himachal Pradesh are mostly managed by a temple committee to look after day to-day activities and general maintenance. The members of committee are different in each village and the number of committee members may vary depending upon the need.
The committee consists of 3-10 members, i.e., priest, manager, treasurer, musicians, gurs (mediator between deity and local people). Separate duties are assigned to each of the committee member. They have to seek the prior permission from the local deity before taking any important decision. The temple committee has the following office bearers in most of the villages and they are described as:
Kardar (Manager) is considered as the head of the institution of Devta and plays a key role in the overall management of the whole system. He holds the keys of the temple and maintains cash accounts by keeping track of returns due from the Devta lands scattered in different locations throughout the village. He is also perceived as a sort of village headman and generally attends all important meetings.
Pujari (Priest) performs prayers to the deities and maintains the sacred fire, also offers prayers during local fairs.
Gur (Oracle) is the medium of the Devta. The Devta “enters” the Gur and communicates with the village people. The responsibility of invoking and representing the Devta has remained a hereditary feature with the privilege passing from one generation of Gur to the other. It could be immediate family or a blood relation. A hereditary Gur exists in the villages but in many instances may not be present due to various reasons.
Bhandari (Storekeeper) assist the Pujari in various ways by helping in preparation of sandalwood paste, arrangement of transport of Devta goods and maintenance of the sacred fire.
Chhatadi (informer) informs the whole village of dates of religious functions and of meeting for conflict resolution.
The Pujari and Gur are powerful figures in the village society due largely to the fact that they possess a virtual monopoly in interpreting “the will of God”- a vital consideration to a local community, particularly when a dispute of any kind has arisen. The Gur at certain ceremonies goes into a state of possession in which he becomes the vehicle of communication between the god and the villager. Men of the most powerful households within the village often hold the positions on the deity committee. Thus there are serious issues of the lack of gender and caste equity in these institutions. However, in the current situation the decision of this committee on the management of the deity affairs, including the management of deovans, are generally accepted and endorsed by the entire community. The temple committee members do not hold any political post. The village committee is responsible for coordinating all religious and social functions in the village.
Although women have free access to almost all the sacred groves but their role in decision making is insignificant. The ownership of some sacred groves is under village and temple committees while ownership some groves are with the state forest department. The temple committee in each village is responsible for maintenance and protection of the sacred groves. If temple land is encroached, the committee will decide about the penalty and the decision of the temple committee is final. In each sacred grove there is a separate temple committee to look after the upkeep and maintenance of sacred groves. The involvement of the temple committee members and its efficiency in protection and maintenance of sacred grove is different in each sacred grove.
In most of the sacred groves, people are allowed to harvest timber for maintenance and upkeep of temple while in some groves no biomass harvesting including the collection of dead and dried materials is allowed. People generally don’t collect fodder from the sacred groves however, in some of the sacred groves such as Khakhnal, Pichhla Gramag and Jana grazing is allowed. Fuel-wood especially dried materials are allowed to be removed from Prini sacred grove whereas it is not allowed in all the sacred groves.
10.2.12 STATUS OF SACRED NATURAL SITES IN UTTARAKHAND
There have been several studies on sacred groves in India. However, studies on this aspect in Uttarakhand are meager. Sinha and Maikhuri (1998) have described the sacred grove, Hariyali Devi in Chamoli district and Rawal and Dhar (2001) have described the Chiplakedar sacred grove in Askot Wild life Sanctuary, Pithoragarh district, Uttarakhand. There are some well known sacred groves in the state which truly represent the wealth of religion based conservation traditions, for example, Binsar, Tarkeshwar, Tapovan, Nagdev, Goldev, Mayavati, Kot, Nandisain, Paabo, Dewal and Chapdon. Sacred groves in Uttarakhand are many in number (may be more than 1000) with every village or a group of villagers having its own deity, often surrounded by a forest patch considered as sacred. But in recent years the studies on the sacred groves and their role in conservation of biodiversity has been initiated by several workers (Negi, 2010; Bisht and Ghildiyal, 2007; Ghildiyal et al., 2008; Anthwal et al., 2006; Singh et al., 2013; Pala et al., 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016; Rawat et al., 2011; Gokhale et al., 2011; Gokhale and Pala, 2011; Singh et al., 2013). Negi (2010) has reported 168 Sacred Natural Sites across Uttarakhand including groves, forests, and meadows. Gokhale and Pala (2011) also reported ecosystem services from 132 SNS from Uttarakhand.
Singh et al. (2013) have carried out the inventory and phytodiversity of Patal Bhuvneshwar sacred grove conserved by Rawal, Bhandari and Guro local communities from Kumaon Himalaya. This grove provide excellent micro-climatic habitat for the luxuriant growth of flowering and non-flowering taxa and covered by dense forest of Cedrus deodara. Total 65 species under 61 genera and 47 families of both flowering and nonflowering plants were recorded. In this sacred grove, lichens are represented by 13 species, bryophytes (8 species), pteridophyte (7 species) and gymnosperm (1 species). 43 species belonging to 38 genera and 28 families are ethnobotanically used by local communities for various purposes. Negi (2012) carried out a detailed study of SNS along with the phenomenon of dedication of forests to a deity and the inherent taboos with regard to resource exploitation and other traditional beliefs and customs being practiced in the central Himalaya and attempts to bring out the inherent environmental principles behind these practices. Rawat (2014) has worked on sacred grove in rejuvenating the microclimate, at the temple forest of Nagdev area of Pauri Garhwal in Uttarakhand Himalaya. The results of Rawat (2014) showed marked variations in the range of daily observations of all the microclimatic parameters of both sites. Relative humidity values both at morning and evening hours have clear differences, similarly, maximum and minimum temperatures have also shown remarkable differences, particularly lower range of minimum temperature at control site was -7.1°C, whereas it was -2.8°C in the temple forest. Negi (2010) attempted to render forth the salient aspect of conservation borne out of the taboo system in practice surrounding the sacred natural sites, principally the sacred forests, in the state of Uttarakhand, central Himalaya. The study brings forth the fact that although the potential of traditional natural resources management for biodiversity conservation vis-a-vis the institution of taboo within the state remains enormous, the sustainability of these practices however is seriously threatened. Gokhale et al. (2011) described Haryali Devi sacred grove and its biodiversity status. Gokhale and Pala (2011) have also reported status of ecosystem services from more than 100 sacred natural sites of Uttarakhand. Pala et al. (2012, 2013, 2014, 2015) have worked on several sacred groves of Uttarakhand and described their ecological status, carbon stock potential, ecosystem services and medicinal plant conservation potential. However, at present large numbers of community conserved areas (e.g., Van Panchayats) are facing threats of deforestation and degradation due to population pressure. These increasing threats have forced local inhabitants to offer these Van Panchayats to their deities and to convert them to sacred sites which are rich in floral and faunal wealth. This kind of conservation practice is followed in most parts of Kumaun hills of Uttarakhand where hundreds of Van Panchayats have been dedicated to deities like Kotgari Devi and Maa Kali in Pithoragarh and Bageshwar districts. These kinds of offered Van Panchayats to deities are also known as protected groves. This method of protection seems to be more effective in the area. The management and distribution of the resources in this case is much more acceptable to the local people.
10.2.13 VAN PANCHAYATS AS SACRED AND PROTECTED GROVES
The active participation and involvement of local people either at community or individual level is essential towards conservation of the forest and other natural resources. The Van Panchayats represent one of the largest and most diverse experiments in devolved common property management ever developed. Ballabh and Singh (1988) conducted a survey of Van Panchayats of Uttarakhand hills and suggested that non-governmental organizations could play an important role in helping both forest resource users and forest department in involving and implementing system of Joint Forest Management (JFM). Chauhan et al. (2002) have conducted a study of ten forest Panchayats in Chamoli districts of Garhwal Himalaya and found that some were having good management, high growing stock, high biodiversity and low degradation, while others were exactly the opposite in characters. However, the distribution of the Van Panchayats across Uttarakhand is mostly in interior areas which are inaccessible and government agencies do not have much of labor and capital to look after these Van Panchayats. These limiting factors have forced local inhabitants to offer these Van Panchayats to their deities (gods and goddesses) for protection purpose. This kind of conservation practice has been followed in Pithoragarh and Bageshwar districts of Kumaun for past several decades as a traditional conservation practice and has recently also been applied in some parts of Garhwal Himalaya. These kinds of groves/forests are also protected now on religious belief by different communities and are held sacred.
10.2.14 TYPOLOGY OF SNS
The SNS in Uttarakhand can be typically classified based on the type of the ecosystems and the area occupied by the site. Based on the type of the ecosystems the main categories of the SNS are forest, alpine meadows, wetlands (streambeds and riverbeds and lakes, ponds) and Mountains (Table 10.2).
Forest ecosystem based SNS: The forest ecosystem is represented by single tree, smaller groves and patches of forests. These are reported from all over Uttarakhand. The single tree associated with temples and smaller groves are dotted all across the state and require special efforts to document. The forest patches are also conserved due to faith. In some of the districts such as Pithoragarh many Van Panchayats have offered their forests to the local deities.
Alpine meadows (Bugyals): The meadows above tree line, i.e., at the altitude of about 3000 m.s.l. are subjected to restricted use by the graziers due to religious faith associated with the landscapes. They are locally referred as Bugyal. There are about 82 Bugyals identified by Rawat (2005). There have been taboos traditionally followed by the local communities while visiting the sites.
TABLE 10.2 Showing ecosystem services from SNS of Uttarakhand (source; Gokliale and Paia, 2011)
Wetlands: The portions of streambeds and riverbeds are protected from fishing and these areas serve as the breeding pools for many species of fishes such as Mhaseer (Genus Tor). The sites are generally associated with deities such as Machhindranath or other deities. These sites are also locally referred as Machhiyal and where fishing is a taboo. The practice is known from the few places in Uttarakhand but could be available at many places which would deserve documentation. Similarly, lakes, temple ponds are also considered sacred and taboos are followed for the use of water and associated resources. Both the practices are restricted to specific localities. The river systems Ganga and Yamuna are the most sacred rivers originating in Uttarakhand and along with these rivers the tributaries are also considered as sacred.
Mountains: A number of mountains, all throughout the Himalayas, are considered sacred by mythologies of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and the indigenous Bon tradition of Tibet. Many of these mountain ranges occur in Uttarakhand such as Nanda Devi, Kailash, Om Parvat, etc. which are revered by not only the people of Uttarakhand but also by large population of the 5 religions spread all over South Asia.
About 132 SNS were surveyed (Gokhale and Pala, 2011) which include single tree sites, groves, forests, meadows and wetlands. The maximum surveyed SNS belong to Groves (42%) followed by Forests (36%), Meadows (18%), Water body (3%) and Water body and Grove (1%).
Out of 132 SNS surveyed maximum SNS sites are found with area up to one hectare. These are mainly the temple groves but there are also sites having area ranging between 5 ha to 250 ha. These SNS are mainly consist of sacred forests and the recently recognized sacred forests offered to the local deities (Devi pe chadhaye hue jungle). The alpine meadows also have larger areas above 100 ha and a maximum of 1500 ha documented in this study.
10.2.15 SACRED NATURAL SITES IN JAMMU & KASHMIR
Sacred groves are present all over Jammu and Kashmir, managed by religious bodies or management committees. Mata Vaishno Devi, the Jasrota Mata, the Mansar Lake, the Shankaracharya temple, etc. are some of the important sacred sites in the state. Sacred groves are locally known as Banis. Baba Roachi Ram, Bua Sjawati ji, Bua Dati ji, Lord Hanuman, Mata Vaishno Devi, Peer Baba and Raja Mandlik ji are some of the deities to whom these sacred groves are dedicated. Kumar et al. (2011) documented a total of 256 plants (angiosperms and gymnosperms) from 60 families and 229 genera from the Shankaracharya sacred grove in Srinagar. Kour and Sharma (2014) reported 15 sacred groves in Vijaypur Block, Samba and documented 28 tree species belonging to 17 families. Ficus religiosa, Eucalyptus citriodora, Morus alba, Syzygium cumini, Mangifera indica, Bombax ceiba, Psidium guajava, Cordia dichotoma and Butea monosperma are some of the tree species recorded in the sacred groves. Gupta and Sharma (2013) assessed the role of sacred groves in phytodiversity conservation in sacred groves of Rajouri. Gupta and Sharma (2014) assessed the carbon sequestration potential of 53 tree species growing in 40 sacred groves in Rajouri Tehsil, Jammu. They reported that Olea ferruginea and Pinus roxburghii sequester more carbon than other tree species in the sacred groves. Rani and Kachhawa (2015) reported nine sacred groves in Poonch District. Anthropogenic disturbances to sacred groves in Jammu have been reported by Priya and Sharma (2014). Plant diversity in 16 sacred groves of Bhalwal block of Jammu District was studied by Sharma and Devi (2014).
10.2.16 ROLE OF LOCAL TRADITIONS IN CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Apart from conserving Sacred Natural Sites based on rituals, taboos and cultural beliefs the traditional communities in the region follow various traditional practices which help in conservation and sustainable utilization of natural resources including medicinal plants.
There are certain alpine meadows (Asarang in Kinnaur District, Himachal Pradesh and Hya-Roshe Bugyal near Napalchhu and Putuk-tu bugyal near the village of Kuti in Vyas Valley in Uttarakhand) where grazing is not allowed (Negi, 2010). Another traditional practice is followed by the inhabitants in Sangla Valley, Himachal Pradesh and Nanda Devi, Uttarakhand where the sacred flower Brahmakamal (Saussurea obvallata) is allowed to be harvested from the alpine pasture by the people who are delegated by the God after performing prayers to the resident deity upon reaching the meadow during September/October which coincides with the seed setting in the species. The plant holds immense sacred value in the region. Being regarded as a spiritual flower, it is offered to Lord Vishnu at Badrinath shrine and Lord Shiva at Kedarnath shrine. In September/October, during the festival of Nanda Ashtami, Brahma Kamal is offered in temples and also distributed as ‘Prasada’ (Negi, 2010; Pant and Semwal, 2013). One of the other traditional harvesting strategy for medicinal plants is that the people will maintain enough propagates for regeneration of the medicinal plants and sometimes they follow rotational harvesting of medicinal plants from the area. The people in Tino village, Lahaul Valley don’t allow harvesting of medicinal plants from the alpine pasture above the village based on cultural beliefs, if medicinal plant is harvested the devta will get angry and avalanches, sliding mountain debris and other natural calamities will destroy the village.
10.2.17 THREATS TO SACRED GROVES AND OTHER TRADITIONAL CONSERVATION PRACTICES
The religious beliefs and social values of the inhabitants in the region are getting changed due to modernization, urbanization and loss of faith in traditions and culture, changing occupational and resource use patterns at village level, migrations for better livelihood opportunities and expansion of the market economy. Sometime the resources of the sacred groves are used with religious justification. Timber from some of the sacred grove is used to construct temples or for maintenance of existing temple structures and a number of trees have been removed under the pretext of their use for divine purpose. The fragmentation and perforation by roadways, extension of power lines or reclaimed land for Horticulture result in loss of species and disruption in ecological balance Owing to the loss of faith, sacred groves have been destroyed for developmental purposes such as constructing school buildings and other buildings and roads. Similarly some of the Sacred Natural Sites are found degrading due to inevitable factors like animal grazing and other anthropogenic pressures. Increased movement of tourists and other people has affected the natural regeneration of the plants and increase the soil compaction. The invasion of exotic weeds such as Ageratum conyzoides, Ageratina adenophora, Bidens pilosa, Catharanthus pusillus, Chenopodium album, Eichhornia crassipes, Impatiens balsamina, Lantana camara, etc., is a serious threat to native plant species in some of the sacred groves.
With rapid and continued decline, there is an urgent need to inventorize, document the plant diversity and work out location specific management strategies for the rejuvenation and conservation of sacred groves through participation of local people.
10.2.18 CONSERVATION MEASURES
The loss of faith in traditional values has to be restored, young generation needs to be made aware about the importance of sacred groves and modern education system should inculcate respect for local traditions. The village people should be made aware that the apple orchard establishment in sacred groves cannot be a substitute for traditional heritage. To conserve and protect the sacred groves government should declare sacred grove as heritage/ reserve site preventing entry except for worship, and declare a total ban on the exploitation of its natural wealth. It is suggested that a ban on further tree felling should be made in the sacred grove. For the management and restoration of sacred groves financial support from government and institutional and managerial support is needed. There is a need to develop management plan for all the sacred groves. Proper legislative support and specific policies should be provided. The temple committee should be assigned with responsibility of implementing laws in effective manner. Encroachment of sacred grove should be avoided. Physical protection to sacred groves by fencing is essential in all the sacred groves. The State Forest Department with the participation of temple committee and local people must initiate restoration/ rejuvenation works in degraded sacred groves and adequate financial support should be provided by the government for the same.
KEYWORDS
- Conservation
- ethnoconservation
- sacred natural sites
- Himachal Pradesh
- sacred groves
- north-western Himalaya
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