Chapter 1
The epigraph is a Tang Dynasty inscription, hanging in calligraphic form on the wall of Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong’s office at the Istana in Singapore.
1. See United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division, “File 2: Percentage of Population at Mid-Year Residing in Urban Areas by Major Area, Region and Country, 1950–2050,” World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision (June 2014).
2. See, for example, Evelyn Huber and John D. Stephens, Development and Crisis of the Welfare State: Parties and Policies in Global Markets (University of Chicago Press, 2001); Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman, Democracy and Welfare States: Latin America, East Asia, and Eastern Europe (Princeton University Press, 2008); and John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge, The Fourth Revolution: The Global Race to Reinvent the State (New York: Penguin Press, 2014).
3. See Raymond Vernon, Sovereignty at Bay: The Multinational Spread of U.S. Enterprises (New York: Basic Books, 1971), pp. v, 36; Daniel Yergin and Joseph Stanislaw, The Commanding Heights: The Battle for the World Economy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998); and Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition (Boston: Little, Brown, 1977).
4. See, for example, Rajan Menon, The End of Alliance (Oxford University Press, 2007).
5. On the deepening challenges confronting the Western welfare state and developing world skepticism of its relevance, see Micklethwait and Wooldridge, The Fourth Revolution, pp. 105–68.
6. On the concept of the virtual state, see Richard Rosecrance, The Rise of the Virtual State: Wealth and Power in the Coming Century (New York: Basic Books, 1999). In differentiating “virtual” and classic nation states, Rosecrance stresses political-military and geographic dimensions, rather than the cognitive and operational capabilities tapped through the “smart state” concept.
7. Micklethwait and Wooldridge, The Fourth Revolution, pp. 267–68.
8. Benjamin Barber, If Mayors Ruled the World: Dysfunctional Nations, Rising Cities (Yale University Press, 2013).
9. See United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division, “File 17b: Number of Cities Classified by Size Class of Urban Settlement, Major Area, Region and Country, 1950–2030,” “File 17d: Population in Cities Classified by Size Class of Urban Settlement, Major Area, Region and Country, 1950–2030,” and “File 5: Total Population at Mid-Year by Major Area, Region and Country, 1950–2050,” World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision (June 2014).
10. Ezra F. Vogel, Japan as Number One: Lessons for America (Harvard University Press, 1979).
11. For Singapore’s rankings over the years, see World Bank, Doing Business (www.doingbusiness.org/).
12. The “Basic Requirements Index” covers four factors: institutions, infrastructure, macroeconomic environment, and health/primary education. Singapore was bested by Switzerland, home of the World Economic Forum, owing to its relatively weak performance in “innovation and sophistication factors,” where it placed only 11th, compared with Switzerland at 1st. See World Economic Forum, The Global Competitiveness Report 2015–2016, pp. 320–21.
13. Ibid.
14. Starting a business in Singapore requires only three procedures, takes just 2.5 days, and costs only 0.6 percent of the average annual income of the founder. See World Bank, “Economy Profile: Singapore,” Doing Business 2016: Singapore.
15. On the Global Competitive Index 2015–16, Singapore ranked first in the “efficiency of legal frameworks in settling disputes” category. See World Economic Forum, The Global Competitiveness Report 2015–2016. Similarly, Singapore ranked first in “economic globalization” for 2013 on the KOF Index of Globalization (March 4, 2016, version).
16. Singapore declined from number 5 in 2013 to number 7 in 2014, and then to number 8 in 2015 on Transparency International’s global corruption perception index. Transparency International, Corruption Perception Index 2015.
17. See Jack Neff, “From Cincy to Singapore: Why P&G, Others Are Moving Key HQs,” Advertising Age, June 11, 2012; and Colum Murphy, “GM to Move International Headquarters to Singapore from Shanghai,” Wall Street Journal, November 13, 2013.
18. Alys Francis, “Digital Globalization: How MNCs Must Reinvent to Tap Asia’s Growth Story,” Future Ready Singapore, June 26, 2016.
19. Singapore Ministry of Manpower, “Living in Singapore: Key Information for Expatriates Living or Relocating to Singapore,” last updated May 7, 2015.
20. World Economic Forum, The Financial Development Report 2012, p. 250.
21. World Bank, “GDP at Market Prices” (current US$), World Development Indicators (2014).
22. World Bank, “GDP per Capita” (current US$), World Development Indicators (2014).
23. Focus Economics, “Singapore Economic Outlook,” June 21, 2016 (www.focus-economics.com/).
24. Figures for fourth quarter 2015 (external debt) and December 2015 (foreign-exchange reserves). On foreign-exchange reserves, see International Monetary Fund, “Data Template on International Reserves” (www.imf.org/external/np/sta/ir); on gross external debt position, see World Bank, “Quarterly External Debt Statistics” (data.world bank.org/data-catalog/quarterly-external-debt-statistics…).
25. The Genome Institute of Singapore (GIS), rather than Temasek, is technically Singapore’s sovereign wealth fund. Temasek, however, is owned by the Ministry of Finance and is commonly referred to as a sovereign wealth fund (SWF) by foreigners. Temasek received a perfect score of 10 for the quality of its operations from the Sovereign Wealth Fund Institute, together with seven other funds. See Sovereign Wealth Fund Institute, Linaburg-Maduell Transparency Index, First Quarter, 2016.
26. According to the Heritage Foundation’s 2016 Index of Economic Freedom, Singapore is the second freest economy in the world, in large measure because of its low tax rate (www.heritage.org/index/ranking). For more details on Singapore’s taxation regime, see Inland Revenue Authority of Singapore, www.iras.gov.sg/irashome/default.aspx.
27. Top rates for personal income taxes are rising in 2017 to 22 percent. PriceWaterhouseCoopers, “Singapore: Individual- Taxes on Personal Income,” Tax summaries, last updated December 17, 2015.
28. The United States, by comparison, ranked only 39th from the lowest with respect to unemployment rates in 2014. See World Bank, “Unemployment, Total (% of Total Labor Force) (National Estimate),” World Development Indicators (2014). Data were only available for 85 countries and regions.
29. This rating was by expatriates living in Asia. See Singapore Ministry of Health, “Overview of Our Healthcare System,” 2003 (www.moh.gov.sg/content/moh_web/moh_corp_mobile/home/our_healthcare_system/overviewhealthcaresystem.html).
30. World Health Organization (WHO), The World Health Report 2000—Health Systems: Improving Performance (2000), p. 200.
31. WHO, World Health Statistics 2010, p. 55.
32. Singapore offers the world’s fourth best health care infrastructure and enjoys the world’s seventh highest overall life expectancy. Data drawn from World Competitiveness Yearbook 2010 cited in Singapore Economic Development Board, “Healthcare-World Class Healthcare Hub” (www.edb.gov.sg/content/edb/en/industries/industries/healthcare.html.)
33. Indeed, compared with 65 economies in 2012, Singapore ranked second in mathematics, third in reading, and third in science. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), “PISA 2012 Results in Focus” (www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa-2012-results-overview.pdf).
34. NUS ranked 26th globally, ahead of Beijing University (42nd) and the University of Tokyo (43rd). See Times Higher Education’s “World University Rankings 2015–2016” (www.timeshighereducation.com).
35. Nanyang and NUS ranked 29th and 32nd, respectively, in this area in 2016. See “Global MBA Rankings 2016,” Financial Times (http://rankings.ft.com/businessschoolrankings/global-mba-ranking-2016); “Executive MBA Rankings 2015,” Financial Times (http://rankings.ft.com/businessschoolrankings/emba-ranking-2015).
36. Times Higher Education, “150 under 50 Rankings 2016” (www.timeshighereducation.com).
37. World Bank, “Internet Users (per 100 people),” World Development Indicators (2014).
38. World Economic Forum, The Global Information and Technology Report 2015, p. 9.
39. More than a quarter of Singaporeans shop online at least once a week. See “Singaporeans Are Southeast Asia’s Top Online Shoppers: Visa Survey” (www.visa.com).
40. Changi Airport recently won the Skytrax award as the world’s best airport for 2016. See www.changiairport.com/our-business/awards.
41. On “Best Seaport in Asia,” see “Singapore Named Best Seaport in Asia for 28th Time,” Channel NewsAsia, June 15, 2016; on rankings in terms of tonnage, see World Shipping Council (www.worldshipping.org).
42. For details, see Singapore Airlines, www.singaporeair.com.
43. Anshuman Daga and Kevin Lim, “Singapore Casinos Trump Macau with Tourism Aces,” Reuters, September 23, 2013.
44. World Economic Forum, The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2015, p. 5.
45. Melissa Yeo, “10 Famous Celebrities You Won’t Believe Emigrated to Singapore,” Must Share News, January 16, 2015.
46. Liz Neisloss, “Why Is Facebook Co-founder Now in Singapore?,” CNN, May 17, 2012; and David Yin, “Singapore Needs Immigrants, Says Jim Rogers,” Forbes, June 6, 2013.
47. In 2015 Singapore had a total population of 5.5 million, of which nearly 3.4 million were citizens and 2.1 million were foreigners, including around 530,000 permanent residents and 1.6 million nonresidents. See Department of Statistics–Singapore, Population in Brief 2015, September 2015, p. 4.
48. Brenda Yeoh and Weiqiang Lin, “Rapid Growth in Singapore’s Immigrant Population Brings Policy Challenges” (Migration Policy Institute, April 3, 2012); and Department of Statistics–Singapore, Population in Brief 2015, p. 6.
49. Singapore was followed in Asia by four Japanese cities, all tied for 32nd globally: Tokyo, Kobe, Yokohama, and Osaka. See Mercer’s “2016 Quality of Living Worldwide City Rankings” (London, 2016).
50. World Bank, “Population Density (People per Sq Km of Land Area),” World Development Indicators (2015).
51. Anita Pugliese and Julie Ray, “Air Quality Rated Better than Water Quality Worldwide,” Gallup World, May 14, 2012 (www.gallup.com/poll/154646/air-quality-rated-better-water-quality-worldwide.aspx).
52. Institute for Management Development (IMD), IMD World Competitiveness Yearbook 2013 (Lausanne, Switzerland: IMD World Competitiveness Center, 2013).
53. Foreign domestic workers, for example, are excluded from the Employment Act and many key labor protections, such as limits on daily working hours. See Human Rights Watch, “World Report 2015: Singapore” (www.hrw.org).
54. World Bank, “Fertility Rate, Total (Births per Woman),” World Development Indicators (2014).
55. The Political and Economic Risk Consultancy ranked Singapore as having the least corrupt bureaucracy in Asia in 2016. See “Annual Review of Corruption in Asia, 2016” (www.asiarisk.com).
56. World Economic Forum, Global Competitiveness Report 2015–2016.
57. Transparency International, Corruption Perception Index 2015. Singapore was ranked number 8 in 2015.
58. In 1999–2000 Singapore was rated “partly free” by Freedom House, with a freedom rating of 5.0, a civil liberties rating of 5.0, and a political rights rating of 5.0, on a 1–7 scale, with 1 as best. By 2016 its rating in each category had improved to only 4.0. See Freedom House, Freedom in the World—Singapore (2016) (www.freedomhouse.org).
59. On Singapore’s freedom-of-the-press ranking, see Freedom House, Freedom of the Press 2015 (http://freedomhouse.org).
60. Amnesty International, “Singapore: Drop ‘Strike’-Related Charges against Chinese Migrant Bus Drivers,” February 7, 2013; and Human Rights Watch, “World Report 2015: Singapore” (www.hrw.org).
61. Department of Statistics–Singapore, Yearbook of Statistics Singapore, various editions.
62. Yeoh and Lin, “Rapid Growth in Singapore’s Immigrant Population Brings Policy Challenges.” The employers of guest workers are, however, typically required to insure their workers against major calamities, since the workers are not eligible for most local social services.
63. See, for example, Jake Maxwell, “Singapore Election to Test Immigration,” Wall Street Journal, September 3, 2011.
64. Economist Intelligence Unit, Worldwide Cost of Living Survey, March 10, 2016.
65. For the Gini coefficient time series, see, for example, Department of Statistics–Singapore, Key Household Income Trend, for 2008, 2010, and 2013. The most recent version of the series was revised “to incorporate improved coverage of Government taxes and transfers,” although the exact meaning of that expression remains unclear.
66. U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964–1968, vol. 26, “Indonesia; Malaysia-Singapore; Philippines” (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2000).
67. “Why China’s President Didn’t Visit Singapore,” The Independent (London), October 12, 2013.
68. Chinese Culture Forum, Chronicle of PRC 1978 (http://chineseculture.about.com/library/china/history/blsyear1978.htm).
69. Ezra F. Vogel, Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China (Harvard University Press, 2011), pp. 287–91. Deng also met with Lee in 1980, 1985, and 1988.
70. Clarissa Oon, “The Dragon and the Little Red Dot: 20th Anniversary of China-Singapore Diplomatic Ties,” The Straits Times, October 2, 2010.
71. Vogel, Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China, p. 291.
72. Ibid., p. 673.
73. Singapore Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “MFA Press Statement: Official Visit of His Excellency Xi Jinping, Vice President of the People’s Republic of China to Singapore, November 14–16, 2010,” and “MFA Press Statement: State Visit to Singapore by His Excellency Xi Jinping, President of the People’s Republic of China, November 6–7, 2015” (both at www.mfa.gov.sg).
74. “Singapore and Russia Sign MOU to Increase Economic Cooperation,” Business Wire India, June 26, 2014.
75. Changi Airports International (www.cai.sg/portfolio.htm). PSA International, a Singapore government–linked company wholly owned by Temasek, manages at least 28 ports, mainly container facilities, in 15 countries on four continents. See PSA International (www.globalpsa.com). An affiliate, PSA Marine, provides pilotage and towage services within the ports that PSA International manages.
76. Edwin Musoni, “President Kagame Calls for Increased Efforts to Development,” The New Times (Rwanda), January 14, 2013.
Chapter 2
1. See, for example, Lindsay Davis, ed., The Wit and Wisdom of Lee Kuan Yew (Singapore: Editions Didier Millet Pte., 2013); Alex Josey, Lee Kuan Yew: The Critical Years, 1971–1978 (Singapore: Times Books International, 1980); Alex Josey, Lee Kuan Yew: The Crucial Years (Singapore: Times Books International, 1980); and Peng Er Lam and Kevin Y. L. Tan, Lee’s Lieutenants: Singapore’s Old Guard (St. Leonards: Allen and Unwin, 1999).
2. For organizational structure, see John S. T. Quah, Public Administration Singapore-Style (Bingley: Emerald Group, 2010). For social coalitions and civil society, see Kent E. Calder and Roy Hofheinz Jr., The Eastasia Edge (New York: Basic Books, 1982), pp. 68–83.
3. Milton Friedman, while more concerned with Hong Kong, did speak of Singapore in his Free to Choose PBS series, noting that “economic freedom is a very important part of total freedom.” On his comments, see Jim Zarroli, “How Singapore Became One of the Richest Places on Earth,” National Public Radio, March 29, 2015.
4. Michael D. Barr and Zlatko Skrbis, Constructing Singapore: Elitism, Ethnicity, and the Nation-Building Project (Copenhagen: NIAS Press, 2008).
5. On the IoT, see Hakima Chaouchi, The Internet of Things (London: Wiley-ISTE, 2010); and Philip Howard, Pax Technica: Will the Internet of Things Lock Us Up or Set Us Free? (Yale University Press, 2015).
6. According to Michael Leifer, Singapore’s Foreign Policy: Coping with Vulnerability (London: Routledge, 2000), p. 14, Venice is an appropriate geohistorical comparison for two main reasons: (a) Venice was simultaneously a great maritime trading center and a locus of major business enterprise; and (b) just as Venice served as the dynamic center of Europe during the Renaissance, Singapore has potential as a city of the future within Southeast Asia today.
7. In 2015 the total number of non-citizens living in Singapore was around 2.1 million. Of this community roughly 1.4 million were guest workers, 527,000 were permanent residents, and others were dependents. See Department of Statistics–Singapore, “Latest Data” (www.singstat.gov.sg).
8. Ibid.
9. World Bank, World Development Indicators (2014). Figures are for intertemporal comparisons calculated in terms of constant 2011 purchasing power parity.
10. See Cecilia Tortajada and Kimberly Pobre, “The Singapore-Malaysia Water Relationship: An Analysis of Media Perspectives,” Hydrological Sciences Journal 56, no. 4 (2011): 611–13.
11. Prime Minister’s Office Singapore, National Population and Talent Division, “Our Population Our Future: Issues Paper July, 2012,” p. 31 (www.nptd.gov.sg).
12. Total employment grew by 32,300, while foreign employment grew by 22,600 (excluding foreign domestic workers). See Manpower Research and Statistics Department, “Labour Market 2015” (Singapore Ministry of Manpower: March 2016), pp. vii, 9 (www.mom.gov.sg).
13. Department of Statistics–Singapore, “Population Trends 2015,” Key Demographic Indicators, 1970–2015 (www.singstat.gov.sg).
14. Prime Minister’s Office Singapore, “Speech by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong at the Singapore Manufacturers’ Federation 80th Anniversary Dinner, September 2012.”
15. Ministry of Trade and Industry—Singapore, “Challenge for Our Human Capital in the New Economy,” Economic Review Committee Report (December 1, 2010), p. 14.
16. U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), “World Oil Transit Chokepoints” (www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/).
17. In 2014 there were 79,344 transits through the Strait of Malacca. See Marcus Hand, “Malacca Strait Traffic Hits an All-time High in 2014,” Seatrade Maritime News, February 27, 2015.
18. In 2013 around 15.2 million barrels of oil a day flowed through the Strait of Malacca, compared with 56.5 million barrels a day in global maritime oil trade. See U.S. Energy Information Administration, “World Oil Transit Chokepoints.” In addition, 525 million metric tons of commerce worth around $390 billion pass through the Strait of Malacca. See Joshua Ho, “The Security of Sea Lanes in Southeast Asia,” Asian Survey 46 (July–August 2006). On the challenge of terrorism, see Jeanette Tan, “S’pore Still a Target for Terrorism: PM Lee,” Yahoo Newsroom, March 26, 2013.
19. World Bank, World Development Indicators (2015).
20. International Monetary Fund, “Official Reserve Assets and Other Foreign Currency Assets (Approximate Market Value),” Data Template on International Reserves and Foreign Currency Liquidity (IRFCL) (December 2015).
21. Singapore merchandise trade was 221.1 percent of GDP in 2015. World Bank, World Development Indicators (2015).
22. Ibid.
23. Between the Lehman crisis and September 2010, for example, the Singapore dollar appreciated more than 20 percent against its U.S. counterpart. Monetary Authority of Singapore, “Recent Development in the Singapore Economy,” Macroeconomic Review (October 2010) (www.mas.gov.sg/monetary-policy-and-economics/monetary-policy/macroeconomic-review.aspx).
24. “Worldwide Cost of Living Survey,” The Economist, March 10, 2016. Data from September 2015.
25. Saeed Azhar and Michael Flaherty, “Exclusive: Singapore’s Temasek: Evolution, Not Revolution,” Reuters, March 27, 2012.
26. Costa Paris and P. R. Venkat, “Singapore’s GIC Suffers $41.6 Billion Loss,” Wall Street Journal, September 30, 2009.
27. Internet Telecommunications Union, “The World in 2015,” ICT Facts and Figures 2015 (www.itu.int/en/ITU-C/Statistics/Documents/facts/ICTFFactsFigures2015.pdf).
28. See, for example, Leonard Binder and others, Crises and Sequences in Political Development (Princeton University Press, 1971); Raymond Grew, ed., Crises of Political Development in Europe and the United States (Princeton University Press, 1978); John W. Kingdon, Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies (Boston: Little, Brown, 1984); and Kent E. Calder, Crisis and Compensation: Public Policy and Political Stability in Japan (Princeton University Press, 1988).
Chapter 3
1. On the concept of “critical juncture” and the importance of such fateful intervals for policy evolution, see Kent E. Calder, Crisis and Compensation (Princeton University Press, 1988), pp. 39–42; Kent E. Calder and Min Ye, The Making of Northeast Asia (Stanford University Press, 2010), pp. 45–46; and Kent E. Calder, The New Continentalism: Energy and Twenty-First Century Eurasian Geopolitics (Yale University Press, 2012), pp. 53–54.
2. Max Weber, Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology, edited by Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich, translated by Ephraim Fischoff and others (University of California Press, 1978).
3. George Stigler, “The Theory of Regulation,” Bell Journal of Economics and Management Science 3 (1971): 3–21.
4. Anthony Downs, Inside Bureaucracy (Boston: Little Brown, 1966).
5. Michel Crozier, The Bureaucratic Phenomenon (University of Chicago Press, 1964).
6. Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (Yale University Press, 1968).
7. Singapore unemployment, totaling 13.5 percent in 1959, was still 10 percent in 1965, and 4.5 percent even in 1973. See Lawrence B. Krause, The Singapore Economy Reconsidered (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1988), p. 5.
8. National Archives of Singapore, “Political Milestones,” 2008 (www.nas.gov.sg/1stcab/PanelPDF/Section%20120-%20Political%20Milestones%201.pdf).
9. On the details and Lee’s reaction, see Lee Kuan Yew, The Singapore Story, vol. 2 (Singapore: Singapore Press Holding, 1998), pp. 373–401.
10. Ashraf Ghani and Clare Lockhart, Fixing Failed States: A Framework for Rebuilding a Fractured World (Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 36.
11. Stephan Ortmann, Politics and Change in Singapore and Hong Kong: Containing Contention (New York: Routledge, 2010), p. 56.
12. Albert Lau, A Moment of Anguish: Singapore in Malaysia and the Politics of Dis-Engagement (Singapore: Times Academic Press, 1998); National Library Board, “PAP to Contest the 1964 Malaysian General Election,” March 1, 1964.
13. Vijayan P. Munusamy, “Ethnic Relations in Malaysia: The Need for ‘Constant Repair’ in the Spirit of Muhibbah,” in Handbook of Ethnic Conflict: International Perspectives, edited by Dan Landis and Rosita D. Albert (New York: Springer, 2012), p. 125.
14. Jamie Han, “Communal Riots of 1964,” Singapore Infopedia, Singapore National Library Board.
15. Michael Barr argues, for example, that Goh Keng Swee, minister of finance at the time, approached Lee Kuan Yew in the early summer of 1965 with a proposal to negotiate with the Malaysian leaders for Singapore’s secession, and that Lee had Goh negotiate in secret on this matter during July 1965. See Michael Barr, Lee Kuan Yew: The Beliefs behind the Man (Richmond: Curzon Press, 2000), pp. 79–80; as well as Sonny Yap, Richard Lim, and Leong Weng Kam, Men in White: The Untold Story of Singapore’s Ruling Political Party (Singapore: Singapore Press Holdings, 2009), pp. 297–98.
16. May 16, 1966, when the first programmatic document of the Cultural Revolution was issued by China’s Politburo, is said to be the formal onset of the Cultural Revolution, although related sociopolitical turbulence began the previous fall. See Guo Jian, Yongyi Song, and Yuan Zhou, Historical Dictionary of the Chinese Cultural Revolution (Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2006), p. xliv. Also, Roderick MacFarquhar, The Origins of the Cultural Revolution, vol. 3: The Coming of the Cataclysm (Columbia University Press, 1977).
17. On the concept of “critical juncture” and the importance of such fateful intervals for policy evolution, see Calder, Crisis and Compensation, pp. 39–42; and Calder and Ye, The Making of Northeast Asia, pp. 45–46.
18. On Lee’s philosophy, see his many classic autobiographical works, as well as Barr, Lee Kuan Yew: The Beliefs behind the Man; and Graham Allison and Robert D. Blackwill, with Ali Wyne, Lee Kuan Yew: The Grand Master’s Insights on China, the United States, and the World (MIT Press, 2013).
19. Yap, Lim, and Kam, Men in White, pp. 358–62.
20. The Peranakans are people of mixed Chinese and Malay/Indonesian heritage whose ancestors were overseas Chinese who emigrated from China between the 15th and 19th centuries and became highly assimilated thereafter into Malay society.
21. “Singapore World’s Busiest Port,” Manila Standard, May 17, 1987, retrieved from Google News.
22. PSA International, “PSA Container Throughput for 2012,” news release, January 11, 2013.
23. For timelines of Old Guard careers, see Lam Peng Er and Kevin Y. L. Tan, eds., Lee’s Lieutenants: Singapore’s Old Guard (Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1999); and Jenny Tien, “Goh Keng Swee,” “Toh Chin Chye,” “Lim Kim San,” and “S. Rajaratnam,” Singapore Infopedia, Singapore National Library Board.
24. Ezra F. Vogel, “A Little Dragon Tamed,” in Management of Success: The Molding of Modern Singapore, edited by Kernial Singh Sandhu and Paul Wheatley (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1989), p. 1035.
25. Ibid.
26. Jon S. T. Quah, Public Administration Singapore-Style (Singapore: Emerald Group, 2010), p. 5.
27. The People’s Association of Singapore is a statutory board established on July 1, 1960, to promote, develop, and connect the people of Singapore together into a community that is racially harmonious, socially cohesive, and composed of active citizens. See People’s Association, “About Us” (www.pa.gov.sg/about-us.html).
28. For details on ministerial configurations, see Singapore Government Directory (www.sgdi.gov.sg/).
29. “Statutory Boards,” Singapore Government Directory, last updated April 8, 2016 (www.gov.sg/sgdi/statutory-boards).
30. Singapore does have five individuals designated to perform representational functions in various parts of the city-state, who are technically known as chairs of Community Development Councils (CDCs), but who might broadly be considered mayors. The CDC system was established in 1997 to address social welfare and other community issues most appropriately addressed at the local level. CDC chairs are selected from among members of parliament, thus conflating local and national governmental functions. On the CDCs and the mayoral functions of their chairs, see www.cdc.org.s/office-of-the-Mayor.
31. Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong’s National Day Rally, “A Home with Hope and Heart,” August 2012 (www.pmo.gov.sg.)
32. On the rationale for statutory boards in Singapore, see Quah, Public Administration, pp. 46–48.
33. Department of Statistics–Singapore, Yearbook of Statistics Singapore 2015 (www.singstat.gov.sg). The percentage is calculated using total labor-force data provided by the World Bank. The Singapore government and the World Bank published different numbers for the total labor force in 2014. Cross-national public sector comparisons are presented in chapter 4.
34. Ibid.
35. Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong’s salary was reduced, with his own assent, in 2012, in deference to local political sentiment. Yet he still enjoys an income of over S$2 million—one of the highest chief-executive salaries in the world, and over four times that of U.S. president Barack Obama. See Lucy Hornby, “Xi Jinping’s Pay Far behind Global Peers Even after 62 Percent Rise,” Financial Times, January 20, 2015; as well as Amanda Macias and Mike Nudelman, “Here Are the Salaries of 13 Major World Leaders,” Business Insider, March 19, 2015.
36. Sukvinder-Singh Chapra, Singapore’s Civil Service (Astana: Astana Economic Forum, 2013) (http://2013.astanaforum.org/en/events/russian); and “Parliament,” The Straits Times, February 15, 2006, p. H-4. Over 10 percent of ministerial appointments and 16 percent of statutory board employees are recipients of such elite scholarships. Department of Statistics–Singapore, Yearbook of Statistics Singapore 2015.
37. Ninety percent ownership refers to the percentage among resident households in HDB flats. Department of Statistics–Singapore, “Resident Households by Tenancy, Annual”; in 1959 only 9 percent of Singapore’s population lived in public (SIT) flats, many of them rentals. Valerie Chew, “Public Housing in Singapore,” Singapore Infopedia, Singapore National Library Board.
38. World Bank, “Singapore Local Economic Development: The Case of the Economic Development Board (EDB)” (siteresources.worldbank.org/INTLED/Resources/339650-1194284482831/4356163-1211318886634/SingaporeProfile.pdf), p. 2.
39. Economic Development Board (EDB), “Our Economic History: The Sixties” (www.edb.gov.sg/content/edb/en/why-singapore/about-singapore/our-history/1960s.html).
40. Henry Wai-chung Yeung, “Regional Development and the Competitive Dynamics of Global Production Networks: An East Asian Perspective,” Regional Studies 43 (April 2009).
41. EDB, “Contact Us-Global Offices,” last updated Jun 5, 2015.
42. The EDB typically selects potential candidates as they leave secondary school, funds them through university, and then bonds them to serve the EDB for a minimum period of five years (generally six years for English-speaking and five years for non-English-speaking individuals). Its scholarships are funded largely by multinationals that have benefited from investing in Singapore, and some EDB officials ultimately move to such multinationals after their bonded period with the EDB is complete. See www.edb.gov.sg.
43. On Heng Swee Keat, see www.pmo.gov.sg.
44. On Leo Yip, see www.pmo.gov.sg. Both Heng and Yip received Singapore Police Force (Overseas) Scholarships to study at Cambridge. Prime Minister Lee assisted Heng’s entry into politics. As minister of education, Heng initiated Our Singapore Conversation, which has become the bedrock of the government’s current policies relating to civil society. For details, see www.pmo.gov.sg.
45. Joseph Nye, “Smart Power: In Search of the Balance between Hard and Soft Power,” Democracy: A Journal of Ideas, no. 2 (Fall 2006). This article is a review of Kurt M. Campbell and Michael O’Hanlon, Hard Power: The New Politics of National Security (New York: Basic Books, 2006).
46. Barr, Lee Kuan Yew: The Beliefs behind the Man, pp. 81–83.
47. See Lee Kuan Yew, From Third World to First: The Singapore Story, 1965–2000 (New York: Harper Collins, 2000), p. 57.
48. On the “poisonous shrimp” approach, said to have prevailed into the 1980s as a central Singaporean defense stratagem, see Michael Leifer, Singapore’s Foreign Policy: Coping with Vulnerability (London: Routledge, 2000), pp. 33–34; as well as Fang Fang and others, “Singapore’s International Strategy Is Like a Poisonous Shrimp?,” The Straits Times, October 4, 2013. Lee Kuan Yew himself is said to have used this analogy.
49. Lee, From Third World to First, pp. 14–15.
50. See Amnon Barzilai, “A Deep, Dark, Secret Love Affair,” Haaretz, July 16, 2004 (www.haaretz.com).
51. In March 1967, for example, Singapore passed a National Service Act, patterned after Israel’s system. See Er and Tan, Lee’s Lieutenants, p. 58.
52. Singapore accredited an ambassador to Israel, based in Paris, only in 1996, and an honorary consul, based in Israel itself, in 1999. See Leifer, Singapore’s Foreign Policy, p. 65.
53. Ibid.
54. Lee, From Third World to First, p. 26.
55. Ibid.
56. Adam Malik of Indonesia and Thanat Khoman of Thailand first broached the idea of ASEAN, and Rajaratnam came on soon thereafter. See ASEAN, “History: the Founding of ASEAN” (www.asean.org/asean/about-asean/history).
57. On the limited but real accomplishments of the Five Power Defense Arrangements, including formation of the Integrated Air Defense System, see Damon Bristow, “The Five Power Defense Arrangements: Southeast Asia’s Unknown Regional Security Organization,” Contemporary Southeast Asia 27, no. 1 (2005): 1–20.
58. Lee, From Third World to First, pp. 463–64.
59. See Allison and others, Lee Kuan Yew, pp. xxv, 41.
60. Ibid.
61. Ezra F. Vogel, Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China (Harvard University Press, 2011), pp. 287–91.
62. Daniel Bell, The Coming of Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting (New York: Basic Books, 1973); and Daniel Bell, The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism (New York: Basic Books, 1976).
63. Yap, Lim, and Kam, Men in White, p. 430.
64. Ibid., pp. 433–34.
65. Lee was apparently dissuaded in his attempt to hire Goh as his PPS by Minister of Finance Lim Kim San, following entreaties by Goh’s boss at the EDB, J. Y. Pillay, who had originally sent Goh abroad to study. See ibid., p. 383.
66. On global e-government comparisons, see J. Ramon Gil-Garcia, E-Government Success around the World: Cases, Empirical Studies, and Practical Recommendations (Hershey, Pa.: IGI Global, 2013); Senior Minister Goh Chok Tong, “Integrating Public Services, Engaging Citizens,” speech for the iGov Global Exchange, June 15, 2009 (www.ida.gov.sg).
67. On the history of e-government in Singapore, see Barney Tan and others, “The Evolution of Singapore’s Government Infocomm Plans: Singapore’s E-Government Journey from 1980 To 2007,” Singapore eGovernment Leadership Centre and School of Computing, National University of Singapore, 2008 (http://unpan1.un.org/).
68. Infocomm Development Authority of Singapore, “Factsheet: Singapore’s e-Government Journey” (www.ida.gov.sg/~/media/Files/Archive/News%20and%20Events/News_and_Events_Level2/20060530150726/eGovJourney.doc).
69. A full list of current e-government services in Singapore is available at www.ecitizen.gov.sg/eServices/Pages/default.aspx.
70. Infocomm Development Authority of Singapore, “Annual e-Government Perception Survey (Citizen) Conducted in 2015” (www.ida.gov.sg).
71. Singapore has held the top rank in the Waseda rankings at least five times since 2009. See Toshio Obi, ed., “2015 Waseda IAC International e-Government Ranking Survey,” June 2015 (www.e-gov.waseda.ac.jp).
72. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, “United Nations e-Government Survey 2014” (https:publicadministration.un.org).
73. National Library Board, “TradeNet Is Officially Launched,” October 17, 1989.
74. Marissa Lee, “The National IT Project That Went Global in a Big Way,” The Straits Times, May 2, 2016.
75. On the latter two innovations, see Yap, Lim, and Kam, Men in White, p. 360.
76. Goh remarked in 1990 before parliament, “We wanted a law that could deal with the problem in a very fine way instead of having to resort to ISA or the Sedition Act or to use court prosecution under some other relevant laws to deal with those who cause disharmony through religion.” Maintenance of Religious Harmony Bill, February 23, 1990, Parliament of Singapore—Official Report Parliamentary Debates (Hansard) (http://sprs.parl.gov.sg/).
77. Ibid., pp. 475–76.
78. Goh expressed these sentiments in his August 1999 National Day address. See C. M. Turnbull, A History of Modern Singapore, 1819–2005 (Singapore: NUS Press, 2009), p. 359.
79. Ibid., p. 359; Yap, Lim, and Kam, Men in White, p. 492.
80. Yap, Lim, and Kam, Men in White, pp. 563–64.
81. Ibid., pp. 486–87. The U.S.-Singapore free trade agreement was the first ever concluded by the United States with an Asian nation.
82. Ibid., p. 478.
83. The inscription reportedly bears the words of Tang period Chancelllor Wei Zheng (580–643).
84. Lee’s approach has included, in April 2012, establishing a Facebook page—a first for a Singaporean leader. See www.facebook.com/leehsienloong.
85. Yap, Lim, and Kam, Men in White, p. 512.
86. Ibid., pp. 510–11.
87. Ibid., pp. 490–91, 518–19. When Lee’s first wife, Wong Ming Yang, died in 1982, for example, Lee asked a dialect-speaking staff sergeant, a primary-school dropout, to be one of the pall bearers at the funeral.
88. Ibid., p. 519.
89. Formed in 1999 through a merger of the National Computer Board and the Telecommunications Authority of Singapore, the Infocomm Development Authority of Singapore is a statutory board under the Ministry of Communications and Information, which manages the growing convergence of information technology and telephony through Singapore’s 10-year infocomm master plan. See the IDA segment, “About Us: History” (www.ida.gov.sg/About-Us/What-We-Do/History).
90. See SPRING Singapore, “Sector Specific Accelerator (SSA) Programme” (www.spring.gov.sg/…/Pages/sector-specific-accelerator.aspx); and National Research Foundation, “Early Stage Venture Fund” (www.nrf.gov.sg/…/early-stage-venture-fund.aspx).
91. Yap, Lim, and Kam, Men in White, p. 513.
92. Garry Rodan, “Singapore in 2004: Long-Awaited Leadership Transition,” Asian Survey 45, no. 1 (2005): 140–45.
93. The deal among Singapore’s Tourism Board, Singapore GP, and Bernie Ecclestone was struck in 2007, but the first actual night race was run in 2008. See http://uniquelysingapore.org.
94. Yap, Lim, and Kam, Men in White, p. 453; “Singapore 21” was Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong’s manifesto for the 1997 general elections. See Jasmine S. Chan, “Singapore: A Vision for the New Millennium,” Southeast Asian Affairs, 2000, p. 260 (www.jstor.org/stable/279 12255).
95. Medisave was a compulsory savings program within the Central Provident Fund that generated funds to help cover medical costs on top of government subsidies; Medifund, generated from government fiscal surpluses, was to be a safety net for needy Singaporeans. On the details, see Yap, Lim, and Kam, Men in White, p. 454.
96. Goh took steps to support Singaporeans still in rental apartments in acquiring their own homes. See ibid., pp. 454–55.
97. Turnbull, A History of Modern Singapore, p. 362.
98. On Vogel’s characterization of the Singaporean bureaucracy, see Quah, Public Administration, p. 6.
99. Singapore has a constitutional provision, introduced in September 1990, allowing for the appointment by the president of up to nine members of parliament (www.parliament.sov.sg/members-parliament).
Chapter 4
1. John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge, The Fourth Revolution: The Global Race to Reinvent the State (New York: Penguin Press, 2014).
2. Thomas L. Friedman and Michael Mandelbaum, That Used to Be Us: How America Fell Behind in the World It Invented and How We Can Come Back (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011).
3. On the concept of a “plan-rational developmental state,” see Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle (Stanford University Press, 1982), chap. 1.
4. Peter Evans, Embedded Autonomy: States and Industrial Transformation (Princeton University Press, 1995).
5. Peter Hall and David Soskice, eds., Varieties of Capitalism: The Institutional Foundations of Comparative Advantage (Oxford University Press, 2001); Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China (Cambridge University Press, 1979); and Stephan Haggard, Pathways from the Periphery: The Roles of Growth in the Newly Industrializing Countries (Cornell University Press, 1990); as well as Stephan Haggard and Matthew D. McCubbins, eds., Presidents, Parliaments, and Policy (Cambridge University Press, 2001).
6. Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye Jr., Power and Interdependence, 4th ed. (New York: Pearson, 2011); Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993); and Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge University Press, 1981).
7. George Liska, Nations in Alliance: The Limits of Interdependence (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1962); and George Liska, Expanding Realism: The Historical Dimension of World Politics (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998).
8. On the concept of “minimalist government,” see Kent E. Calder, “Japan’s Minimalist Government,” Wall Street Journal, February 13, 1981.
9. For a capsule summary, see “Widefare: Social Spending in Asia: Asia’s Emerging Welfare States Spread Themselves Thinly,” The Economist, July 16, 2013.
10. U.K. Department of Health, “The NHS Constitution for England,” updated October 14, 2015.
11. On Japanese health care costs, see Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare (MHLW), “Overview of Medical Service Regime in Japan,” Slide 3 (www.mhlw.go.jp). On Singaporean health care costs, see Ministry of Health Singapore, “Healthcare Financing Sources,” May 13, 2013. Patient co-payment share was calculated by the author based on table 1, where patient co-payment is equal to national health expenditure minus government expenditure and Medifund, Medisave, and MediShield expenditures.
12. Note that Medisave and MediShield are CPF accounts, which are actually individual saving accounts. The CPF and its role in health care are discussed later in the chapter.
13. MHLW, “Overview of Medical Service Regime in Japan,” Slide 7.
14. See “Healthcare We All Can Afford,” pamphlet prepared by Ministry of Health Singapore.
15. Figures for Japan and the United Kingdom are from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), “Health at a Glance 2011,” p. 157 (www.oecd.org/health/health-systems/49105858.pdf). Figure for Singapore calculated by the author with data provided in Ministry of Health Singapore, “Healthcare Financing Sources” (www.moh.gov.sg).
16. World Bank, “Health Expenditure, Public (% of Total Health Expenditure),” World Development Indicators (2014) (www-wds.worldbank.org/).
17. The Affordable Care Act (ACA) involves subsidies on health care premiums for individuals and families with incomes up to 400 percent of the poverty line, or US$94,200 for a family of four in 2013. See Tami Luhby, “What You’ll Actually Pay for Obamacare,” CNN, August 21, 2013 (money.cnn.com).
18. For details of the CPF program, see Central Provident Fund (CPF) Board, “CPF Overview” (http://cpf.gov.sg).
19. John Locke, of course, stressed the importance of property acquisition in his Second Treatise, published in 1690, and that concept—also valued by America’s founding fathers—has become since the late 1960s a fundamental aspect of Singapore public policy. See C. B. McPherson, ed., John Locke’s Second Treatise of Government (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1980).
20. CPF Board, “CPF Contribution and Allocation Rates from 1 January 2016” (www.cpf.gov.sg/Assets/Members/Documents/Jan2016_Con_Rate_Page.pdf).
21. As of December 31, 2014, the CPF had 1,951,000 active members. See CPF Board, “Annual Report 2015,” p. 24. And Singapore recorded 2,185,200 resident labor force in 2014. See Department of Statistics–Singapore, Yearbook of Statistics Singapore 2015, table 5.1 (www.singstate.gov.sg/).
22. The CPF investment scheme provides an option for individual investment of CPF savings, within quite liberal guidelines, if the overall saving account has accumulated more than a government-specified minimum sum. See CPF Board, “CPF Investment Schemes” (www.cpf.gov.sg/).
23. The CPF full-retirement sum of required savings for members turning 55 on July 1, 2015, for example, was S$161,000. See CPF Board, “Retirement Sum Scheme” (www.cpf.gov.sg/).
24. Ministry of Finance Singapore, “Section IV. Is Our CPF Money Safe? Can the Government Pay All Its Debt Obligations?,” Our Nation’s Reserves (www.mof.gov.sg/Policies/Our-Nations-Reserves).
25. Up to 10 percent of investible savings may be invested in gold. Other investment products are also subject to the CPF Board’s review. See CPF Board, “CPF Investment Schemes.”
26. Housing and Development Board (HDB), Research & Planning Department, “Key Findings of Sample Household Survey 2008,” Statistics Singapore News Letter, September 2010, p. 17.
27. Valerie Chew, “Public Housing in Singapore,” Singapore Infopedia, 2009 (http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg).
28. Lee Kuan Yew, From Third World to First: The Singapore Story, 1965–2000 (New York: Harper Collins, 2000), p. 96.
29. Valerie Chew, “Housing and Development Board,” Singapore Infopedia, 2009.
30. See CPF Board, “Home Protection Scheme” (www.cpf.gov.sg/).
31. See HDB, “Public Housing in Singapore: Residents’ Profile, Housing Satisfaction, and Preferences—HBD Sample Household Survey 2013” (www.hdb.gov.sg).
32. Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006).
33. In figure 4-7, Malay and Indian populations for Singapore are denoted as Ethnic Minority #1 and Ethnic Minority #2, respectively.
34. See, for example, Benedict R. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983).
35. Charles Tilly, ed., The Formation of Nation States in Western Europe (Princeton University Press, 1975); and Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States: AD 990–1990 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990).
36. On this concept, see Eric Hobsbawm, The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge University Press, 1983).
37. The Housing Development Board is a statutory board under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of National Development, while the People’s Association is a statutory board under the Ministry of Culture, Community, and Youth.
38. This policy change in 1989 affected 35 out of 125 neighborhoods in 25 HDB new towns. See National Library Board, “Ethnic Integration Policy Is Implemented,” March 1, 1989 (http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/).
39. Lee Kuan Yew has rather explicitly noted his high evaluation of communist mass-mobilization tactics and the importance of countering them. See Lee, From Third World to First, pp. 96–100, 123–24.
40. See www.pa.gov.sg.
41. See People’s Association, “About Grassroots Organisations” (www.pa.gov.sg).
42. The National Heritage Board (NHB) is a statutory board under the Ministry of Culture, Community, and Youth.
43. See fiscal 2014 budget operating expenditure in Ministry of Finance, “Head X Ministry of Culture, Community and Youth,” p. 189 (Singaporebudget.gov.sg).
44. “PM Lee Attends Opening Ceremony of New Singapore Chinese Cultural Centre,” AsiaOne, September 29, 2014; and “Singapore’s Unique Chinese Culture,” The Straits Times, February 7, 2016.
45. On Japan, see, for example, Kent E. Calder, Crisis and Compensation: Public Policy and Political Stability in Japan (Princeton University Press, 1988).
46. Singapore government expenditures in general constituted 14.6 percent of GDP in fiscal 2014, of which 22 percent were devoted to defense, 21 percent to education, and 4 percent to government administration. See Singapore Ministry of Finance. Budget Statement 2014.
47. Comparative figures are for 2011, the latest available for all nations being compared at the time of writing.
48. See Ministry of Education Singapore, “Edusave” (www.moe.gov.sg/education/edusave).
49. Ibid.
50. Ministry of Education Singapore, “Eligibility: Who Is Eligible for a PSEA?” (www.moe.gov.sg/education/post-secondary/post-secondary-education-account/eligibility).
51. For children born after 2006, however, the age of eligibility for postsecondary education accounts has risen to 13 years of age.
52. Ministry of Manpower Singapore, “Committee of Supply,” Speech to Parliament by Lee Yi Shyan, Minister of State for Trade & Industry and Manpower, March 9, 2011.
53. Singapore Workforce Development Agency, “What is WSQ?,” updated July 15, 2015 (www.wda.gov.sg).
54. See OECD, Economic Outlook for Southeast Asia, China and India 2014: Beyond The Middle-Income Trap, p. 206.
55. OECD, “PISA 2012 Results in Focus” (www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/).
56. Ibid.
57. PISA 2012 defined problem-solving competence as “an individual’s capacity to engage in cognitive processing to understand and resolve problem situations where a method of solution is not obvious. It includes the willingness to engage with such situations in order to achieve one’s potential as a constructive and reflective citizen.” See OECD, “PISA 2012 Results: Creative Problem Solving” (ibid.).
58. See Ministry of Trade and Industry, “The Road Thus Far,” chap. 1, p. 27 (www.mti.gov.sg/AboutMTI/Documents/app.mti.gov.sg/data/pages/507/doc/ERC_Comm_MainReport_Part1_v2.pdf).
59. Speech by Indranee Rajah, senior minister of state, Ministry of Law and Ministry of Education, at the National Youth Business Conference 2014, “Dream Big. Do Big,” October 4, at ITE College East.
60. Jacky Yap, “ACE and MOE announce S$15M 3-year plan to grow student entrepreneurs,” e27, November 9, 2012.
61. For a list of start-up supports, see SPRING Singapore, “Nurturing Startups: Overview” (www.spring.gov.sg/).
62. Shea Driscoll, “Singapore Budget 2016: More Low-Wage Workers to Qualify for Workfare Income Supplement Scheme That Tops Up Their Income,” The Straits Times, March 24, 2016; and Central Provident Fund Board, “More Frequent Workfare Income Supplement (WIS) Payouts: Frequently Asked Questions” (www.workfare.gov.sg/Documents/FAQs.pdf).
63. Infocomm Development Authority of Singapore, “Bridging the Digital Divide,” April 17, 2014.
64. Ministry of Social and Family Development, “Baby Bonus Scheme” (https:/app.msf.gov.sg/).
65. See Ministry of Health Singapore, “Medical Endowment Scheme: Annual Report 2014/2015.”
66. Linda Low, “The Singapore Developmental State in the New Economy and Polity,” Pacific Review 14, no. 3 (2001): 411–41.
67. Singapore’s Department of Statistics defines government-linked companies as firms in which the government’s effective ownership of voting shares is 20 percent or more. See Department of Statistics–Singapore, “Contribution of Government-Linked Companies to Gross National Product,” Occasional Papers on Economic Statistics, 2001.
68. Carlos D. Ramirez and Ling Hui Tan, Singapore, Inc. Versus the Private Sector: Are Government-Linked Companies Different? International Monetary Fund Working Paper WP/03/156 (Washington: July 2003), p. 14.
69. On the privatization process and its implications, see Loizos Heracleous, “Privatisation: Global Trends and Implications of the Singapore Experience,” International Journal of Public Sector Management 12, no. 5 (1999): 432–44.
70. For instance, the Project Jewel joint venture, involving the Changi Airport Group and Capital Mall Asia embarked in 2014 on construction of a S$1.47 billion retail and lifestyle complex at Changi Airport, scheduled to be completed in 2018. “Changi Airport’s Project Jewel: 5 Things to Know about the New Lifestyle Complex,” The Straits Times, December 4, 2014.
71. A new $220 million one-stop medical center near the Changi General Hospital is scheduled to be completed in 2017. “One-Stop Care at Upcoming Medical Centre at Changi General Hospital,” The Straits Times, August 29, 2014.
72. Basic Element, Changi Airports International, and Sberbank, “Joint Press Release: Basic Element, Sberbank and Changi Airports International Form Airport Business Partnership,” St. Petersburg, June 22, 2012 (www.changiairportgroup.com/export/sites/caas/assets/media_release_2012/22_Jun_2012_2.pdf).
73. Temasek, “Why Was Temasek Established?” (www.temasek.com.sg/Documents/).
74. Wilson Ng, “The Evolution of Sovereign Wealth Funds: Singapore’s Temasek Holdings,” Journal of Financial Regulation and Compliance 18 (December 2009): 2.
75. Temasek, “Portfolio Highlights: Geography,” last updated March 31, 2016 (www.temasek.com.sg/porfolio).
76. Temasek, “Mr. Robert Zoellick Joins the Temasek Board,” news release, August 1, 2013.
77. As of 2016, the Temasek portfolio is allocated most heavily to telecommunications (25 percent), financial services (23 percent), and transportation/industrials (18 percent). See Temasek, “Portfolio Highlights: Sector.”
78. Ramirez and Tan, Singapore, Inc., p. 14.
79. Temasek, “Portfolio Highlights: Major Investments.”
80. See Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle, and Steven Vogel, Freer Markets, More Rules: Regulatory Reform in Advanced Industrial Countries (Cornell University Press, 1998).
81. Singapore has 16 ministries, including the Ministry of National Development, which supervises the Housing and Development Board; and the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, which supervises the Economic Development Board. For details on ministerial configurations, see Singapore Government Directory (www.sgdi.gov.sg).
82. See Economic Development Board, “About EDB” (www.edb.gov.sg/content/edb/en/about-edb.html).
83. See EDB, “Contact Us-Global Offices.”
84. Lim Swee Say, minister for the prime minister’s office; S. Dhalabalan, chair of Temasek Holdings; Manohar Khiatani, CEO of Jurong Town Corporation; Liew Heng San, CEO of the Central Provident Fund; and Philip Yeo, chair of SPRING Singapore, are also alumni of the EDB.
85. On the concept of embedded autonomy, often associated with technocratic flexibility, see Peter Evans, Embedded Autonomy: States and Industrial Transformation (Princeton University Press, 1995).
86. See the biography of Beh Swan Gin, chair of the EDB since 2014, Economic Development Board, “Dr Beh Swan Gin,” last updated April 26, 2016 (www.edb.gov.sg/… top-of/the-board/).
87. See EDB, “Our Board Members,” last updated March 9, 2016 (www.edb.gov.sg).
88. See EDB, “International Advisory Council,” last updated June 27, 2016 (www.edb.gov.sg).
89. See “EDB International Advisory Council (IAC) Makes Recommendations for Singapore’s Economic Future,” September 20, 2013 (www.edb.gov.sg).
90. Deputy Prime Minister Shanmugaratnam pointed out the role of EDB facing a new phase of national economic development transitioning from value adding to value creation. See Ministry of Finance, Speech by Mr.Tharman Shanmugaratnam, deputy prime minister and minister for finance, at EDB Society’s 25th Anniversary Gala Dinner, July 23, 2015 (www.mof.gov.sg).
91. In this respect, the background of EDB chair Beh Swan Gin, a medical doctor and biomedical sciences specialist who most recently served as permanent secretary of the Ministry of Law, is of particular interest.
92. Monetary Authority of Singapore, “New FinTech Office: A One-Stop Platform to Promote Singapore as a FinTech Hub,” media release, April 1, 2016.
93. See Agency for Science, Technology and Research, “About A*STAR” (www.a-star.edu.sg).
94. Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA), statutory board under the Ministry of National Development, has commercial projects at science park Fusionopolis that host A*Star’s research and development activities. See URA, “Commercial Projects in Pipeline at End of 2nd Quarter 2014,” p. 1 (www.ura.gov.sg/uol/media-room/news/).
95. Jurong Town Corporation (JTC), statutory board under the Ministry of Trade and Industry, developed science research parks Biopolis and Fusionopolis, which house A*STAR’s research and development activities. See A*STAR, “A Vision for Convergence” (www.a-star.edu.sg…A-Vision-for-Convergence.aspx) and JTC, “One North” (www.jtc.gov.sg/RealEstateSolutions/one-north/).
96. For an insightful review of these challenges, see the 2015 Rajaratnam Lecture of Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong (www.mfa.gov.sg/…media_centre/).
97. Kent E. Calder, Embattled Garrisons: Comparative Base Politics and American Globalism (Princeton University Press, 2007), pp. 60–62, 236–37.
98. Singapore, at just over 700 square kilometers, is roughly one-eighth as large as the next smallest member of ASEAN, Brunei. See World Bank, “Land Area,” World Development Indicators (2015).
99. In 2013 Singapore’s defense budget was US$9.86 billion, compared to Vietnam’s defense spending of $3.8 billion, Malaysia’s $5 billion, and Indonesia’s $8.4 billion. See International Institute of Strategic Studies, The Military Balance 2014 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 2014).
100. The United States in April 2014 also concluded a separate Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement providing for access by U.S. forces to designated Philippine bases, although the provision of permanent facilities, or the entry of nuclear weapons onto the prospective temporary facilities, were specifically excluded. On the details of the agreement, see www.gov.ph/downloads/2014/04apr/20140428-EDCA.pdf.
101. Calder, Embattled Garrisons, p. 61. The headquarters of the U.S. Navy Western Pacific Logistics Group has been located in Singapore since July 1992, following the U.S. military withdrawal from the Philippines.
102. Ibid.
103. “Agreement Calls for 4 U.S. Littoral Combat Ships to Rotate through Singapore,” Defense News, June 2, 2012 (www.defensenews.com); and “Four U.S. Warships to Operate out of Singapore by 2018,” The Straits Times, November 5, 2015.
104. Exercise Tiger Balm is the oldest bilateral training exercise in Singapore armed forces history and now involves National Guard as well as regular U.S. Army troops. It has been supplemented since 2007 by Lightning Strike, sponsored by U.S. Army Pacific. On details of these exercises, see www.army.mil.
105. Exercise CARAT, which began in 1995, focused in 2014 on surface gunnery, air defense, search and rescue, shipboard helicopter operations, and marine interdiction, involving 1,400 from the two countries, with broader multilateral aspects as well as the bilateral dimension. See Loke Kok Fai, “Singapore, U.S. Kick Off Joint Military Exercise in South China Sea,” Channel NewsAsia, July 29, 2014.
106. On Peace Carvin II, see www.pacaf.af.mil. The Singapore Air Force also exercises jointly with combined U.S. forces of different branches of service through Exercise Forging Sabre, initiated in 2005, the location of which changes annually. On the 2009 event, held at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, see www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/news/2009/11/mil-091125-arnews05.htm.
107. Exercise Red Flag, a multilateral air exercise involving the Philippines, Canada, the United Kingdom, Japan, New Zealand, and Australia, as well as the United States and Singapore, was originally known as Exercise Cope Thunder, but redesignated as Red Flag in 2006 (www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/cope-thunder.htm).
108. On the details of this agreement, see www.state.gov/documents/organiztion/95360.pdf.
109. On such difficulties, see, for example, Calder, Embattled Garrisons, pp. 130–36, 147–48, and 151–52; as well as William L. Brooks, The Politics of the Futenma Base Issue in Okinawa: Relocation Negotiations in 1995–1997 and 2005–2006, Asia-Pacific Policy Papers 9 (Washington: Reischauer Center for East Asian Studies, 2000); and William L. Brooks, Cracks in the Alliance? Futenma Log: Base Relocation Negotiations, 2009–2013, Asia-Pacific Policy Papers 12 (Washington: Reischauer Center for East Asian Studies, 2011).
110. “Singapore Troops to Join Taiwan Drills,” Taipei Times, March 5, 2013.
111. Lee Min Kok, “China and Taiwan to Hold Historic Talks in Singapore: Six Things about Cross-Strait Relations,” The Straits Times, November 5, 2015.
112. This observation is from the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (www.idea.int/asia-pacific/burma/upload/chap1.pdf).
113. Michael Leifer, Singapore’s Foreign Policy: Coping with Vulnerability (London: Routledge, 2000), p. 84.
114. The World Water Council was founded in 1996 at the initiative of renowned water specialists and international organizations, in response to the global community’s increasing concern about world water issues. On the World Water Council and Singapore International Water Week, see www.worldwatercouncil.org/about-us/vision-mission-strategy.
115. On the penumbra of power concept, see Kent E. Calder, Asia in Washington: Exploring the Penumbra of Transnational Power (Brookings, 2014).
116. For additional details on how Singapore uses its ambassadors in Washington to further its diplomatic interests, see Calder, Asia in Washington.
117. For more details, see www.mfa.sg.washington.
Chapter 5
1. McKinsey and Company, “How to Make a City Great,” September 2013 (http://mckinsey.com).
2. The United Nations Development Program forecasts an urban population in 2050 of over 6,339,000,000 (see http://esa.un.org/undp/wup/Highlights/WUP2014-Highlights.pdf). See also United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA), World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision (June 2014), p. 1.
3. Karl Wilson, “Urban Future,” China Daily: Asia Weekly, June 20–26, 2014, p. 1.
4. UNDESA, World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision.
5. According to The New Statesman, in 2014 Jakarta and Manila were the 21st and the 22nd most polluted cities in the world, in terms of air quality (www.newstatesman.com).
6. Three more of the top 20 are in Pakistan, and 3 others in Bangladesh, making 16 of the top 20 in South Asia. Figures are for PM 2.5 levels, as determined by the World Health Organization, out of 1,600 major cities worldwide. See Madison Park, “Top 20 Most Polluted Cities in the World,” CNN, May 8, 2014 (www.cnn.com).
7. Charles Goldblum, “Singapore’s Holistic Approach to Urban Planning: Centrality, Singularity, Innovation, and Reinvention,” in Singapore from Temasek to the 21st Century: Reinventing the Global City, edited by Karl Hack and Jean-Louis Margolin, with Karine Delaye (Singapore: NUS Press, 2010), pp. 384–408.
8. Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle (Stanford University Press, 1982); and Meredith Woo-Cumings, ed., The Developmental State (Cornell University Press, 1999).
9. The categories featured in the Asian Green City Index include energy conservation, land and building use, transport, waste management, water, sanitation, air quality, and environmental governance. In all these categories, Singapore is above average. See Karl Wilson, “Singapore Model Sets Global Standard,” China Daily: Asia Weekly, June 20–26, 2014, p. 7.
10. See Mahizhan Arun, “Smart Cities: The Singapore Case,” Cities 6, no. 1 (1999): 13–18; and iN2015 Steering Committee, Innovation, Integration, and Internationalisation (www.ida.gov.sg/media/Files/Infocomm%20Landscape/iN2015/Reports/01_iN2015_Main_Report.pdf).
11. On the progression of the Singapore government’s computerization efforts, including Tradenet, Medinet, and Lawnet, see www.ida.gov.sg/-/media/Files/Infocomm%20Landscape/iN2015/Reports/01-iN2015_M_Report.pdf.
12. National Computer Board, A Vision of an Intelligent Island: The IT 2000 Report (Singapore: National Computer Board, 1992).
13. For the details, see the Infocomm Development Authority of Singapore, “iN 2015 Masterplan” (www.ida.gov.sg/Infocomm-Landscape/iN2015-Masterplan).
14. Ibid. In this effort, iN2015 proposed to double the value added of Singapore’s infocomm industry to S$26 billion, triple infocomm export revenue to S$60 billion, and create 80,000 jobs.
15. The Intelligent Energy System pilot project was implemented in 2009 by the Energy Market Authority, a statutory board administered by the Ministry of Trade and Industry. See “Smart Grid Technology Primer: A Summary,” National Climate Change Secretariat and National Research Foundation, 2011 (http://app.nccs.gov.sg.)
16. In 2013, according to UN statistics, 57 percent of Singapore’s waste was recycled—an extremely high proportion in comparison with Germany’s 46.6 percent, Sweden’s 35.4 percent, the United Kingdom’s 26.9 percent, the United States’ 23.8 percent, France’s 18.2 percent, and Japan’s 16.8 percent. United Nations Statistics Division, “Municipal Waste Treatment,” Environmental Indicators (http://unstats.un.org/unsd/environment/wastetreatment.html); and Wilson, “Singapore Model Sets Global Standard.”
17. See 2014 data from Infocomm Development Authority of Singapore, “Infocomm Usage—Households and Individuals” (www.ida.gov.sg/Tech-Scene-News/Facts-and-Figures/Infocomm-Usage-Households-and-Individuals).
18. Infocomm Development Authority of Singapore, “Bridging the Digital Divide,” April 17, 2014 (www.ida.gov.sg).
19. Singapore has a population density of 7,736.5 people per square kilometer, versus 348.7 per square kilometer in Japan, 505 in South Korea, and only 34.6 in the United States. See World Bank, “Population Density,” World Development Indicators (2014).
20. In some parts of Singapore, land prices during 2011–13 were reportedly rising 30 percent a year, or three times the pace of apartment costs. Average land costs as a share of total development costs for non-landed housing sites rose from 42 percent in 2008 to 62 percent in 2013. See Pooja Thakur, “Singapore’s Soaring Land Prices ‘Suicidal’ for Developers,” Bloomberg News, February 20, 2014; and Nikki De Guzman, “Land Cost Takes Over Property Prices and Income Growth,” Yahoo News, September 10, 2013.
21. Joan C. Henderson, “Planning for Success: Singapore, the Model City-State?,” Journal of International Affairs 65 (Spring/Summer 2012): 69–83.
22. Center for Livable Cities and Urban Land Institute, Principles for Livable High-Density Cities: Lessons from Singapore, 2013 (www.uli.org).
23. Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA), “Introduction to Concept Plan.”
24. Henderson, “Planning for Success: Singapore, The Model City-State?”
25. “Singapore Holds Heritage Town Award Presentation Ceremony,” Gov Monitor, February 21, 2011; and Belinda Yuen, “Searching for Place Identity in Singapore,” Habitat International 29, no. 2 (2005): 197–214.
26. Goldblum, “Singapore’s Holistic Approach to Urban Planning,” p. 388.
27. URA, “The Planning Act Master Plan Written Statement 2014,” revised January 15, 2016.
28. URA, “Introduction to Master Plan.”
29. For more information about development control, browse URA, “Development Control” (www.ura.gov.sg/uol/DC.aspx#).
30. Ministry of National Development, “How We Will Live, Work, and Play in Singapore 2030” (www.mnd.gov.sg/landuseplan/environment_live_work_play.htm); and Infocomm Development Authority of Singapore, “Smart Work Centres” (www.ida.gov.sg/…/New-Ways-of-Work/).
31. Marsita Omar and Nor-Afidah Abd Rahman, “Certificates of Entitlement (COEs),” Singapore Infopedia (National Library Board Singapore, 2006) (http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/infopedia/articles/).
32. Singapore’s “compact city” initiative favors density, making walking more feasible, while an extensive infrastructure of cycling paths, including the 150-kilometer Round Island Route, encourages cycling. See Centre for Liveable Cities and Urban Land Institute, “10 Principles for Liveable High-Density Cities: Lessons from Singapore,” press release, 2013 (www.ULI_Density_10Princ%20(3)pdf).
33. On the Singapore approach, see Carlos Felipe Pardo, “Sustainable Urban Transport,” Shanghai Manual—A Guide for Sustainable Urban Development in the 21st Century (Beijing: China International, 2011), pp. 29–38.
34. Land Transport Authority, “Household Interview Travel Survey 2012: Public Transport Mode Share Rises to 63%,” October 7, 2013 (www.lta.gov.sg/apps/news/).
35. KPMG International, “Infrastructure 100: World Market Report 2014,” p. 52 (www.kpmg-institutes.com/institutes/government-institutes/articles/).
36. Singapore’s commuting costs in relation to GDP per capita were also lower than those for Hong Kong (9.2 percent). The only major cities lower than Singapore were Copenhagen and Madrid. See Credo Business Consulting LLP, “The Mobility Opportunity: Improving Public Transport to Drive Economic Growth,” report commissioned by Siemens AG, p. 9 (www.credo-group.com/download/MobilityOpportunityStudy.pdf).
37. Since 2008 the Singapore government has committed S$60 billion to double Singapore’s light-rail network to 280 kilometers, and to add 800 buses (www.publictransport.sg).
38. Lew Yii Der and Leong Wai Yan, “Managing Congestion in Singapore—A Behavioral Economics Perspective,” Journeys, May 2009.
39. Say Tay Tan, F. L. Leong, and B.C.A Leong, Economics in Public Policies: The Singapore Story (Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Education, 2009).
40. Johnathan E. D. Richmond, “Transporting Singapore—The Air-Conditioned Nation,” Transport Review 28 (May 2008): 357–90 (http://the-tech.mit.edu/-richmond/professional/aircon.pdf).
41. Land Transport Authority, “Transition to a Government Contracting Model for the Public Bus Industry,” May 21, 2014.
42. Stephanie Ho, “Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) System,” Singapore Infopedia, November 5, 2013.
43. Public Transport Council, a statutory board under the Ministry of Transport, regulates public transport fares to create an affordable public transport system. See Public Transport Council, “About Us” (www.ptc.gov.sg/index/aspx.)
44. See Credo Business Consulting LLP, “The Mobility Opportunity,” p. 9.
45. The World Bank and the so-called Harvard Team recommended partial or all-bus rapid transit systems, while Singapore ultimately decided on all-rail. See www.smrt.com.sg.
46. SMRT was, for example, awarded “Best Passenger Experience” at the fourth annual MetroRail conference in Copenhagen (April 2008). See ibid.
47. See, for example, Harvey Dzodin, “Singapore Is the Future of China in Urban Order,” Xinhuanet.com, August 30, 2014.
48. Land Transport Authority, “Certificate of Entitlement (COE).”
49. Land Transport Authority, “Vehicle Quota System,” “Certificate of Entitlement (COE),” and “Tax Structure for Cars.”
50. Neel Chowdhury, “Strategic Singapore,” Time, March 3, 2011.
51. Lim Tin Seng, “Area Licensing Scheme,” Singapore Infopedia, August 15, 2014.
52. G. Santos, W. W. Li, and W. T. Koh, “Transport Policies in Singapore,” Research in Transport Economics 9, no. 1 (2004): 209–35.
53. Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources, “A Lively and Livable Singapore,” p. 57 (https://app.mewr.gov.sg/data/lmgCont/1299/Chapter05_Commute.pdf).
54. Land Transport Authority, “In-Vehicle Unit.”
55. Christopher Tan, “ERP Rates at Four Locations in Singapore Will Be Raised from Monday, May 4,” The Straits Times, April 27, 2015.
56. Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources, The Singapore Green Plan: Toward a Model Green City (Singapore: Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources, 1992); and Chua Lee Hoong, The Singapore Green Plan 2012 (Singapore: Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources, 2012).
57. See Prime Minister’s Office Singapore, “Speech by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong at the Launch of Clean and Green Singapore 2014.”
58. When Lee Kuan Yew proposed in 1967 his vision for Singapore as the Garden City, he indicated that the first stage should be cleaning away rubbish and litter in the street, since litter often results from lack of civic consciousness. See “S’pore to Become Beautiful, Clean City within Three Years,” The Straits Times, May 12, 1967, p. 4; and National Library Board, “‘Garden City’ Vision Is Introduced,” May 11, 1967 (http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/).
59. Singapore Green Plan 2012 (released in 2002) aims to make new parks and park connectors major tools for conserving nature. See Chua, The Singapore Green Plan 2012, p. x.
60. Park connectors are green pedestrian roads and cyclist routes that have played a major role in making walking and cycling popular in Singapore. The 2008 Leisure Plan aims to triple park connector routes from 100 to 360 kilometers. See Urban Redevelopment Authority, “URA Launches New Island-wide Leisure Plan,” May 21, 2008. On the Singapore Park Connector Network, see a descriptive online map provided by the National Parks Board (www.nparks.gov.sg). See also Chua, The Singapore Green Plan 2012, p. 22.
61. Valerie Chew, “Singapore Green Plan,” Singapore Infopedia, 2010.
62. National Parks Board, “Community in Bloom Initiatives,” March 8, 2016 (www.nparks.gov.sg/gardening/).
63. For a list of campaigns, see National Environment Agency, “All Campaigns,” last updated November 2015 (www.nea.gov.sg/events-programmes/).
64. “Edutainment” is a Singaporean term denoting a fusion of education and entertainment. Among the many edutainment projects in Singapore, apart from those described here, are the Experience Center (depicting high-tech, next-generation services), and Science Center Singapore. See www.singapore-attractions.com/members/edutainment.php.
65. Chua, The Singapore Green Plan 2012, p. 25.
66. URA, “Master Plan: Civic and Cultural District by the Bay.”
67. National Library Board, “Esplanade—Theatres on the Bay Opens,” October 12, 2012 (http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/infopedia/articles/)
68. See Gardens by the Bay (www.gardensbythebay.com.sg/en.html).
69. See www.formula1.com.
70. Derek da Cunha, Singapore Places Its Bets: Casinos, Foreign Talent, and Remaking a City-state (Singapore: Straits Times Press, 2010).
71. Dan Smith, The Penguin State of the World Atlas, 9th ed. (New York: Penguin Books, 2012), p. 91.
72. Ibid.
73. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, “Market Overview—Singapore,” Market Access Secretariat-Global Analysis Report (Ottawa, June 2014), p. 3.
74. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division, “File 3: Urban Population at Mid-Year by Major Area, Region and Country, 1950–2050 (Thousands),” World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision (June 2014).
75. Nikos Alexandratos and Jelle Bruinsma, World Agriculture towards 2030/2050: The 2012 Revision (Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization, 2012) (www.fao.org).
76. Kalinga Seneviratne, “Farming in the Sky in Singapore,” Our World, December 12, 2012 (http://ourworld.unu.edu).
77. See Alexandra Kain, “Singapore’s Ecological EDITT Tower,” Inhabitat, October 15, 2008 (http://inhabitat.com/editt-tower-by-trhamzah-and-yeang/).
78. Sky Greens, “About Sky Greens: How We Started” (www.skygreens.com/about-skygreen).
79. Seneviratne, “Farming in the Sky in Singapore.”
80. Ibid.
81. “Lettuce Sees the Future: Japanese Farmer Builds High-Tech Indoor Veggie Factory,” GE Reports, July 9, 2014 (www.gereports.com).
82. The vegetable factory is operated by Panasonic’s in-house subsidiary, Automotive and Industrial Systems Company, which in Japan has already developed a greenhouse for growing spinach, at which it can automatically adjust temperatures and humidity. For details, see Kyodo News International, “Panasonic Starts Trial Operation of Vegetable Factory in Singapore,” July 17, 2014 (www.globalpost.com).
83. For more country-specific details, see Smith, The Penguin State of the World Atlas, p. 111.
84. Emily Corcoran and others, eds., “Sick Water? The Central Role of Wastewater Management in Sustainable Development,” A Rapid Response Assessment, United Nations Environment Programme, UN-HABITAT.
85. Smith. The Penguin State of the World Atlas, p. 111; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, “Water Uses–Thematic Discussion” (www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/water_use/index.stm).
86. United Nations Environment Program Division of Technology, Industry and Economics, “An Environmentally Sound Approach for Sustainable Urban Water Management: An Introductory Guide for Decision-Makers” (www.unep.or.jp/ietc/publications/urban/urbanenv-2/9.asp).
87. James Low, “Sustaining the Value of Water,” in Case Studies in Public Governance: Building Institutions in Singapore, edited by June Gwee (New York: Routledge, 2012), p. 108.
88. Public Utilities Board, “Water Tariff” (www.pub.gov.sg).
89. This program works to transform simple drains, canals, and reservoirs into beautiful streams, well-integrated into surrounding parks and other environments, with plans for transforming 100 sites by 2030. Singapore International Waterweek, “PUB’s Active, Beautiful, Clean Waters (ABC Waters) Programme Wins at Global Water Awards 2013.”
90. Jean Lim,”NEWater,” SingaporeInfopedia, 2010, National Library Board (http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/infopedia/articles/).
91. Research Office Legislative Council Secretariat, “NEWater in Singapore,” February 26, 2016 (www.legco.gov.hk/…1516fsc22-newater-in-singapore-20160226-e.pdf).
92. Among the awards NEWater received are the Stockholm Industry Water Award (2007) and the UN-Water Best Practice Award.
93. Lux Research, “Singapore Universities Top Ranking of Water Research Institutes,” April 30, 2013.
94. Hyflux, “Tuaspring Wins Distinction in Desalination Plant of the Year Category at Global Water Awards 2014,” Featured Stories, April 7, 2014.
95. Mayuko Tani, “Singapore’s Hyflux Enters Latin American Water,” Nikkei Asian Review, June 26, 2014.
96. International Enterprise Singapore (IES), “Singapore–South African Report Economic Relations Grow with IE Singapore’s First Office in Africa,” January 25, 2013.
97. Smith, The Penguin State of the World, p. 115.
98. Figures for final energy consumption are from the International Energy Agency (www.iea.org). For the 2004–12 period, China’s share of the global energy consumption increase was 56 percent, and India’s was an additional 12 percent.
99. World Bank, “CO2 Emissions,” World Development Indicators (2011).
100. Central Intelligence Agency, World Factbook 2016–17. Figures are country comparisons for crude oil imports.
101. Singapore Energy Market Authority (EMA), “Natural Gas Consumption by Sub-Sector,” Singapore Energy Statistics 2015, table 3.7, p. 59 (www.ema.gov.sg).
102. EMA, “Fuel Mix for Electricity Generation.”
103. Neil McGregor, “Milestones in Singapore’s Energy Strategy,” The Business Times, June 20, 2012.
104. See Alpana Roy, “Singapore as Asia’s Liquid Natural Gas Hub: Challenges and Prospects,” unpublished paper, SAIS/Johns Hopkins University, December 12, 2012.
105. Chou Hui Hong and Ramsey Al-Rikabi, “Singapore Bids for Role as LNG Hub with Second Terminal,” Bloomberg News, February 25, 2014.
106. U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), International Energy Outlook 2016, pp. 41–42. EIA forecasts China will account for 63 percent of the natural gas consumption growth in non-OECD Asia from 2012 to 2040, and India will account for 8 percent.
107. Ibid., pp. 49–50.
108. “IEA Chief Backs Natural Gas Spot Market in Asia,” China Post, October 12, 2012. On the exchange, which was established in the Shanghai FTZ with Petrochina, Sinopec, and CNOOC as partners, see “China Launches New Oil and Gas Trading Platform—Xinhua,” Reuters, July 1, 2015.
109. Francis Kim, “LNG Traders Flock to Singapore to Tap China, India Demand,” Reuters, March 1, 2011.
110. On the Singapore Intelligent Energy System, see www.ema.gov.sg/cmsmedia/Newsletter/2012/04/eyeon-emaIES.html.
111. Dennis Gross, “Singapore: Smart Grid City,” Cleantech, August 1, 2010.
Chapter 6
1. In the words of the Economic Development Board (EDB), “Singapore will become an Intelligent Island, a global centre of excellence for science and technology, a high value-added location for production, and a critical strategic node in global networks of commerce, communications, and information.” EDB, presentation at the Singapore Economic Forum, July 10, 1995 (http://web.usm.my.aamj.1.2.1996/1-2-7.pdf).
2. Shanghai port ranked first, and handled 35.29 million TEU (twenty-foot equivalent unit) in 2014, while Singapore ranked second, and handled 33.87 million TEU. See World Shipping Council, “Top 50 World Container Ports” (www.worldshipping.org/…/global-trade/). Singapore’s port has been frequently recognized as the “Best Seaport in Asia” by the Asian Freight, Logistics and Supply Chain Awards (AFSCA). See “Singapore Named Best Seaport in Asia for 28th Time,” Channel NewsAsia, June 15, 2016.
3. Maritime and Port Authority Singapore, “Global Hub Port” (www.mpa.gov.sg).
4. Changi was ranked as the world’s best airport in 2010 and 2013–16 by Skytrax World Airport Awards. Hong Kong was ranked no. 1 in 2011 and Incheon was no. 1 in 2012. See www.worldairportawards.com.
5. EDB, “Logistics and Supply Chain Management” (www.edb.gov.sg).
6. Singapore was ranked 5th place globally, but no. 1 in Asia, ahead of Hong Kong (no. 9) and Japan (no. 12). See World Bank, “Global Ranking 2016,” International Logistics Performance Index (LPI) Global Ranking.
7. EDB, “Logistics and Supply Chain Management.”
8. See www.rvo.nl/sites/default/files/Logistics%20industry%20Singapore%20-%20Sep’12.pdf.
9. EDB, “Logistics and Supply Chain Management.”
10. Daniel Tay, “This Building Could Be the Future of e-Commerce Logistics in Southeast Asia,” Tech in Asia, October 14, 2014; and “Topping Out Ceremony Marks Milestone for SingPost Regional e-Commerce Logistics Hub,” Singapore Post, March 1, 2016.
11. Newley Purnell, “Singapore Post to Build Logistics Hub in E-Commerce Bet,” Wall Street Journal, October 15, 2014.
12. On the central role of infocom technology in facilitating information flow and accessibility, see Infocomm Development Authority (IDA) of Singapore, “iN2015 Masterplan” (www.ida.gov.sg/Tech-Scene-News/iN2015-Masterplan).
13. Jonathan Koh, “Towards a Single Window Trading Environment: Singapore’s TradeNet,” CrimsonLogic Report, p. 13 (www.crimsonlogic.com/Documents/).
14. IDA, “Innovation, Integration, Internationalisation,” Report by the iN2015 Steering Committee, p. 37.
15. In 2014, 75.6 percent of the Middle East’s exports, or approximately 14.9 million barrels per day out of 19.7 total went to Asia (China, India, Japan, Singapore, and other Asia-Pacific). See British Petroleum, Statistical Review of World Energy 2015.
16. The International Energy Agency (IEA) expects Persian Gulf exports to Northeast Asia to rise from 12 million in 2013 to around 22 million barrels a day by 2040. See IEA, World Energy Outlook 2014.
17. Singapore’s first liquefied natural gas terminal was opened in May 2013, with a second one announced in February 2014. On prospects for a Singapore gas hub, see Rudolf ten Hoedt, “Singapore’s Push to Be Asia’s First LNG Trading Hub, and the Uncertain Future of the Asian Gas Market,” Energy Post, October 28, 2014.
18. Woo Shea Lee, Yip Yoke Har, and Ang Sock Sun, “Easing Taxes to Create Global Insurance Hub,” The Business Times, March 24, 2016.
19. China (31 percent), Japan (11 percent), Korea, Hong Kong, and India together held 51 percent of world reserves in 2015. World Bank, “Total reserves minus gold (current US$),” World Development Indicators (2015).
20. Ibid.
21. For example, Saudi Arabia held 6 percent of world total reserves in 2015.
22. See “Singapore to Emerge as Top Finance Hub by 2014: Study,” Reuters, July 4, 2013.
23. On Singapore financial innovations, see Robert F. Emery, The Asian Dollar Market, Federal Reserve System Discussion Paper (1975) (www.federalreserve.gov).
24. Lee Kuan Yew, From Third World to First: the Singapore Story 1965–2000 (New York: HarperCollins, 2000), p. 77.
25. Laurie Cohen, “Singaporeans Learn Tricks of Trade at Merc,” Chicago Tribute, June 10, 1984.
26. Including US$291 billion (spot, outright forward, FX swap) and US$79 billion (FX options). See Singapore Foreign Exchange Market Committee, “Survey of Singapore Foreign Exchange Volume in April 2014,” July 25, 2014.
27. Including spot, outright forward, FX swap, and option. See New York Federal Reserve, “Foreign Exchange Committee Releases FX Volume Survey Results,” Foreign Exchange Committee Announcement, July 28, 2014.
28. Including spot, FX swap, outright forward, and option. See Tokyo Foreign Exchange Market Committee, “Results of Turnover Survey of Tokyo Foreign Exchange Market,” July 28, 2014, table 1 (http://www.fxcomtky.com/survey/pdf_file/survey_2014_02_e.pdf).
29. World Bank, “Net Inflows of Foreign Direct Investment, % of GDP,” World Development Indicators (2014).
30. International Enterprise Singapore, “The Singapore Advantage,” July 2014, p. 2.
31. “GM to Move International Headquarters to Singapore from China,” Reuters, November 13, 2013.
32. Jack Neff, “From Cincy to Singapore: Why P and G, Others Are Moving Key HQs,” Advertising Age, June 11, 2012.
33. Economic Development Board, “P&G Opens $250 million Innovation Centre,” March 28, 2014. Areas of research include biochemical, molecular, and genomics for P&G’s brands.
34. Amit Banati, “Kellogg Moves Asia-Pacific Headquarters to Singapore, Looks to Create Breakfast Category,” September 19, 2013 (www.lpk.com).
35. Singapore’s corporate income taxes have decreased from 26 percent in 2000 to 17 percent in 2016. Since 2003 Singapore has also adopted a single-tier income tax system, so stakeholders are not subject to double taxations. See Economic Development Board, “Taxation,” last updated March 11, 2016; and Hawksford Singapore, “Singapore Corporate Tax Guide” (www.guidemesingapore.com/taxation/corporate-tax/singapore-corporate-tax-guide).
36. Ministry of Trade and Industry Singapore, “Mr Lee Yi Shyan at the Asia-Pacific Trade Forum 2014,” November 24, 2014.
37. See Chia Siow Yue, “The Singapore Model of Industrial Policy: Past Evolution and Current Thinking,” Second LAEBA Annual Meeting, Buenos Aires, Argentina, November 28–29, 2005.
38. National Library Board, “Formation of SIJORI Growth Triangle Is Announced,” December 20, 1989.
39. On the concept of the “knowledge economy,” see Peter Drucker, The Age of Discontinuity: Guidelines to Our Changing Society (New York: Harper and Row, 1969); as well as Fritz Machlup, The Production and Distribution of Knowledge in the United States (Princeton University Press, 1962).
40. National Research Foundation–Research, Innovation, Technology Administration (RITA) System, “R&D Development,” last updated May 13, 2016 (www.nrf.gov.sg/research/overview); and A*STAR, “STEP 2015 Science, Technology & Enterprise Plan 2015: Asia’s Innovation Capital,” May 2011.
41. For examples of the living laboratory concept in operation in the area of clean energy, such as the CleanTech Park, see Energy Efficient Singapore, “Test-Bedding & R&D: CleanTech Park Living Lab Program” (www.e2singapore.gov.sg).
42. According to A*STAR, Phase 1 of Biopolis was completed in 2003 at a cost of S$500 million and Phase 1 of Fusionopolis opened in October 2008 at a cost of S$600 million. No further official figures have been published.
43. Economic Development Board (EDB), “Biopolis, Fusionopolis, Mediapolis” (www.edb.gov.sg).
44. Chia Yan Min, “A Home for World’s Best Scientists,” The Straits Times, January 3, 2014.
45. “Roche Establishes New Medical Research Hub in Singapore,” Asia-Pacific Biotech News 14, no. 2 (2010): 34 (www.asiabiotech.com).
46. “Singapore Aims to Become ‘Investment Hub for Global Diagnostics Industry,’ ” December 2, 2014 (www.out-law.com).
47. EDB, “Biopolis, Fusionopolis, Mediapolis.”
48. See Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise, “CREATE Milestones.”
49. On the SMART program, see https://smart.mit.edu/about-smart/about-smart.html.
50. National Research Foundation, “CREATE.”
51. National Research Foundation, “R&D Development,” last updated May 13, 2016.
52. FIA (Food Industry Asia), “Singapore an Emerging Global Hub for Food Science and Nutrition” (http://foodindustry.asia/singapore-an-emerging-global-hub-for-food-science-and-nutrition).
53. National Research Foundation, “R&D Development,” last updated May 13, 2016.
54. Following National University of Singapore, Peking University and University of Tokyo place 42nd and 43th, respectively, in 2015–16.
55. Times Higher Education, “150 under 50 Rankings 2016” (www.timeshighereducation.com).
56. ICEF Monitor, “Singapore Solidifies Its Reputation as a Regional Education Hub,” June 6, 2014.
57. Ministry of National Development, “Urban Sustainability R&D Congress 2015.”
58. Ministry of National Development, “Urban Sustainability R&D Congress 2011.”
59. The SIWW recorded over S$36.3 billion in business announcements by 2014. See Singapore International Water Week, “Singapore International Water Week 2016” (www.siww.com.sg/sites/default/files/siww_2016_event_highlights_en_updated_jan_2016.pdf).
60. See World Cities Summit Corporate Sponsorship Brochure.
61. World Cities Summit, “Lee Kuan Yew World City Prize: About the Prize.”
62. Lee Kuan Yew World City Prize, “2012 Prize Laureate: City of New York.”
63. Lee Kuan Yew World City Prize, “2014 Prize Laureate: City of Suzhou, Jiangsu Province.”
64. Singapore International Energy Week (SIEW), “FAQs” (www.siew.sg/about-siew/faqs).
65. SIEW, “Past Events: SIEW 2014.”
66. “A Report on the Singapore Mission,” GRIPS Development Forum, Tokyo, September 13, 2010 (www.grips.ac.jp/teacher/oono/hp/docu02/singapore_BTOR.pdf).
67. Ibid.
68. Ibid.
69. See Singapore Cooperation Program, “Bilateral Technical Assistance Programs.”
70. SCE has become a subsidiary of International Enterprise Singapore (IES), a statutory board that promotes Singapore’s external economy under the Ministry of Trade and Industry. IES, Thirty Years of Globalising Singapore: International Enterprise Singapore Annual Report 2012–2013 (Singapore, 2012), p. 50.
71. Data as of November 2015; Singapore Cooperation Enterprise (SCE), “Our Reach,” 2016.
72. On these International Partnership Teams, see SCE, “International Partnerships” (www.sce.gov.sg/international-partnerships.aspx).
73. Singapore Cooperation Programme, “Third Country Training Programmes.”
74. See Singapore Business Federation, Singapore: Your Global-Asia Hub Business Services Resource Guide 2012–2013 (http://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/insead-at-50-the-defining-years-1356).
75. In 2014 Singapore’s merchandise exports totaled US$409.8 billion, and commercial services exports totaled US$140.1 billion. See World Trade Organization, “Singapore,” Country Profiles, September 2015.
76. EDB, “Industry Background: Energy” (www.edb.gov.sg/content/edb/en/industries/industries/energy.html); C. M Turnbull, A History of Modern Singapore, 1819–2005 (Singapore: National University of Singapore, 2009), 311.
77. Trading Economics, “Singapore Exports” (www.tradingeconomics.com/singapore/exports).
78. In 2014 Singapore’s non-oil merchandise exports totaled S$390.4 billion, of which S$239.1 billion was re-exports. See Department of Statistics–Singapore, “16.1 Merchandise Trade by Type,” Yearbook of Statistics Singapore 2016.
79. Marsita Omar, “Jurong Reclamation,” Singapore Infopedia (Singapore: National Library Board, 2010).
80. Data for 2015. See Wilson Wong and Lim Yi Ding, “Trends in Singapore’s International Trade in Services,” Statistics Singapore Newsletter, March 2016, p. 2.
81. Changi Airport International, for example, played a key role in helping 600,000 passengers transit Sochi during the 2014 Winter Olympics. See “Opportunities for Singapore Companies in Russia, from Airports to Property and Planning,” The Straits Times, May 21, 2016.
82. PSA International’s Gwadar port management role ended in 2013 and was assumed by China Overseas Port Holding Company. See Syed Irfan Raza, “China Given Contract to Operate Gwadar Port,” Dawn, February 18, 2013.
83. Hotel management, as in the Gulf, is a key Singapore service export.
84. See Singapore Personal Access (SingPass), “About Us.”
85. Singapore ranked 3rd in the UN E-Government Development Index 2014 (https://publicadministration.un.org/egovkb/en-us/Reports/UN-E-Government-Survey-2014), while Japan’s Waseda University ranked the country 1st in its 2015 Waseda-IAC International e-Government Rankings (www.waseda.jp/top/en-news/28775).
86. Marissa Lee, “The National IT Project That Went Global in a Big Way,” The Straits Times, May 2, 2016.
87. For details on these innovative e-government programs, see www.crimsonlogic.com.
88. Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time (Boston: Beacon Press, 1944); Barrington Moore Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966); and Joseph A. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy (London: George and Allen Unwin, 1976).
89. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) Population Division, “File 1: Population of Urban and Rural Areas at Mid-Year … and Percentage Urban, 2014,” World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision (June 2014).
90. UNDESA Population Division, “File 3: Urban Population at Mid-Year by Major Area, Region and Country, 1950–2050,” World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision (June 2014).
91. Cheryl Sim, “China-Singapore Suzhou Industrial Park” Singapore Infopedia. (Singapore: National Library Board, 2015).
92. United Nations, World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision, p. 13.
93. See, for example, Prime Minister’s Office Singapore, transcript of Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong’s speech at Smart Nation Launch, November 24, 2014.
94. Charles Goldblum, “Singapore’s Holistic Approach to Urban Planning: Centrality, Singularity, Innovation, and Re-invention,” in Singapore from Temasek to the 21st Century: Reinventing the Global City, edited by Karl Hack and Jean-Louis Margolin, with Karine Delaye (Singapore: NUS Press, 2010), pp. 390–91.
95. One recent example of this continuous innovation is Clean Tech Park, the first co-themed business park in Asia. See Elga Reyes, “Clean Tech One Officially Opens in Singapore’s First Eco-Business Park,” Eco-Business, August 16, 2013 (www.eco-business.com).
96. Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology (SMART), “Future Urban Mobility (FM) IRG.”
97. On Deng’s fateful 1978 Singapore visit, the rapport established, and the implications for bilateral China-Singapore relations, see Ezra F. Vogel, Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China (Harvard University Press, 2011), pp. 290–91.
98. On details of SCE operations in China, see SCE, “Our Reach: China.”
99. On Fullerton Financial’s microcredit activities in China, see Temasek, “Temasek Review 2014,” p. 74.
100. Fullerton Financial has 400 rural branches in India and services 1.2 million self-employed entrepreneurs and working families in Indonesia. See ibid.
101. “Suzhou Industrial Park: 10 Things to Know about the China-Singapore Project,” The Straits Times, October 25, 2014.
102. See “The Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-City: A Practical Model for Sustainable Development,” UNEP South-South Cooperation Case Study, March 2013.
103. Sino-Singapore Guangzhou Knowledge City, “About Us: Milestones.”
104. Sino-Singapore Guangzhou Knowledge City, “Industry Development: Industry Plan.”
105. Sino-Singapore Guangzhou Knowledge City, “About SSGKC: Overview.”
106. Sino-Singapore Guangzhou Knowledge City, “About Us: Company Profile.”
107. On this agreement, see “Chongqing and China Mobile to Build IoT Industrial Highland,” Chongqing News, October 8, 2012 (www.english.cqnews.net).
108. “Chongqing’s Industrial Clusters, Forward Thinking Offer Useful Example amid Tricky Environment,” Global Times, March 8, 2016.
109. On this phenomenon, see Kent E. Calder, The New Continentalism: Energy and Twenty-First-Century Eurasian Geopolitics (Yale University Press, 2012), especially pp. 167–69.
110. Kor Kian Beng, “Lower Logistics Costs with Euro-Sino-S’pore Route,” The Straits Times, April 17, 2016.
111. Kor Kian Beng, “Singapore-China Chongqing Project ‘Making Good Progress,’” The Straits Times, April 16, 2016.
112. Kor Kian Beng, “Lower Logistics Costs with Euro-Sino-Singapore Route.”
113. Monetary Authority of Singapore, “Cross-Border RMB Flows and Capital Market Connectivity between China and Singapore to Strengthen,” November 9, 2015.
114. Professor Jae-ho Chung of Seoul National University, one of Korea’s foremost China specialists, recently noted with approval Singapore’s ability to keep both the United States and China happy. See Jae-ho Chung, “Korean Diplomacy Needs to Learn from Singapore on How to Hide the True Intention,” Chosun Ilbo, November 17, 2012.
115. “BPA Leads Advanced Singapore Research,” Busan Port Authority press release, July 7, 2014 (www.busanpa.com).
116. Yeonwoo Joong and others, A Possible Director for Sino-Korea Business Cooperation in Prospective Cities in China, and Development of Business Model (Seoul: Korea Land and Housing Corporation Land and Housing Research Institute, 2012).
117. In 2014 the foundation was sponsoring 118 programs in Southeast Asia, with S$64.7 million committed; 39 programs in Northeast Asia, with S$28.7 million committed, and 33 in South Asia, with S$16.1 million committed. See Temasek Foundation, “Temasek Foundation Summary Report 2014/2015,” p. 2.
118. This park was conceptualized in 1992 by then–prime ministers Goh Chok Tong and Narasimha Rao. International Tech Park Bangalore (ITPB), “History.” International Tech Park Bangalore (ITPB), “Ascendas Acquires Tata Stake in International Tech Park, Bangalore,” April 12 2005 (www.itpbangalore.com/press/05_taka.html).
119. SCE, “Our Reach: International Partnerships.”
120. Radheshyam Jadhav, “Government Mulls Singapore Model of Development for Cities,” The Times of India, September 9, 2013.
121. Chan Yi Wen, “Singapore Signs Deal to Master-Plan Indian State’s New Capital,” The Business Times, December 9, 2014.
122. “Amaravathi Master Plan to Guide Development up to 2050,” MasterPlans India, May 27, 2015; Lee U-Wen, “Surbana, Jurong Int’l to Master-Plan New Indian City,” The Business Times, January 13, 2015.
123. International Enterprise Singapore, “Smart Cities Discussion: A Smarter India, One City at a Time,” India Singapore Economic Convention 2015, December 9, 2015.
124. “Singapore to Help India in Smart Cities Project,” The Times of India, August 16, 2014.
125. Singapore Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Finance Tharman Shanmugaratnam and Russian First Deputy Prime Minister Igor Shuvalov Co-Chair The Fourth Session of The High-Level Russia-Singapore Inter-Governmental Commission 19 June 2013,” MFA press release, June 20, 2013.
126. Kaznex Invest, “Singapore Model to Be Applied for Kazakhstan’s SEZ Development,” July 16, 2013.
127. Encyclopædia Britannica Online, s.v. “Paul Kagame,” accessed July 16, 2016.
128. “List of African Countries by Population (2015),” Statistics Times, updated March 27, 2015.
129. World Bank, “GDP per capita (constant 2010 US$),” World Development Indicators (2015).
130. Patricia Crisafulli and Andrea Redmond, Rwanda, Inc.: How a Devastated Nation Became an Economic Model for the Developing World (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), pp. 13–14, 133.
131. On how Kagame found and embraced the Singapore paradigm, see “Africa’s Singapore?,” The Economist, February 25, 2012; and “Rwanda: the Singapore of Africa?,” The Southern Times, May 23, 2011.
132. Edwin Musoni, “President Kagame Calls for Increased Efforts to Development,” The New Times, January 14, 2013.
133. On the details, see Jeff Chu, “Rwanda Rising: A New Model of Economic Development,” Fast Company, April 1, 2009.
134. Bill Clinton, Tony Blair, Howard Schultz (CEO of Starbucks), and Eric Schmidt (chair of Google) are among Kagame’s core international contacts.
135. For a list of council members as of 2009, see “Rwanda: Presidential Advisory Council members meet on Sunday 22/09/13 in New York,” Rising Continent, September 25, 2013.
136. “Rwanda Completes $95 Million Fiber Optic Network,” Reuters, March 16, 2011.
137. Lena Ulrich and Ronald S. Thomas, “Building National Competitive Advantage: Rwanda’s Lessons from Singapore,” Thunderbird International Business Review 56, no. 3, (2014): 238.
138. For more information, see Carnegie Mellon University, “Carnegie Mellon University in Rwanda” (www.cmu.edu/rwanda/index.html).
139. See, for example, Felly Kimenyi, “Kagame Reiterates Need to Use English as Education Medium,” The New Times, October 15, 2008.
140. On Rwanda’s emulation of Singapore’s approach to corruption, see Crisafulli and Redmond, Rwanda, Inc., p. 233.
141. World Bank, “GDP Growth (Annual %),” World Development Indicators, 2004, 2010.
Chapter 7
1. Benjamin Barber, If Mayors Rule the World: Dysfunctional Nations, Rising Cities (Yale University Press, 2013).
2. Tanaka Akihiko, The New Middle Ages: The World System in the 21st Century (Tokyo: International House of Japan, 2002).
3. On Singapore cases by Harvard Business School faculty and staff, see www.hbs.edu/faculty/Pages/search.aspx?qt=Singapore&mclickorder=qt-1:&page1.
4. See “Modernizing the Mandarins,” The Economist, August 9, 2014.