Hog and Hominy: Soul Food from Africa to America

INTRODUCTION

1. Helen Mendes, The African Heritage Cookbook (New York: Macmillan, 1971); Verta Mae Smart-Grosvenor, “Soul Food,” McCall’s, (September 1970), p. 97; Sidney W. Mintz, Tasting Food, Tasting Freedom: Excursions Into Eating, Culture, and the Past (Boston: Beacon, 1996); Karen Hess, The Carolina Rice Kitchen: The African Connection (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1992); Howard Paige, Aspects of African-American Foodways (Southfield, Mich.: Aspects of Publishing, 1999); Jessica B. Harris, Iron Pots and Wooden Spoons: Africa’s Gifts to New World Cooking (New York: Atheneum, 1989); Psyche A. Williams-Forson, Building Houses Out of Chicken Legs: Black Women, Food, and Power (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006).

2. All three scholars’ essays on soul can be found in Black Experience: Soul, ed. Lee Rainwater (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1973).

3. Doris Witt, Black Hunger: Food and the Politics of U.S. Identity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999); William L. Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965–1975 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).

1. THE ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE AND THE COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE

1. David Buisseret, introduction to Creolization in the Americas, ed. David Buisseret and Steven G. Reinhardt (College Station: Texas A&M Press for the University of Texas at Arlington, 2000), 4–8.

2. Helen Mendes, The African Heritage Cookbook (New York: Macmillan, 1971); Jessica B. Harris, Iron Pots and Wooden Spoons: Africa’s Gifts to New World Cooking (New York: Atheneum, 1989); Sophie D. Coe, America’s First Cuisines (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994); Jeffrey M. Pilcher, !Que Vivan los Tamales! Food and the Making of Mexican Identity (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1998); Diane M. Spivey, Migration of African Cuisine (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999); Kenneth F. Kiple and Kriemhild Coneè Ornelas, eds., The Cambridge World History of Food, vol, 1, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).

3. Douglas Brent Chambers, “‘He Gwine Sing He Country’: Africans, Afro-Virginians, and the Development of Slave Culture in Virginia, 1690–1810” (Ph.D. diss., University of Virginia, 1996), 419, 423.

4. Pieter de Marees, Description and Historical Account of the Gold Kingdom of Guinea (1602), trans. and ed. Albert van Dantzig and Adam Jones (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 130.

5. The Atlantic paradigm came from a reading of Fernand Braudel, Capitalism and Material Life, 1400–1800, trans. Miriam Kochan (New York: Harper and Row, 1973); Fernand Braudel, Civilization and Capitalism, 15th–18th Century, vol. 1, The Structures of Everyday Life: The Limits of the Possible, trans. Sian Reynolds (New York: Harper and Row, 1979); Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Double Consciousness, and Modernity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993); Jack P. Greene, “Beyond Power: Paradigm Subversion and Reformulation and the Re-creation of the Early Modern Atlantic World,” in Crossing Boundaries: Comparative History of Black People in Diaspora, ed. Darlene Clark Hine and Jacqueline McLeod (Bloomington: Indiana University Press,1999), 319–342; Alfred W. Crosby, Jr., The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1973).

6. Xavier Domingo, “La Cocina Precolombiana en España,” in Conquista y Comida: Consecuencias del Encuentro de Dos Mundos, ed. Janet Long (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1996), 19–24; Barbara Norman, The Spanish Cook Book: Over 200 of the Best Recipes from the Kitchens of Spain (New York: Bantam, 1966), 16; Teofilo F. Ruiz, Spanish Society, 1400–1600 (New York: Pearson Education, 2001), 208–215, 221, 228–229.

7. Domingo, “La Cocina Precolombiana en España,” 19–24; William W. Dunmire, Gardens of New Spain: How Mediterranean Plants and Foods Changed America (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2004), 12–24.

8. Richard Boyer and Geoffrey Spurling, eds., Colonial Lives: Documents on Latin American History, 1550–1850 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), chaps. 4 and 5.

9. Robert Tomson, “Voyage to the West Indies and Mexico (1555–1558),” in Colonial Travelers in Latin America, ed. Irving A. Leonard (New York: Knopf, 1972), 58.

10. Robin Law and Kristin Mann, “West Africa in the Atlantic Community: The Case of the Slave Coast,” William and Mary Quarterly 3d ser., 56, no. 2 (April 1999): 312.

11. Mendes, The African Heritage Cookbook, 14.

12. Robert W. July, Precolonial Africa: An Economic and Social History (New York: Scribner’s, 1975), 66; de Marees, Description of the Gold Kingdom, 130.

13. Lamont Dehaven King, “State and Ethnicity in Precolonial Northern Nigeria,” Journal of African American Studies 36, no. 4 (2001): 350; Chambers, “‘He Gwine Sing He Country,’” 408.

14. De Marees, Description of the Gold Kingdom, 130.

15. Michel Adanson, A voyage to Senegal, the isle of Goreé and the river Gambia (London: J. Nourse, 1759), in John Pinkerton, A General Collection of the Best and Most Interesting Voyages and Travels in all Parts of the World. . . (London: Longman, Hurst, Ross, Orme and Brown, 1813), 16:618; Mungo Park, Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa: Performed in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797, With an Account of a Subsequent Mission to that Country in 1805 (London: William Bulmer and Co., 1816; reprint, London: Dent: New York: Dutton, 1960), 7; Joseph Hawkins, A History of a Voyage to the Coast of Africa and Travels into the Interior of that Country, Containing Particular Descriptions of the Climate and Inhabitants, and Interesting Particulars Concerning the Slave Trade (1796; reprint, London: Cass, 1970), 12–15, 73, 77, 118–119; William Allen and T. R. H. Thomson, A Narrative of the Expedition to the River Niger in 1841, 2 vols. (London: Richard Bentley, 1848; reprint, London: Cass, 1968), 1:309, 318–319; Theodore Canot, Captain Canot; or, Twenty Years of an African Slaver: Being an Account of His Career and Adventures on the Coast, in the Interior, on Shipboard, and in the West Indies, Written out and edited from the Captain’s Journals, Memoranda and Conversations (New York: D. Appleton, 1854), 177; de Marees, Description of the Gold Kingdom, 113; Crosby, Columbian Exchange, 185, 186; Sidney W. Mintz, Tasting Food, Tasting Freedom: Excursions into Eating, Culture, and the Past (Boston: Beacon, 1996), 38–39; Theresa Meléndez, “Corn,” in Rooted in America: Foodlore of Popular Fruits and Vegetables, ed. David Scofield Wilson and Angus Kress Gillespie (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1999), 45.

16. De Marees, Description of the Gold Kingdom, 40.

17. Ibid., 40, 76, 113.

18. Karen Hess, The Carolina Rice Kitchen: The African Connection (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1992), 13; Allen and Thomson, A Narrative of the Expedition To The River Niger, 1:397; Adanson, A voyage to Senegal, 635.

19. De Marees, Description of the Gold Kingdom, 40, 76, 113.

20. Linda M. Heywood, ed., Central Africans and Cultural Transformation in the American Diaspora (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 93–94, 105; Mendes, African Heritage Cookbook, 38–39.

21. Frank J. Klinberg, ed., The Carolina Chronicle of Dr. Francis Le Jau 1706–1717 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1956), 7; see also Elizabeth Donnan, Documents Illustrative of the History of the Slave Trade to America, vol. 4 (New York: Octagon, 1969).

22. William Bosman [chief factor for the Dutch at the castle of St. George d’Elmina), A New and Accurate Description of the Coast of Guinea, Divided into the Gold, the Slave, and the Ivory Coasts: A Geographical, Political, and Natural History of the Kingdoms and Countries: With a Particular Account of the Rise, Progress, and Present Condition of All the European Settlements Upon That Coast, and the Just Measures for Improving the Several Branches of the Guinea Trade (London, 1705), in Pinkerton, A General Collection, 16:392.

23. Hugh Thomas, The Slave Trade: The History of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440–1870 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997), 353–356.

24. King, “State and Ethnicity in Precolonial Northern Nigeria,” 354.

25. Mendes, African Heritage Cookbook, 22, 34–35

26. July, Precolonial Africa, 103.

27. Ibid., 38–40; Peter Lionel Wickins, Economic History of Africa from the earliest times to partition (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), 94.

28. Mendes, African Heritage Cookbook, 24–27.

29. Femi J. Kolapo, “The Igbo and Their Neighbors During the Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade,” Slavery and Abolition 25, no. 1 (April 2004): 116; Elizabeth Isichei, The Igbo Peoples and the Europeans: Genesis of a Relationship—to 1906 (New York: St. Martin’s, 1973).

30. Chambers, “‘He Gwine Sing,’” 48, 51–52.

31. Allen and Thomson, A Narrative of the Expedition To The River Niger, 1:284–285, 388–389; de Marees, Description of the Gold Kingdom, 42, 122; Mendes, African Heritage Cookbook, 36; Abbé Proyart, History of Loango, Kakongo, and Other Kingdoms, in Pinkerton, A General Collection, 16:551, 554.

32. Hawkins, A History of a Voyage to the Coast of Africa, 73, 77, 101.

33. Ibid., 90–91.

34. Ibid., 135.

35. Hawkins, A History of a Voyage to the Coast of Africa, 201.

36. Ibid., 129–130.

37. July, Precolonial Africa, 74, 103.

38. Park, Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa, 215.

39. Ibid., 145.

40. Ibid., 215.

41. Ibid., 7–8.

42. Ibid., 8, 75.

43. Alex Haley, Roots (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1976), 8; see also 14, 10, 21.

44. Canot, Captain Canot, 139–140.

45. Park, Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa, 214.

46. Ibid., 37–38.

47. Mendes, African Heritage Cookbook, 38–40.

48. Ibid., 215.

49. Hasia R. Diner, Hungering For America: Italian, Irish, and Jewish Foodways in the Age of Migration (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001), 5.

50. De Marees, Description of the Gold Kingdom, 168.

51. Olaudah Equiano, “Traditional Igbo Religion and Culture” (1791), in Afro-American Religious History: A Documentary Witness, ed. Milton C. Sernett (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1985), 13–14.

52. Allen and Thomson, A Narrative of the Expedition to The River Niger in 1841, 1968), 2:201.

53. Ibid., 1:117.

54. De Marees, Description of the Gold Kingdom, 181.

55. [Africanus], “Remarks on the Slave Trade, and the Slavery of the Negroes,” in A Series of Letters (London: J. Phillips, 1788), 47.

56. Hess, The Carolina Rice Kitchen, 5.

2. ADDING TO MY BREAD AND GREENS

1. Douglas Brent Chambers, “‘He Gwine Sing He Country’: Africans, Afro-Virginians, and the Development of Slave Culture in Virginia, 1690–1810” (Ph.D. diss., University of Virginia, 1996), 419.

2. Michael A. Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identity in the Colonial and Antebellum South (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1998) 18, 20.

3. Daniel C. Littlefield, Rice and Slaves: Ethnicity and the Slave Trade in Colonial South Carolina (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981), 20–21; Chambers, “‘He Gwine Sing He Country,’” 410–412; Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks, 4.

4. Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks, 27.

5. Robin Law and Kristin Mann, “West Africa in the Atlantic Community: The Case of the Slave Coast,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3d ser., 56, no. 2 (April 1999): 312.

6. Eugene D. Genovese, Roll Jordan Roll: The World the Slaves Made (1972; reprint, New York: Vintage, 1976), xv–xvii; Alfred W. Crosby, Jr., The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1973), 66; Sidney W. Mintz, Tasting Food, Tasting Freedom: Excursions Into Eating, Culture, and the Past (Boston: Beacon, 1996), 44; Sam Bowers Hilliard, Hog Meat and Hoecake: Food Supply in the Old South, 1840–1860 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1972); Joe Gray Taylor, Eating, Drinking, and Visiting in the South: An Informal History (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1982); Damon Lee Fowler, Classical Southern Cooking: A Celebration of the Cuisine of the Old South (New York: Crown, 1995); Helen Mendes, introduction to The African Heritage Cookbook (New York: Macmillan, 1971).

7. Voyage of Don Manoel Gonzales (Late Merchant) of the City of Lisbon in Portugal, to Great Britain, about 1788, in John Pinkerton, A General Collection of the Best and Most Interesting Voyages and Travels in all Parts of the World. . . (London: Longman, Hurst, Ross, Orme and Brown, 1813), 2:86–87, 145.

8. Louis Hughes, Thirty Years a Slave from Bondage to Freedom: The Institution of Slavery as Seen on the Plantation and in the Home of the Planter (Milwaukee, Wisc.: South Side Printing, 1897), 49.

9. Ibid., 144–145.

10. The term “parochial food-traditions” comes from Uma Narayan, “Eating Cultures: Incorporation, Identity, and Indian food,” Social Identities 1, no. 1 (1995): 14.

11. Hughes, Thirty Years a Slave, 144–145.

12. Voyage of Don Manoel Gonzales, in Pinkerton, A General Collection, 2:144–145; Young, A Tour of Ireland, in Pinkerton, A General Collection, 4:39.

13. Stephen Mennell, All Manners of Food: Eating and Taste in England and France from the Middle Ages to the Present (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996), 46; Fernand Braudel, Capitalism and Material Life, 1400–1800, trans. Miriam Kochan (New York: Harper and Row, 1973), 124, 125, 128–129; Molly Harrison, The Kitchen in History (New York: Scribner’s, 1972), 32.

14. John Smith, “Descriptions of Virginia and Proceedings of the Colonie by Captain John Smith, 1612,” in Narratives of Early Virginia 1606–1625, ed. Lyon Gardiner Tyler, vol. 5 of Original Narratives of Early American History, ed. J. Franklin Jameson (New York: Scribner’s, 1907), 102; Donna R. Gabaccia, We Are What We Eat: Food and the Making of Americans, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998), 14–15; Harold E. Driver, Indians of North America, 2d ed. (1961; reprint, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969), 91, 93; Sophie D. Coe, America’s First Cuisines (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994), 36, 133, 149–150, 158.

15. Coe, America’s First Cuisines, 7–8; Gabaccia, We Are What We Eat, 14–15; John Edgerton, Southern Food: At Home, on the Road, in History (New York: Knopf, 1987), 248–249; Maryellen Spencer, “Food in Seventeenth-Century Tidewater Virginia: A Method for Studying Historical Cuisines” (Ph.D. diss., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1982), 92.

16. Spencer, “Food in Seventeenth-Century Tidewater Virginia,” 94–95.

17. Driver, Indians of North America, 89–94, 91, 93, 94; Smith, “Descriptions of Virginia,” 96–97; Howard H. Peckham, ed., Narratives of Colonial America, 1704–1765, Lakeside Classics Series (Chicago: Donnelley and Sons, 1971), 92, 97, 99–101; Arthur Barlowe, “Captain Arthur Barlowe’s Narrative of the First Voyage to The Coasts of America,” in Early English and French Voyages Chiefly from Hakluyt, 1534–1608, ed. Henry S. Burrage, vol. 3 of Original Narratives of Early American History, ed. J. Franklin Jameson (New York: Scribner’s, 1906), 235–236.

18. Spencer, “Food in Seventeenth-Century Tidewater Virginia,” 94–95.

19. Chambers, “‘He Gwine Sing,’” 424–425.

20. Alden Vaughn, America Before the Revolution, 1725–1775 (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1967), 19–20.

21. Charles Ball, Slavery in the United States: A Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Charles Ball, a Black Man, Who Lived Forty Years in Maryland, South Carolina and Georgia, as a Slave . . . (Pittsburgh: J.T. Shryock, 1854), 20, 144–145.

22. Ibid., 20, 177, 181,

23. Hughes, Thirty Years a Slave, 49.

24. Mendes, African Heritage Cookbook, 23.

25. Brenda E. Stevenson, Life in Black and White: Family and Community in the Slave South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), x.

26. William Byrd, The London Diary, 1717–1721, and Other Writings, ed. Louis B. Wright and Marion Tinling (New York: Oxford University Press, 1958), 16–17.

27. Narayan, “Eating Cultures,” 14.

28. Genovese, Roll Jordan Roll, 541, 543. See Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, Within the Plantation Household: Black and White Women in the Old South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), 160–161; Gilberto Freyre, The Mansions and the Shanties (Sobrados e Mucambos): The Making of Modern Brazil, trans. and ed. Harriet de Onís (New York: Knopf, 1963), 185–192.

29. Byrd, The London Diary, 417–419; Chambers, “‘He Gwine Sing,’” 421.

30. Byrd, The London Diary, 439, 444, 484–485, 490.

31. Peter H. Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (New York: Norton, 1974), 6–8.

32. Winthrop D. Jordan, White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (Baltimore: Penguin, 1969), 47–48.

33. Richard Ligon, A True and Exact History of the Island of Barbadoes (London, 1673), reprinted in After Africa: Extracts from British Travel Accounts and Journals of the Seventeenth, Eighteenth, and Nineteenth Centuries Concerning the Slaves, Their Manners, and Customs in the British West Indies, ed. Roger D. Abrahams and John F. Szwed, with Leslie Baker and Adrian Stackhouse (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983), 51–52.

34. James E. McWilliams, A Revolution in Eating: How the Quest for Food Shaped America, (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005), 129.

35. Littlefield, Rice and Slaves, 20. See Karen Hess, The Carolina Rice Kitchen: The African Connection (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1992), 96.

36. Charles Leslie, A New and Exact Account of Jamaica, 3d ed. (London, 1740), reprinted in After Africa, 329. See John J. Stewart, Account of Jamaica, and Its Inhabitants: By a Gentleman, a Long Resident in the West Indies (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, and Orme, 1808), 231–232.

37. Hilliard, Hog Meat and Hoecake, 62.

38. J. B. Moreton, “Manners and Customs in the West India Islands” (London, 1790), reprinted in After Africa, 290.

39. F. W. Bayley, Four Years’ Residence in the West Indies, 3d ed. (London, 1833), 69–71, 437–438, reprinted in After Africa, 305.

40. Cynric Williams, A Tour Through the Island of Jamaica . . . (London, 1826), 21–27, 62–64, reprinted in After Africa, 251–252.

41. Hess, The Carolina Rice Kitchen, 6.

42. Littlefield, Rice and Slaves, 29.

43. [Africanus], “Remarks on the Slave Trade, and the Slavery of the Negroes,” in A Series of Letters (London: J. Phillips, 1788), 47.

44. Frank J. Klinberg, ed., The Carolina Chronicle of Dr. Francis Le Jau 1706–1717, University of California Publications in History, vol. 53, ed. J. S. Galbraith, R. N. Burr, Brainerd Dyer, and J. C. King (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1956), 7.

45. Karen Hess, The Carolina Rice Kitchen: The African Connection (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1992), 7; see also 96.

46. Larry Jean Ancelet, Jay D. Edwards, and Glen Pitre, with additional material by Carl Brasseux, Cajun Country (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1991), 141–142.

47. Eliza Lucas Pinckney, The Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, 1739–1762, ed. Elise Pinckney, with Marvin R. Zahniser (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972), 28.

48. This interpretation was first suggested by Jessica B. Harris in Iron Pots and Wooden Spoons: Africa’s Gifts to New World Cooking (New York: Atheneum, 1989), xvi; [Africanus], Remarks on the Slave Trade, 47.

49. Jen Schaw, Journal of a Lady of Quality: Being the Narrative of a Journey from Scotland to the West Indies, North Carolina, and Portugal in the Years 1774 to 1776, ed. Evangeline Walker Andrews, with Charles McLean Andrews (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1934), 296–297.

50. Littlefield, Rice and Slaves, 20–21.

51. Schaw, Journal of a Lady of Quality, 177.

52. McWilliams, A Revolution in Eating, 129.

53. Ibid.

3. HOG AND HOMINY

1. Eugene D. Genovese, Roll Jordan Roll: The World the Slaves Made (1972; reprint, New York: Vintage, 1976), 543.

2. Frederick Law Olmsted, A Journey in the Seaboard Slave States In the Years 1853–1854 (1856; reprint, New York: Knickerbockers, 1904).

3. Adam Hodgson, Remarks During a Journey Through North America In the Years 1819, 1820, and 1821 in a Series of Letters (Westport, Connecticut: Negro Universities Press, 1970, first edition, New York: Seymour, Printer, 1823), 117.

4. Fredrika Bremer, America of the Fifties: Letters of Fredrika Bremer, ed. Adolph B. Benson (New York: The American-Scandinavian Foundation, 1924), 107–108.

5. Frederick Law Olmsted, The Cotton Kingdom: A Traveler’s Observations on Cotton and Slavery in the American Slave States. Based Upon Three Former Volumes of Journeys and Investigations by the Same Author, ed. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Sr. (New York: Modern Library, 1984), 80.

6. Damon Lee Fowler, Classical Southern Cooking: A Celebration of the Cuisine of the Old South (New York: Crown, 1995), 140.

7. Olmsted, A Journey in the Seaboard Slave States, 143–144.

8. McWilliams, A Revolution in Eating, 90.

9. Peter Randolph, “Plantation Churches: Visible and Invisible” (1893), in Afro-American Religious History: A Documentary Witness, ed. Milton C. Sernett (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1985), 67.

10. Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion: The “Invisible Institution” in the Antebellum South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 177, 219.

11. John Edgerton, Southern Food: At Home, on the Road, in History (New York: Knopf, 1987), 37.

12. Raboteau, Slave Religion, 212.

13. Bremer, America of the Fifties, 114-115.

14. Ibid., 120-123.

15. Raboteau, Slave Religion, 224–225.

16. Solomon Northup, Twelve Years a Slave, ed. Sue Eakin and Joseph Logsdon (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1968), 163–164; Susan Dabney Smedes, Memorials of a Southern Planter, ed. Fletcher M. Green (1887; reprint, New York: Knopf, 1965), 151.

17. Helen Mendes, The African Heritage Cookbook (New York: Macmillan, 1971), 60, 72.

18. John W. Blassingame, The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South, rev, ed, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), 101.

19. Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, Within the Plantation Household: Black and White Women in the Old South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), 160–161; Gilberto Freyre, The Mansions and the Shanties (Sobrados e Mucambos): The Making of Modern Brazil, trans. and ed. Harriet de Onís (New York: Knopf, 1963), 185–192; Gilberto Freyre, The Masters and the Slaves (Casa-grande & senzala): A Study in the Development of Brazilian Civilization, trans. Samuel Putnam (New York: Knopf, 1956), 128–129; Genovese, Roll Jordan Roll, 541, 543; Matthew Gregory Lewis, Journal of a West India Proprietor, 1815-1817, ed. Mona Wilson (London: George Routledge, 1929), 92, 196–197; John Stewart, A View of the Past and Present State of the Island of Jamaica; with Remarks on the Moral and Physical Condition of the slaves, and on the Abolition of Slavery in the Colonies. (New York, Negro Universities Press, 1969 [first edition, 1823]), 268; Richard Robert Madden, A Twelve Month’s Residence in the West Indies, During the Transition from Slavery to Apprenticeship: With Incidental Notices of the State of Society, Prospects, and Natural Resources of Jamaica and Other Islands (Philadelphia: Carey, Lea and Blanchard, 1835; reprint, West Port, Conn.: Negro Universities Press, 1970), 70.

20. Genovese, Roll Jordan Roll, xvi, xvii.

21. Olmsted, The Cotton Kingdom, 71; see Olmsted, A Journey in the Seaboard Slave States, 112.

22. Henry Louis Gates, Jr., ed., The Classic Slave Narratives (New York: Penguin, 1987), 299–300.

23. Olmsted, The Cotton Kingdom, 71.

24. Genovese, Roll Jordan Roll, 549; see 543.

25. Olmsted, A Journey in the Seaboard Slave States, 143.

26. Adèle Toussaint-Samson, A Parisian in Brazil: A Travel Account of a Frenchwoman in Nineteenth-Century Rio De Janeiro, ed. Emma Toussaint (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 2001), 30; Margarette Sheehan de Andrade, Brazilian Cookery: Traditional and Modern (Rio de Janeiro: A Casa Do Livro Eldorado, 1978), 54, 62–63.

27. Richard Henry Dana, To Cuba and Back, ed. C. Harvey Gardiner (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1966), 51, 69; James W. Steele, Cuban Sketches (New York: Putnam’s, 1881), 191–193.

28. Olmsted, A Journey in the Seaboard Slave States, 208–209.

29. Ibid., 209.

30. Abraham Oakey Hall, The Manhattaner in New Orleans; or, Phases of “Crescent City” Life (New York: J. S. Redfield, 1851), 10.

31. Vera Kelsey, Brazil in Capitals (New York: Harper, 1942), 76; Andrade, Brazilian Cookery, 50, 56; Toussaint-Samson, A Parisian in Brazil, 30; Maria Graham, Journal of a Voyage to Brazil, and the Residence There, During Part of the Years 1821, 1822, 1823 (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green, 1824; reprint, New York: Praeger, 1969), 113, 122; Nieuhoff ’s Brazil (1813) in John Pinkerton, A General Collection of the Best and Most Interesting Voyages and Travels in all Parts of the World. . . (London: Longman, Hurst, Ross, Orme and Brown, 1813), 14:868.

32. Karen Hess, The Carolina Rice Kitchen: The African Connection (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1992), 103–104; Toussaint-Samson, A Parisian in Brazil, 30; John Mawe, John Mawe’s Journey into the Interior of Brazil (1809), reprinted in Colonial Travelers in Latin America, ed. Irving A. Leonard (New York: Knopf, 1972), 212; Nieuhoff’s Brazil, 14:868; James C. Fletcher and D. P. Kidder, Brazil and the Brazilians Portrayed in Historical and Descriptive Sketches (Boston: Little Brown, and Company: London: Sampson, Low, Son, & Co, 1866), 125; Theodore Canot, Captain Canot; or, Twenty Years of an African Slaver: Being an Account of His Career and Adventures on the Coast, in the Interior, on Shipboard, and in the West Indies, Written out and edited from the Captain’s Journals, Memoranda and Conversations (New York: D. Appleton, 1854), 33, 38.

33. Louis Agassiz and Elizabeth Agassiz, A Journey in Brazil (Boston: Ticknor and Fields, 1868; reprint, New York: Praeger, 1969), 73. See Toussaint-Samson, A Parisian in Brazil, 55, 80; Graham, Journal of a Voyage to Brazil, 166, 280.

34. Olmsted, A Journey in the Seaboard Slave States, 143–144; Hilliard, Hog Meat and Hoecake, 43, 47, 55; Genovese, Roll Jordan Roll, 543, 548–549; Mendes, The African heritage Cookbook, 67, 69;

35. Ira Berlin, Joseph P. Reidy, and Leslie S. Rowland, eds., Freedom’s Soldiers: The Black Military Experience in the Civil War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 89; see 2–3. See also Edwin S. Redkey, ed., A Grand Army of Black Men: Letters from African-American Soldiers in the Union Army, 1861–1865 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 260–261.

36. Samuel H. Sprott, Cush: A Civil War Memoir, ed. Louis R. Smith, Jr., and Andrew Quist (Livingston: University of West Alabama, Livingston Press, 1999), 124; Alex Haley, Roots (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1976), 534.

37. Berlin, Reidy, and Rowland, Freedom’s Soldiers, 36.

38. Wiley, The Life of Johnny Reb, 104–105; Sprott, Cush, 16, 114; Haley, Roots, 542, 547.

39. Lee, J. Edward Lee and Ron Chepesiuk, eds., South Carolina in the Civil War: The Confederate Experience in Letters and Diaries (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2000), 89–91, 141; Bell Irvin Wiley, The Life of Johnny Reb: The Common Soldier of the Confederacy, (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1971), 101, 103.

40. Harvey A. Levenstein, Revolution at the Table: The Transformation of the American Diet (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 27. See Eliza McHatton-Ripley, From Flag to Flag; a Woman’s Adventures and Experiences in the South During the War, in Mexico, and in Cuba (New York, D. Appleton, 1889), 247–248.

41. Samuel H. Lockett, Louisiana as It Is: A Geographical and Topographical Description of the State (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1969), 48.

42. Wilbur O. Atwater and Charles D. Woods, Dietary Studies with Reference to the Food of the Negro in Alabama in 1895 and 1896, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, bulletin no. 38 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1897), 7.

43. Emma Speed Sampson, Miss Minerva’s Cook Book. De Way to a Man’s Heart (Chicago, 1931), 99.

44. Ibid.

45. Ibid., 268. See Atwater and Woods, Dietary Studies, 11.

46. Margaret Cussler and Mary L. de Give, ’Twixt the Cup and the Lip: Psychological and Socio-Cultural Factors Affecting Food Habits (Washington, D.C.: Consortium, 1952), 248–249.

47. Joyce White, Soul Food: Recipes and Reflections from African-American Churches (New York: HarperCollins, 1998), 252.

48. Atwater and Woods, Dietary Studies, 19 (see also 16–17); H. D. Frissel and Isabel Bevier, Dietary Studies of Negroes in Eastern Virginia in 1897 and 1898, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, bulletin no. 71, (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1899), 8.

49. Atwater and Woods, Dietary Studies, 20, 26; Sampson, Miss Minerva’s Cook Book, 33.

50. Bennett Marshall and Gertha Couric, “Alabama Barbecue,” p. 1–3, WPA State Records, “America Eats” Collection, Alabama, Box A 18, file entitled “Alabama Cuisine.”

51. Frissel and Bevier, Dietary Studies of Negroes in Eastern Virginia, 8, 11.

52. Atwater and Woods, Dietary Studies, 20.

53. John Smith, “Descriptions of Virginia and Proceedings of the Colonie by Captain John Smith, 1612,” in Narratives of Early Virginia 1606–1625, ed. Lyon Gardiner Tyler, vol. 5 of Original Narratives of Early American History, ed. J. Franklin Jameson (New York: Scribner’s, 1907), 96–97; Northup, Twelve Years a Slave, 128; Fletcher Douglas Srygley, Seventy Years in Dixie: Recollections and Sayings of T. W. Caskey and Others (Nashville, Tenn.: Gospel Advocate, 1893), 86.

54. Atwater and Woods, Dietary Studies, 21.

55. Wendell B. Brooks Phillips, “Hog Killing,” p. 1, box A 397, file, South Carolina Cuisine, WPA State Records Related, “America Eats” Collection; Atwater and Woods, Dietary Studies, 21.

56. Atwater and Woods, Dietary Studies, 64; Frissel and Bevier, Dietary Studies of Negroes in Eastern Virginia, 40; A. L. Tommie Bass, Plain Southern Eating from the Reminiscences of A. L. Tommie Bass, Herbalist, ed. John K. Crellin (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988), 66.

57. Karen Iacobbo and Michael Iacobbo, Vegetarian America: A History (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2004); Colin Spencer, Heretic’s Feast: A History of Vegetarianism (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1996).

58. Joe Gray Taylor, Eating, Drinking, and Visiting in the South: An Informal History (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1982), 47–48, 109.

59. Floris Barnett Cash, African American Women and Social Action: The Clubwomen and Volunteerism from Jim Crow to the New Deal, 1896–1936 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 2001), 67–72; Cynthia Neverdon-Morton, “Self-Help Programs as Educative Activities of Black Women in the South, 1895–1925: Focus on Four Key Areas,” Journal of Negro Education 51, no. 3 (Summer 1982): 210–216; Gerda Lerner, “Early Community Work of Black Club Women,” Journal of Negro History 59, no. 2 (April 1974): 159–160.

60. Jacqueline Anne Rouse, “Out of the Shadow of Tuskegee: Margaret Murray Washington, Social Activism, and Race Vindication,” Journal of Negro History 81, no. 1/4 (Winter–Autumn 1996): 35–37; Deborah Gray White, Too Heavy a Load: Black Women in Defense of Themselves, 1894–1994 (New York: Norton, 1999), 24–30.

61. Rouse, “Out of the Shadow of Tuskegee,” 33; Anne Firor Scott, “The Most Invisible of Them All: Black Women’s Voluntary Associations,” Journal of Southern History 56, no. 1 (February 1990): 16–22.

62. Rouse, “Out of the Shadow of Tuskegee,” 34, 41–43.

63. The Booker T. Washington papers, vol. 5, 1899–1900, ed. Louis R. Harlan, Raymond W. Smock, and Barbara S. Kraft (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976), 270.

64. The Booker T. Washington Papers, vol. 4, 1895–98, ed. Louis R. Harlan, Stuart B. Kaufman, Barbara S. Kraft, and Raymond W. Smock (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1975), 64.

65. James Weldon Johnson, Along This Way: The Autobiography of James Weldon Johnson (New York: Viking, 1933), 107–109.

66. Clifton Johnson, Highways and Byways of the South (New York: Macmillan, 1904), 46. See Srygley, Seventy Years in Dixie, 330–331; Johnson, Along This Way, 76–77, 330–331.

67. Johnson, Along This Way, 33, 54, 64–65.

68. Ibid., 54.

69. Taylor, Eating, Drinking, and Visiting in the South, 116–117.

70. Ibid., 117–118.

71. This concept is gleaned from David D. Hall, ed., Lived Religion in America: Toward a History of Practice (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1997).

72. For an overview of themes in African American religious history, see Timothy F. Fulop and Albert J. Raboteau, eds., African-American Religion: Interpretive Essays in History and Culture (New York: Routledge, 1997).

73. Atwater and Woods, Dietary Studies, 18.

74. W. E. B. Du Bois, W. E. B. Du Bois, Writings: The Suppression of the African Slave-Trade, The Souls of Black Folk, Dusk of Dawn, Essays and Articles (New York: Library of America, 1986), 496.

75. Michael Perman, Struggle for Mastery: Disfranchisement in the South, 1888–1908, (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 244–247, 269; Jane Dailey, Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, and Bryant Simon, eds., Jumpin’ Jim Crow: Southern Politics from Civil War to Civil Rights (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000), 3–4.

76. Ernest Von Hesse-Wartegg, Travels on the Lower Mississippi, 1879–1880: A Memoir by Ernest Von Hesse-Wartegy, trans. and ed. Frederic Trautman (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1990), 99.

77. Weekly Louisianian (New Orleans), January 8, 1881.

78. Race riots started in Atlanta, Georgia, in 1906; East St. Louis in May 1917; Houston, Texas, in August 1917; South Carolina on May 10, 1919; Longview, Texas, on July 11, 1919; Washington, D.C., on July 20, 1919; Chicago on July 27, 1919; Knoxville, Tennessee, on August 30, 1919; Omaha, Nebraska, on September 28, 1919; Elaine, Arkansas, on October 1, 1919; and Tulsa, Oklahoma, on May 1921. See Robert V. Haynes, A Night of Violence: The Houston Riot of 1917 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1976), 18–19; Lee E. Williams and Lee E. Williams II, Anatomy of Four Race Riots: Racial Conflict in Knoxville, Elaine (Arkansas), Tulsa, and Chicago, 1919–1921 (Hattiesburg: University and College Press of Mississippi, 1972), 4; Elliott M. Rudwick, Race Riot at East St. Louis, July 2, 1917 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1964), 4; Stephen A. Gura, “The Limits of Mob Law: The Elaine Race Riot of 1919” (honor thesis., Emory University, 1983), 31–32; Scott Ellsworth, Death in a Promised Land: The Tulsa Race Riot of 1921 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1982), 89.

79. Rudwick, Race Riot, 210–213, 221; Williams and Williams, Anatomy of Four Race Riots, 6–7.

80. Topeka Plain (Kansas), July 29, 1921, Tuskegee Institute News Clippings File, p. 0369 R 14.

4. THE GREAT MIGRATION

1. R. H. Leavell, T. R. Snavely, T. J. Woofter, Jr., W. T. B. Williams, and Francis D. Tyson, Negro Migration in 1916–17 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1919), 27, 58–61, 78–79, 115.

2. Leavell et al., Negro Migration in 1916–17, 87, 104–105; Michael Perman, Struggle for Mastery: Disfranchisement in the South, 1888–1908 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 269.

3. Leavell et al., Negro Migration in 1916–17, 101, 105, 107, 28–31. On the Great Migration in general, see Carole Marks, Farewell—We’re Good and Gone: The Great Black Migration (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989). On the migration to Chicago, see James Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989). On Westchester County, see Andrew Wiese, Places of Their Own: African American Suburbanization in the Twentieth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), chap. 2. On Harlem, see Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto. Negro New York, 1890–1930 (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1964). On Cleveland, see Kenneth L. Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870–1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976).

4. For more on the Harlem Renaissance, see Anne Elizabeth Carroll, Word, Image, and the New Negro: Representation and Identity in the Harlem Renaissance (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005).

5. Sheila Ferguson, Soul Food: Classic Cuisine From the Deep South (New York: Grove Press, 1989), xiii–xiv; Langston Hughes, The Langston Hughes Reader (New York: Braziller, w31958), 368–371.

6. The term “freedom belt” comes from Gene Baro, “Soul Food,” Vogue 155 (March 1970), 80.

7. James Weldon Johnson, Along This Way: The Autobiography of James Weldon Johnson (New York: Viking, 1933), 64–65. See Leavell et al., Negro Migration, 28; Louis Armstrong, Satchmo: My Life in New Orleans (New York: Da Capo, 1986), 189; Maya Angelou, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (1969; reprint, New York: Bantam, 1970), 4.

8. Angelou, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, 4.

9. Alexander Smalls, Grace the Table: Stories and Recipes from My Southern Revival, with Hattie Jones (New York: HarperCollins, 1997), 16–17.

10. Adam Clayton Powell, Jr., Adam by Adam: The Autobiography of Adam Clayton Powell, Jr. (New York: Dial, 1971), 1–8.

11. Ibid., 17–18.

12. Ibid., 16.

13. Ferguson, Soul Food, xxi–xxvi.

14. Smalls, Grace the Table, 18–20, 65–66; Joyce White, Soul Food: Recipes and Reflections from African-American Churches (New York: HarperCollins, 1998), 149.

15. St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City (1945; reprint, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993); Tracy N. Poe, “The Origins of Soul Food in Black Urban Identity: Chicago, 1915–1947,” American Studies International 37, no. 1 (February 1999): 5–7.

16. Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, 608.

17. Ibid., 547.

18. Ibid., 578–579.

19. A. D. A. Moser, “Farm Family Diets in the Lower Coastal Plains of South Carolina,” South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Clemson Agricultural College, bulletin no. 319, June 1939; idem, “Food Habits of South Carolina Farm Families,” South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Clemson Agricultural College, bulletin no. 343, November 1942.

20. Moser, “Food Habits of South Carolina Farm Families,” 25.

21. Moser, “Farm Family Diets in the Lower Coastal Plains of South Carolina,” 42–44.

22. Dorothy Dickins, “A Nutrition Investigation of Negro Tenants in the Yazoo Mississippi Delta,” Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, A & M College, bulletin no. 254, August 1928, 33.

23. Moser, “Farm Family Diets in the Lower Coastal Plains of South Carolina,” 42–44.

24. Moser, “Lower Coastal Plains of South Carolina Farm Families,” 44–45.

25. Moser, “Lower Coastal Plains of South Carolina Farm Families,” 45.

26. Ibid., 42–45.

27. Dickins, “A Nutrition Investigation of Negro Tenants,” 35.

28. Ibid., 45–47.

29. For more on Caribbean migration to New York, see Frederick Douglass Opie, “Eating, Dancing, and Courting in New York: Black and Latino Relations, 1930–1970,” Journal of Social History (forthcoming).

30. Harvey Brett, “Report on Cuban Population in N.Y.C.,” November 25, 1935, p. 3 (see also pp. 1, 4), “Feeding the City Project Collection,” WPA Papers, New York City Municipal Archives, New York, N.Y. (hereafter FCWPA), roll 269; Strong, “Puerto Rican Colony in N. Y.,” 1935(?), p. 2, FCWPA, roll 269.

31. Jose Pastrana, “Fuentes Restaurant 1326 Fifth Avenue,” December 10, 1940, pp. 1–2, “Eating Out in Foreign Restaurants,” FCWPA, roll 144.

32. Ibid., 3; “Central American, Spanish American,” p. 11, “Eating Out in Foreign Restaurants,” FCWPA, roll 153.

33. Jose Pastrana, “El Favorito Restaurant,” pp. 1–2, FCWPA, roll 269.

34. Ibid., 2–4; Strong, “Puerto Rican Colony in N. Y.,” pp. 3–4.

35. “Street Vendors,” pp. 7–9, FCWPA, roll 153.

36. Sarah Chavez, “Harlem Restaurants,” September 26, 1940, p. 2, FCWPA, roll 144.

37. Wiese, Places of Their Own, 26.

38. Margaret B. (Cooper) Opie, interview, summer 2005; Katie (White) Green, interview, summer 2005.

39. Green, interview.

40. Ella (Christopher) Barnett, interview, summer 2005.

41. Ibid.

42. Ibid.

43. Ibid.; Opie family bible, consulted in Cloverdale, Virginia.

44. 1930 federal census of the village of North Tarrytown.

45. Fred Opie, Jr., interview, summer 2005.

46. Ibid.

47. Dorothy Opie, interview, summer 2005.

48. Fred Opie, Jr., interview.

49. Barnett, interview.

50. For more on African-American migration to Harlem, see Osofsky, Harlem.

51. Nora White, interview, summer 2005.

52. Verta Mae Smart-Grosvenor, “Soul Food,” McCall’s 97 (September 1970): 72.

53. Pearl Bowser and Joan Eckstein, A Pinch of Soul in Book Form (New York: Avon, 1969), 13.

54. Smalls, Grace the Table, 6, 18–20.

55. Bowser and Eckstein, A Pinch of Soul in Book Form, 190.

56. Ibid., 13, 154.

57. Nettie C. Banks, interview, summer 2005.

58. Green, interview.

59. White, interview.

60. A. L. Tommie Bass, Plain Southern Eating from the Reminiscences of A. L. Tommie Bass, Herbalist, ed. John K. Crellin (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988), 79–80; White, Soul Food, 297–298.

61. Ruth and Roy Miller, interview, 2005.

62. Clara Bullard Pittman, interview, summer 2005.

63. Outlaw, interview.

64. White, interview.

65. Yemaja Jubilee, interview, summer 2005

66. Banks, interview.

67. Reginald T. Ward, interview, summer 2005.

68. White, Soul Food, 293.

69. Stephen Erwin, “Collards,” November 14, 1984, box 1, Autobiographical Writings, Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library Duke University.

70. White, Soul Food, 293.

71. Ibid., 273.

72. Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, 613.

73. Ibid., 381.

74. Ibid., 418.

75. Ibid., 423.

76. Frances Warren and Jim Warren, interview, summer 2005.

77. Ward, interview.

78. Ibid.

79. Warren and Warren, interview.

80. Jubilee, interview.

81. This interpretation was first suggested by Jessica B. Harris in Iron Pots and Wooden Spoons: Africa’s Gifts to New World Cooking (New York: Atheneum, 1989), xvi; the dab-a-dab dish is mentioned on p. 47 of [Africanus, pseudo.], “Remarks on the Slave Trader, and the Slavery of the Negroes,” in A Series of Letters (London: J. Phillips, 1788).

82. Lamenta Diane (Watkins) Crouch, interview, summer 2005.

83. Outlaw, interview.

84. White, Soul Food, 1–3.

85. Marcellas C. D. Barksdale, interview, summer 2005.

86. Mary A. Poole, “Alabama Deep Sea Fishing Rodeo,” November 5, 1937, p. 1, box A 13, file Alabama Cities and Towns, Mobile Cuisine, Work Project Administration (State Records), Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (hereafter WPA SR).

87. White, Soul Food, 1–3.

88. Ibid.

89. Smalls, Grace the Table, 73.

90. Banks, interview.

91. Gracilla, “Barboursville, Virginia,” August 18, 1941, p. 1, box A 829 file, WPA SR.

5. THE BEANS AND GREENS OF NECESSITY

1. Theodore Kornweibel, Jr., “An Economic Profile of Black Life in the Twenties,” Journal of Black Studies 6, no. 4. (June 1976): 311–313; William A. Sundstrom, “Last Hired, First Fired? Unemployment and Urban Black Workers During the Great Depression,” Journal of Economic History 52, no. 2 (June 1992): 420–422.

2. St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City (1945; reprint, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 293–295.

3. Sundstrom, “Last Hired, First Fired,” 417–418.

4. “Unemployed men in front of Al Capone’s Soup Kitchen [Chicago],” February 1931, RG 306-N, Records of the United States Information Agency, box 677, file 1, U.S. National Archives II, College Park, Md.

5. Lorena Hickok quoted Malcolm J. Miller in a letter to Harry L. Hopkins (Federal Civil Works administrator), Athens, Ga., January 11, 1934, Georgia Field Reports, p. 4, Papers of Harry L. Hopkins, Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, Hyde Park, N.Y.; Hickok to Hopkins, Moultrie, Ga., January 23, 1934, Georgia Field Reports, Papers of Harry L. Hopkins, p. 4.

6. “Food Crisis in Cleveland,” photo and caption, May 5, 1938, RG 306-N, Records of the United States Information Agency, box 677, file 1, 306-NT-677–2, National Archives II, College Park, Md.

7. Nina Simone, The Autobiography of Nina Simone: I Put A Spell On You, with Stephen Cleary (New York: Da Capo, 1993), 5, 6.

8. Hickok to Hopkins, Columbia, S.C., February 5, 1934, Florida Field Reports, pp. 4–5, Papers of Harry L. Hopkins.

9. Simone, Autobiography, 6.

10. Joe Gray Taylor, Eating, Drinking, and Visiting in the South: An Informal History (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1982), 142.

11. Hickok to Hopkins, Georgia, January 16, 1934, Georgia Field Reports, pp. 7–8, Papers of Harry L. Hopkins.

12. Nora (Burns) White, interview, summer 2005.

13. Ibid.

14. Ibid.

15. Frances Warren and Jim Warren, interview, summer 2005.

16. Simone, Autobiography, 8–9.

17. Ralph David Abernathy, And the Walls Came Tumbling Down: An Autobiography (New York: Harper and Row, 1989), 6; see also 8.

18. Ibid., 6; see also 12, 25–26.

19. Maya Angelou, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (1969; reprint, New York: Bantam, 1970), 19–20.

20. Ruth Miller, Roy Miller, and Rudolf Bradshaw, interview, summer 2005.

21. Cheryl Lynn Greenberg, Or Does It Explode? Black Harlem in the Great Depression (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).

22. Langston Hughes, The Langston Hughes Reader (New York: Braziller, 1958), 372.

23. Ibid., 373.

24. Sheila Ferguson, Soul Food: Classic Cuisine from the Deep South (New York: Grove, 1989), xv.

25. Robert Weisbrot, Father Divine: The Utopian Evangelist of the Depression Era Who Became an American Legend (Boston: Beacon, 1983), 37–40.

26. Ibid., 9.

27. Carleton Maybee, interview, summer 2005.

28. Weisbrot, Father Divine, 11–12, 34–38, 40.

29. Miller, Miller, and Bradshaw, interview; and Dorothy M. Evelyn, interview, summer 2005.

30. Miller, Miller, and Bradshaw, interview.

31. Maybee, interview.

32. Miller, Miller, and Bradshaw, interview.

33. Ibid.

34. Evelyn, interview.

35. Ibid.

36. Ibid.

37. Fred Opie, Jr., and Dorothy Opie, interviews, summer 2005.

38. Margaret B. (Cooper) Opie, interview, summer 2005.

39. Ibid.; Katie Green (White), interview, summer 2005.

40. Margaret Opie, interview.

41. Psyche A. Williams-Forson, Building Houses Out of Chicken Legs: Black Women, Food, and Power (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 145.

42. For an in-depth discussion of African Americans and chicken, see Williams-Forson’s Building Houses Out of Chicken Legs

43. Gracilla, “Barboursville, Virginia,” August 18, 1941, p. 1, box A 829 file, WPA SR,” 1.

44. Nettie C. Banks, interview, summer 2005.

45. Yemaja Jubilee, interview, summer 2005.

46. Benjamin Outlaw, interview, summer 2005.

47. Joan B. Lewis, interview, summer 2005.

48. Stephen Erwin, “[Southern] Food,” November 8, 1984, box 1, Autobiographical Writings: 1974–1990, Stephen Erwin Collection, Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library, Duke University, Durham, N.C.

49. Abernathy, And the Walls Came Tumbling Down, 25–26.

50. Ibid., 25.

51. Joyce White, Soul Food: Recipes and Reflections from African-American Churches (New York: HarperCollins, 1998), 104.

52. The name of the town is in question.

53. Lamenta Diane (Watkins) Crouch, interview, summer 2005.

54. Alexander Smalls, Grace the Table: Stories and Recipes from My Southern Revival, with Hattie Jones (New York: HarperCollins, 1997), 3.

55. Nora White, interview.

56. Beryl Ellington, interview, summer 2005.

6. EATING JIM CROW

1. Robin D. G. Kelley, “‘We Are Not What We Seem’: Rethinking Black Working-Class Opposition in the Jim Crow South,” in The New African American Urban History, ed. Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1996), 192–197.

2. For more on jim crow, see Mark M. Smith, How Race Is Made: Slavery, Segregation, and the Senses (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006); R. Douglas Hurt, ed., African American Life in the Rural South, 1900–1950 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2003); Leon F. Litwack, Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow (New York: Knopf, 1998).

3. Eugene Watts, interview, summer 2005. This chapter is modeled after studies on black community formation such as Joe W. Trotter, Jr., Black Milwaukee: The Making of an Industrial Proletariat, 1915–45 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985); and Kenneth L. Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870–1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976).

4. Joseph “Mac” Johnson, interview, summer 2005.

5. Diana Ross, Secrets of a Sparrow: Memoirs (New York: Villard, 1993), 82.

6. Joseph Johnson, interview.

7. Watts, interview.

8. Litwack, Trouble in Mind. Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham talks about the politics of respectability in Righteous Discontent: The Women’s Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880–1920 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993).

9. James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1985); idem, Domination and the Arts of Resistance: The Hidden Transcripts (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1990).

10. Kelley, “‘We Are Not What We Seem,’” 190–191.

11. Lamenta Diane (Watkins) Crouch, interview, summer 2005; Reginald T. Ward, interview, summer 2005.

12. Margaret B. (Cooper) Opie, interview, summer 2005; Alice N. Conqueran, interview, summer 2005; and Joan B. Lewis, interview, summer 2005.

13. Lewis, interview.

14. Dr. Rodney Ellis, interview, summer 2005; Lewis, interview.

15. On the geography of Richmond’s African-American business community and neighborhoods, see Elsa Barkley Brown and Gregg D. Kimball, “Mapping the Terrain of Black Richmond,” in The New African American Urban History, ed. Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1996).

16. Yemaja Jubilee, interview, summer 2005.

17. Andrew Wiese, Places of Their Own: African American Suburbanization in the Twentieth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 26–27. Langston Hughes uses the “Bottoms” to designate an African American community in his novel Not Without Laughter (1969; reprint, New York: Touchstone, 1995).

18. For more on black migration to and settlement in Cleveland, see Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape; and Wiese, Places of Their Own, 70–90.

19. “Eugene ‘Hot Sauce’ Williams, Barbecue Operator of Cleveland, Ohio,” Ebony, March 1950, 37–40.

20. Ibid., 37–38.

21. Joseph Johnson, interview.

22. Watts, interview; Betty Joyce Johnson, interview, summer 2005.

23. Betty Johnson, interview. See William H. Chafe, Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), 109–120.

24. Lewis, interview.

25. Sadie B. Hornsby, revised by Sarah H. Hall, “The Barbecue Stand,” Georgia Folder, 2301A-2318, pp. 5–7, 3709, Federal Writers Project (WPA) Papers, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, Manuscript Department.

26. Ibid., 8–9.

27. Bennett Marshall and Gertha Couric, “Alabama Barbecue,” pp. 1–3, U.S. Work Project Administration (State Records), Alabama, box A 18, file “Alabama Cuisine,” 2, Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Washington, D.C. See “Monroe, Louisiana Barbecue,” p. 8, U.S. Work Project Administration (State Records), Louisiana, box A 160, file “Cuisine.”

28. Hornsby, “The Barbecue Stand,” 8–9.

29. Ibid., 9–11, 15.

30. Ibid., 12, 14, 15–16.

31. On the history of black Georgia and the southwest Atlanta area in particular, see John Dittmer, Black Georgia in the Progressive Era, 1900–1920 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977); and Wiese, Places of Their Own, 174–196.

32. Stanlie M. James, interview, summer 2005.

33. Marcellas C. D. Barksdale, interview, summer 2005.

34. James, interview.

35. Alton Hornsby Jr., interview, summer 2005.

36. James, interview.

37. Ralph David Abernathy, And the Walls Came Tumbling Down: An Autobiography (New York: Harper and Row, 1989), 64–67.

38. Ibid., 64, 65, 67.

39. Crouch, interview.

40. Neely, interview.

41. Crouch, interview.

42. Neely, interview.

43. Crouch, interview.

44. Ross, Secrets of a Sparrow, 83.

45. Segregation and the desegregation of restaurants in New York are documented in Martha Biondi’s To Stand and Fight: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Postwar New York City (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003), 36–37, 79–82, 85, 89–90.

46. Sarah Chavez, “Harlem Restaurants,” October 2, 1940, two different drafts available, FCWPA, roll 144.

47. Burton W. Peretti, Jazz in American Culture (Chicago: Dee, 1997), 126–136.

48. Carmen John Leggio, interview, summer 2005.

49. Rudolph Bradshaw, in Ruth Miller, Roy Miller, and Rudolf Bradshaw, interview, summer 2005.

50. Sarah Chavez, “Southern Cooking,” p. 7, FCWPA, roll 153; idem, “Harlem Restaurants,” September 26, 1940, p. 3, FCWPA, roll 144.

51. Sarah Chavez, “Harlem Restaurants,” September 27, 1940, FCWPA, roll 144.

52. Irving Ripps “Specials Today—and Everyday,” September 17, 1940, p. 10, FCWPA, roll 144; Macdougall, “Poor Men’s Fare,” p. 11, FCWPA, roll 153.

53. Evelyn Gonzalez, The Bronx (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004), 109–110.

54. Mark Naison and Maxine Gordon, interview with Kwame Brathwaite, May 17, 2002, pp. 2, 3, 6, 7, Bronx African American History Project, Bronx County Historical Society Archive Collection, Bronx, N.Y. (hereafter BAAHP).

55. Mark Naison, interview with Frank Belton, n.d. (ca. 2006), pp. 4–5, BAAHP.

56. Mark Naison, interview with Nathan “Bubba” Dukes, n.d. (ca. 2006), p. 1, BAAHP.

57. Paul Gilroy, “There Ain’t No Black in the Union Jack”: The Cultural Politics of Race and Nation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 158.

58. For more on black neighborhoods in Westchester, see Wiese, Places of Their Own.

59. Conqueran, interview, summer 2005.

60. Ibid.

61. Ibid.

62. Margaret Opie, interview.

63. Conqueran, interview, summer 2005; Christopher Boswell, interview, summer 2005.

64. Boswell, interview.

65. Ibid.

66. Conqueran, interview, summer 2005. See also Leggio, interview; Lewis, interview.

67. Conqueran, interview, summer 2005.

68. Margaret Opie, interview.

69. Ibid.; Lewis, interview.

70. Lewis, interview.

71. Ibid.

72. Ibid. See Robert E. Weems, Jr., Desegregating the Dollar: African American Consumerism in the Twentieth Century (New York: New York University Press, 1998).

73. Ross, Secrets of a Sparrow, 82.

7. THE CHITLIN CIRCUIT

1. James Brown and Bruce Tucker, James Brown: The Godfather of Soul (1986; reprint, New York: Thunder’s Mouth, 1997), 173.

2. A good example of the chitlin circuit is portrayed in the first half of the movie Ray, starring Jamie Fox. Also see Oscar J. Jordan III, “Jimi Hendrix and Chitlin’ Circuit,” P-Funk Review, February 2004; Charles Sawyer, The Arrival of B. B. King: The Authorized Biography (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1980), 73.

3. Gladys Knight, Between Each Line of Pain and Glory: My Life Story (New York: Hyperion, 1997), 125.

4. Information on venues gleaned from a recording of a radio feature on the chitlin circuit found at www.soul-patrol.com/soul/chitlin.htm.

5. Aretha Franklin and David Ritz, From These Roots (New York: Villard, 1999), 95, 106.

6. Monique Guillory and Richard C. Green, eds., Soul: Black Power, Politics, and Pleasure (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 3; Eddie S. Glaude, Jr., Is It Nation Time? Contemporary Essays on Black Power and Black Nationalism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002).

7. Bayard Rustin, “Black Folks, White Folks,” in Peter Goldman, ed., Report from Black America (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1969), 144.

8. Ibid., 143; Stokely Carmichael and Charles V. Hamilton, Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America (New York: Vintage Books, 1967), 37–38, 44, 46; Komozi Woodard, A Nation Within A Nation: Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones) and Black Power Politics (Chapel Hill: University of New Carolina Press, 1999), 32, 86.

9. W. A. Jeanpierre, “African Negritude—Black American Soul,” Africa Today 14, no. 6 (December 1967): 10–11.

10. Doris Witt, Black Hunger: Food and the Politics of U.S. Identity (New York: Oxford University Press. 1999), 97. See also Scott Brown, Fighting for US: Maulana Karenga, the US Organization, and Black Cultural Nationalism (New York: New York University Press, 2003); and Jeffrey O. G. Ogbar, Black Power: Radical Politics and African American Identity (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004).

11. Lamenta Diane (Watkins) Crouch, interview, summer 2005.

12. Clara Bullard Pittman, interview, summer 2005.

13. Ella (Christopher) Barnett, interview, summer 2005.

14. Margaret B. (Cooper) Opie, interview, summer 2005.

15. Sundiata Sadique (formerly Walter Brooks), interview, summer 2005. For more on the Nation of Islam, see Ogbar, Black Power, chap. 1; William L. Van Deburg, Hoodlums: Black Villains and Social Bandits in American Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004);and C. Eric Lincoln, The Black Muslims in America (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdsmans, 1993).

16. Sadique, interview.

17. Ibid.; Margaret Opie, interview.

18. Ibid.

19. Ibid.

20. Ibid.

21. Ibid.

22. Rustin, “Black Folks, White Folks,” 157. See William L. Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965–1975 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 27–28.

23. Rustin, “Black Folks, White Folks,” 152.

24. Robert Blauner, “Black Culture: Lower-Class Result or Ethnic Creation?” in Black Experience: Soul, ed. Lee Rainwater (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1973), 153–161.

25. Ulf Hannerz, “The Significance of Soul,” based on fieldwork in Washington, D.C., July/August 1968, in Black Experience, 19.

26. Alton Hornsby, Jr., interview, summer 2005.

27. Witt, Black Hunger, 97.

28. Hornsby, interview.

29. Joseph “Mac” Johnson, interview, summer 2005; and Nora (Burns) White, interview, summer 2005.

30. Joe Gray Taylor, Eating, Drinking, and Visiting in the South: An Informal History (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1982), 89.

31. Barnett, interview.

32. 1930 federal census of the villages of Tarrytown, North Tarrytown, Ossining, and the City of Mount Vernon.

33. Barnett, interview.

34. Reginald T. Ward, interview, summer 2005; Joseph Johnson, interview; and Pittman, interview.

35. Ward, interview.

36. Joseph Johnson, interview.

37. Ibid

38. “Soul Food Moves Down Town,” Sepia (Fort Worth, Tex.) 18 (May 1969): 46, 48–49.

39. Pittman, interview.

40. Ward, interview.

41. Hornsby, interview.

42. Eldridge Cleaver, Soul on Ice (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968), 29.

43. “Soul Cookery Described on TV Series,” Daily Defender (Chicago), January 9, 1969, 24.

44. Cleaver, Soul on Ice, 29.

45. Amiri Baraka [LeRoi Jones], Home: Social Essays (New York: Morrow, 1966), 101–102.

46. Verta Mae Grosvenor, Black Atlantic Cooking (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1990). For more on SNCC, see Howard Zinn, SNCC: The New Abolitionists (Boston: Beacon, 1965).

47. Verta Mae Grosvenor, “Racism in the Kitchen,” Black World 19 (October 1970): 26–26.

48. Bob Jeffries, Soul Food Cook Book (Indianapolis, N.Y.: Bobbs-Merrill, 1969), vii.

49. Ibid., ix.

50. Helen Mendes, The African Heritage Cookbook (New York: Macmillan, 1971), 11, 15.

51. Pearl Bowser and Joan Eckstein, A Pinch of Soul in Book Form (New York: Avon, 1969), 12.

52. Ibid., 12–13.

53. Ibid., 12.

54. “Soul Food Moves Down Town,” 46, 49.

55. Ibid., 49.

56. Craig Claiborne, “Cooking with Soul,” New York Times Magazine, November 3, 1968, 104; Jeffries, Soul Food Cook Book, 9.

57. Jim Harwood and Ed Callahan, Soul Food Cook Book (Concord, Calif.: Nitty Gritty, 1969), 1–2; Obie Green cited in Claiborne, “Cooking with Soul,” 102; Jeffries, Soul Food Cook Book, ix.

58. Verta Mae Grosvenor, “Soul Food,” McCall’s 97 (September 1970): 72; Jeffries, Soul Food Cook Book, ix.

8. THE DECLINING INFLUENCE OF SOUL FOOD

1. Harvey Brett, “Report on Cuban Population in N.Y.C.,” pp. 1, 3–4, November 25, 1935, FCWPA, roll 269; Strong, “Puerto Rican Colony in N. Y.,” 1935(?), p. 2, FCWPA, roll 269; “Spanish American Restaurants,” p. 2, FCWPA, “Eating Out in Foreign Restaurants” research folder, roll 144; Irma Watkins-Owens, Blood Relations: Caribbean Immigrants and the Harlem Community, 1900–1930 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996), 4; Lisa Brock and Digna Castañeda Fuertes, eds., Between Race and Empire: African-Americans and Cubans Before the Cuban Revolution (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998), 253.

2. Agustín Laó-Montes and Arlene Dávila, eds., Mambo Montage: The Latinization of New York (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001), 105.

3. Strong, “Puerto Rican Colony,” pp. 1–2; Jose Pastrana, “El Favorito Restaurant,” pp. 1, 4, FCWPA, “Eating Out Foreign Restaurants” research folder, roll 144.

4. Strong, “Puerto Rican Colony,” pp. 1–2.

5. Winston James, Holding Aloft the Banner of Ethiopia: Caribbean Radicalism in Early Twentieth-Century America (London: Verso, 1998), 197.

6. Jairo Moreno, “Bauzá-Gillespie-Latin/Jazz: Difference, Modernity, and the Black Caribbean,” South Atlantic Quarterly 103 no. 1 (Winter 2004): 83–85; Donald L. Maggin, The Life and Times of John Birks Gillespie, Dizzy (New York: HarperEntertainment, 2005), 216.

7. Harvey Brett, “Report on Cuban Population in N.Y.C.,” pp. 1, 3–4, November 25, 1935, FCWPA, roll 269; Strong, “Puerto Rican Colony,” p. 2; “Spanish American Restaurants,” p. 2.

8. Dizzy Gillespie, Dizzy: To Be or Not to Bop. The Autobiography of Dizzy Gillespie with Al Fraser (New York: Doubleday, 1979), 317–319.

9. Laó-Montes and Dávila, Mambo Montage, 107.

10. Edwin Cruise, interview, December 2006.

11. Francisco Corona, interview, December 2006.

12. Ibid.; Louis A. Perez, Jr., Cuba Between Reform and Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 288–312.

13. Corona, interview.

14. Ibid.

15. Ibid.

16. George Priestly, interview, 2006.

17. Ibid.

18. Oliverio Ojito Fardales, interview, December 2006

19. “Tarry Town’s Cuban Flavor,” New York Times, March 20, 1977.

20. Alice N. Conqueran, interviews, summer 2005 and December 2006.

21. This insight was inspired by my interview with sociologist George Priestly and his comments on after-hours joints in Brooklyn and the leveling that took place between African Panamanians there.

22. Corona, interview.

23. Hugh Bradley, Havana: Cinderella’s City, (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, Doran, 1941), 352.

24. New York Times, March 20, 1977

25. Corona, interview; Marìano Meneses, interview, December 2006.

26. New York Times, March 20, 1977.

27. Corona, interview.

28. Priestly, interview.

29. Ibid.

30. Laó-Montes and Dávila, Mambo Montage, 239.

31. Ibid. 240–241.

32. Sonya (Cruz) Jones, interview, December 2006.

33. Evelyn Gonzalez, The Bronx (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004), 109.

34. Ibid., 109–110.

35. Mark Naison, interview with Nathan “Bubba” Dukes, n.d. (ca. 2006), pp. 1–3, BAAHP (hereafter Dukes, interview).

36. Mark Naison, “‘It Take a Village to Raise a Child’: Growing Up in the Patterson Houses in the 1950s and Early 1960s: An Interview with Victoria Archibald-Good,” Bronx County Historical Society Journal 40, no. 1 (Spring 2003): 9.

37. Dukes, interview, 5.

38. Naison, “‘It Take a Village to Raise a Child,’” 9.

39. Dukes, interview, 18.

40. Barbara (Cardwell) Pino, interview, December 2006.

9. FOOD REBELS

1. Marcellas C. D. Barksdale, interview, summer 2005; Yemaja Jubilee, interview, summer 2005.

2. Dr. Elijah Saunders, interview, summer 2005.

3. Joan B. Lewis, interview, summer 2005.

4. Clara Bullard Pittman, interview, summer 2005.

5. Lewis, interview.

6. Dr. Rodney Ellis, interview, summer 2005.

7. Lewis, interview.

8. Sherman E. Evans, “On the Health of Black Americans,” Ebony, March 1977, 112.

9. “Good Health Is a Family Affair: Good Nutrition, Exercise, Sleep, Physical Examinations, Etc.” [interview with Dr. Keith W. Sehnert], Ebony, May 1977, 107–114.

10. Ibid., 110, 112.

11. Saunders, interview. See Bill Rhoden, “The 10 Worst Things You Can Do to Your Health,” Ebony, January 10, 1978, 30–35.

12. Saunders, interview.

13. Elijah Muhammad, How to Eat to Live (Chicago: Muhammad’s Temple of Islam No. 2, 1967), 1:5, 6, 10.

14. Eugene Watts, interview, summer 2005.

15. Dick Gregory, interview, summer 2005.

16. Muhammad, How to Eat to Live, 1:6.

17. William L. Van Deburg, Hoodlums: Black Villains and Social Bandits in American Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 97, 98.

18. Malcolm X, The Autobiography of Malcolm X, with Alex Haley (New York: Ballantine, 1964), 217–224.

19. Ruth Miller, Roy Miller, and Rudolf Bradshaw, interview, summer 2005.

20. Reginald T. Ward, interview, summer 2005; Watts, interview.

21. Watts, interview.

22. Ibid.

23. Ibid.

24. Saunders, interview.

25. Watts, interview.

26. Malcolm X, Autobiography, 215–225, esp. 219.

27. Ibid., 219, 221.

28. Bobby Seale, A Lonely Rage: The Autobiography of Bobby Seale (New York: Times Books, 1978), 159, 168.

29. Pittman, interview.

30. Lewis, interview.

31. Ellis, interview.

32. Gregory, interview.

33. Dick Gregory, Nigger: An Autobiography, with Robert Lipsyte (New York: Washington Square, 1964), 145.

34. Gregory, interview.

35. Alvenia Fulton, Radiant Health Through Nutrition (Chicago: Life Line, 1980); Gregory, Nigger, 17.

36. Alfred Duckett, “How to Eat and Love,” Sepia 22, no. 5 (May 1973): 74–79, esp. 80.

37. Ibid.

38. Gregory, interview; Duckett, “How to Eat and Love,” 80.

39. Dick Gregory, Dick Gregory’s Natural Diet for Folks Who Eat: Cookin’ With Mother Nature, ed. James R. McGraw, with Alvenia M. Fulton (1973; reprint, New York: Perennial-Harper, 1974), 80, 81.

40. Vernon Jarrett, “Dick Gregory’s Health Advocacy,” Chicago Tribune, May 23, 1973, 18.

41. Dick Gregory, Callus on My Soul: A Memoir by Dick Gregory (Atlanta: Longstreet Press, 2000), 176; see 174–178, 186–190.

42. Fred Opie, Jr., interview, summer 2005.

43. Gregory, interview.

44. Edward Williamson, interview, summer 2005.

45. Scott Brown, Fighting for US: Maulana Karenga, the US Organization, and Black Cultural Nationalism (New York: New York University Press, 2003), 78, 88; Howard Zinn, SNCC: The New Abolitionists (Boston: Beacon, 1965).

46. Lamenta Diane (Watkins) Crouch, interview, summer 2005.

47. Williamson, interview.

48. Lewis, interview.

49. Pittman, interview.

50. Sundiata Sadique (formerly Walter Brooks), interview, summer 2005.

51. Ralph Johnson and Patricia Reed, “What’s Wrong with Soul Food?” Black Collegian, December 1980/January 1981, 21.

52. Ibid., 22.

53. Mary Keyes Burgess, Soul to Soul: A Soul Food Vegetarian Cookbook (Santa Barbara, Calif.: Woodbridge, 1976), 13, 19.

54. Margaret Opie, interview.

EPILOGUE

1. “New York Bans Most Trans Fats in Restaurants,” New York Times, December 6, 2006, p. 1.

2. “Saving Soul Food,” Newsweek, January 30, 2006.

3. Ben Ammi, God, the Black Man and Truth, 2d ed. (Washington, D.C.: Communicators, 1990).

4. “Saving Soul Food.”

5. Yemaja Jubilee, interview, summer 2005.

6. Ibid.

7. Lamenta Diane (Watkins) Crouch, interview, summer 2005.

8. Dr. Elijah Saunders, interview, summer 2005.

9. Joan B. Lewis, interview, summer 2005; Yemaja Jubilee, interview, summer 2005.

10. Dorothy I. Height, The Black Family Dinner Quilt Cookbook, with the National Council of Negro Women (Memphis, Tenn.: Wimmer Companies, 1993), 213–214. Other examples of healthy soul food cook books include Mary Keyes Burgess, Soul to Soul: A Soul Food Vegetarian Cookbook (Santa Barbara, Calif.: Woodbridge, 1976); Jonell Nash, Low-Fat Soul (New York: Ballantine, 1996); and Fabiola Demps Gaines and Roniece Weaver, The New Soul Food Cookbook for People with Diabetes, 2d ed. (Alexandria, Va.: American Diabetes Association, 2006).

11. David Bell and Gill Valentine, Consuming Geographies: We Are Where We Eat (London: Routledge, 1997), 10, 116.

12. Jim Harwood and Ed Callahan, Soul Food Cook Book (Concord, Calif.: Nitty Gritty, 1969), 1–2.