In this section, we've attempted to compile the facts within the exam's subject areas that you are most likely to need another look at—in other words, the areas of study that you might have highlighted while reading the Study Guide. The title of each highlighted element corresponds to the heading title in the A+ Essentials Study Guide. In this way, if you have a question about a highlight, you can refer back to the corresponding section in the Study Guide. For the most part, the entries under a heading are organized as term lists with main points that you need to memorize for the exam.
This subsection covers a summary of highlights from the "Personal Computer Components" section in the A+ Essentials Study Guide.
There are two types of motherboards: integrated and nonintegrated.
Integrated motherboards natively possess most essential components (a video adapter and network interface card are two examples) on it.
A nonintegrated motherboard needs such components to be installed as add-on cards.
Most new personal computers have integrated motherboards.
The Form Factor specifies the design of the motherboard as well as details such as size and layout of components.
ATX is an integrated motherboard Form Factor, which allows for easier expansion.
The expansion slots are located at right angles to the processor and memory.
The ATX Form Factor allows for better airflow for cooling the core components.
The ATX supports soft power off, meaning that the OS can be used to turn off the computer.
The power supply uses a single 20-pin connector.
Uses a smaller Form Factor than ATX and offers limited expandability.
Contains fewer expansion slots for add-on cards and memory.
Can fit into an ATX case.
Provides a number of USB ports for connecting external components.
BTX uses a smaller Form Factor than ATX and Micro ATX.
The design provides better airflow inside the computer and reduces the need for additional cooling fans.
It offers better placement of components for back panel I/O ports.
Most of the components are placed sideways on riser cards.
The add-on cards are parallel to the motherboard.
This design uses an ATX power supply.
Refers to the collection of semiconductor chips on the motherboard.
Provides interfaces for expansion cards, memory, peripherals, and interface cards and ports.
Each is designed to offer certain features.
The Northbridge and the Southbridge are two types of chipsets.
Northbridge chipset communicates with the processor using front side bus (FSB).
Southbridge chipset controls all of the computer's onboard Input/Output (I/O) functions.
This software is stored on a semiconductor chip called the BIOS chip.
It is activated as soon as the computer is powered on.
It detects the hardware and allocates system resources to it.
It controls how the processor and chipsets interact with the OS.
The CMOS chip stores certain computer settings such as the date and time.
It gets its power from a small battery, called the CMOS battery.
Random Access Memory (RAM) is the primary memory of the computer.
Motherboards have slots for expanding the memory.
Computers use the processor cache for improved performance.
The built-in memory inside the processor is called L1 Cache.
The external cache memory is called L2 Cache.
The type, shape, size, and pin configuration of a processor socket depend on the processor.
Processor sockets or slots are identified by standards.
Sockets are flat in shape and have several rows and columns of pins.
Most Pentium class processors use heat sinks and cooling fans because they generate considerable heat.
The Zero Insertion Force (ZIF) socket makes it easy to insert and remove processors.
Pentium II and III processors use slots.
The processor is mounted on an expansion card, which is inserted vertically in the slot.
Connectors for integrated I/O ports are accessible from the computer's rear side.
The 15-pin SVGA connector is used to connect a CRT or LCD monitor.
The 6-pin PS/2 (mini DIN) connectors are used to connect keyboards and mice.
The 9-pin serial connector is for serial devices such as modems or scanners.
The 25-pin parallel connector is mainly used to connect printers.
The 8-pin RJ-45 connector is used to connect network cables.
The 4-pin RJ-11 connector is used to connect telephone cables.
USB connectors are used for USB devices such as printers and digital cameras.
The IEEE 1394 connector is used to connect devices with Firewire interface.
Peripheral Connect Interface (PCI) slots are usually white and are about three inches long.
The Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) slot is brown and is for video.
The PCI Express (PCIe) slot is designed to replace the PCI and AGP slots and possesses different sizes depending upon version (x1, x4, and x16 are the most common).
The Audio Modem Riser (AMR) slot has 46 pins and is used on some old motherboards.
The Communications and Networking Riser (CNR) slot has 60 pins.
The Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) slots are black and are long in shape.
ISA slot has two parts: one small and the other long.
The term Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics (EIDE) interface is used for the Advanced Technology Attachment (ATA) interface.
EIDE/ATA connectors have 40 pins and use a flat ribbon cable.
The first pin on the cable is marked with a red line. Since the data is transferred in parallel fashion from the motherboard to the drive, the interface is also called Parallel ATA (PATA).
EIDE/ATA drives use a four-pin power connector.
The connectors for SATA interfaces have seven pins.
SATA drives use a 15-pin power connector.
A power supply converts 110-volt or 220-volt AC voltage into DC voltage.
The rating of the power supply unit is given in watts.
DC voltages include +3.3 volts, +5 volts, −5 volts, +12 volts, and −12 volts.
The +3.3 volts and +5 volts DC supply is used in ATX motherboards.
Hyper-Threading Technology (HTT) is a form of simultaneous multithreading (SMT) used in Intel's Pentium 4 processors.
A multicore processor integrates two or more processors into a single package.
CPU throttling is the process of controlling the time spent by the processor on each application.
Microcode (or microprogram) is the instruction set of a CPU.
CPU overclocking forces the processor to run at higher clock rates for improved performance.
Cache is a high-speed processor memory used to store data and instructions.
A Voltage Regulator Module (VRM) provides appropriate voltage to the microprocessor.
The speed of a microprocessor is measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz).
This is the primary or main memory of the computer.
It is used as temporary storage by the system and applications.
Parity RAM uses Parity Checking for checking the integrity of data stored in RAM.
ECC RAM automatically detects and corrects errors in memory.
Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM)
Mainly used as RAM.
DRAM requires that the memory be periodically refreshed in order to retain its contents.
Variations of DRAM include SDRAM, DDR, DDR2, and RAMBUS.
SDRAM has a synchronous interface, and it waits for clock signal before it responds to an input.
SDRAM interfaces with the processor in a parallel 8-byte (64-bit) bus.
DDR SDRAM can double the data transfer rate by using both rising and falling edges of the clock.
DDR2 SDRAM doubles the clock rate by using both edges of the clock signal and then further splits a single clock into two, thus doubling the number of operations for each clock cycle.
Static Random Access Memory (SRAM)
SRAM is much faster than DRAM and is mainly used for system cache.
SIMMs have 30 pins with 8-bit data bus and 72 pins with 32-bit data bus.
DIMM is a 64-bit module used for SDRAM, DDR, and DDR2 memory.
Standard SDRAM has 84 pins on each side, making it a 168-pin module.
DDR DIMM has 184 pins with one keying notch.
DDR2 DIMM has 240 pins and an aluminum cover as a heat sink to prevent overheating.
RIMM modules come in 16-bit (184 pins) single channel or 32-bit 232 dual channel.
SO-DIMM, used in laptops, has 32-bit (72 pins) or 64-bit (200 pins).
Micro DIMM has a 64-bit bus width and comes in 144-pin or 172-pin configurations.
Hard disk drives are the main storage devices for all computers.
A hard disk is usually 3.5 inches wide, and its capacity is measured in gigabytes (GB).
The hard disk controller that operates the drive is located on the hard disk.
The disk itself consists of a number of thin disks or platters and read/write heads.
The disks spin at a speed of 3,600 to 7,200 (and even 10,000) revolutions per minute (rpm).
The hard disk adapter, typically built-in on the motherboard, is used for signal conversion.
A CD-ROM is used for long-term storage and distribution of data.
The capacity of a typical CD-ROM is about 700 MB.
Most new CD-ROM drives are rated between 48X to 52X.
CD burners are drives that can write data on CD-R and CD-RW discs.
DVDs can store up to 4.7 GB of data on a single-sided, single-layered disk.
A double-sided, double-layered DVD can store up to 17 GB of data.
A DVD burner or a DVD writer can write data on a DVD disc.
DVD formats include DVD-R, DVD+R, DVD-RW, and DVD-RAM.
Flash memory is mainly used for booting devices such as network routers and switches.
Various forms of flash memory include Secure Digital (SD) cards, USB thumb drives, and PC cards.
SD cards are used in mobile phones, digital cameras, and camcorders.
USB thumb drives are used for transporting data from one computer to another.
Monochrome video had a maximum screen resolution of 720 × 350 pixels.
CGA supports resolution of 640 × 200 pixels with two colors, and 320 × 200 pixels with four colors.
EGA supports 16 colors with a resolution of 640 × 350 or 320 × 200 pixels.
VGA can display 16 colors with 640 × 480 resolution or 256 colors with 320 × 200 resolution.
VGA uses an HDB-15 D-sub connector with 15 pins arranged in 3 rows.
SVGA supports a resolution of 800 × 600 pixels and 16 colors.
New SVGA technologies support up to 1024 × 768 resolution and 256 colors.
XGA supports a resolution of 1024 × 768 with 256 colors or 800 × 600 resolution with 65,536 colors.
HDMI is a digital audio/video interface offering very high-resolution graphics and digital audio on the same connector.
S-video is an analog video signal that carries video signals as two separate signals.
Component video is an analog video technology that splits the video signals into red, green, and blue components.
A Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitor is the most commonly used display device.
It uses an electron gun that fires electrons onto the back of the screen coated with phosphors.
The screen glows at parts where the electrons strike.
The dot pitch specifies the shortest distance between two dots of the same color.
Average monitors have a dot pitch of 0.28 mm.
The refresh rate specifies how many times the scanning beam can create an image in one second.
The refresh rate for most monitors varies from 60 to 85 Hz.
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) monitors have a flat screen.
LCD monitors are used with both laptops and desktops.
Standard port connectors on computers are used to connect external devices.
The USB is a common computer interface.
A standard USB cable has a Type A connector for the computer and a Type B for the device.
The Firewire port on the computer has a 6-pin connector, and the devices have a 4-pin connector.
Most parallel ports use a 25-pin D-sub connector.
A standard serial port has a 9-pin socket, and the connector is 9-pin D-sub.
Serial cables are of two types: standard serial cable and null modem serial cable.
RJ connectors are used for telephone (RJ-11) and network (RJ-45) connections.
PS/2 (mini DIN) ports have six pins and are mainly used to connect the keyboard (identified with a a purple color) and the mouse (identified with a green color).
A centronics connector is used to connect the parallel printers and SCSI devices.
The power supply fan is located inside the power supply unit.
The rear exhaust fan is used to blow out the hot air from inside the computer case.
The front intake fan is used to bring fresh cool air from outside the computer case.
The CPU fan is located right on top of the CPU above a heat sink.
The chipset fan helps cool the chipset on the motherboard.
A video card cooling fan is used on some high-performance video cards.
The CPU is one of the greatest heat-producing components.
The most common method of cooling the CPU is to install a heat sink right on top of it.
A thermal compound is placed between the CPU and the heat sink.
In liquid cooled systems, a water block is used to remove the heat from the CPU and the chipsets.
Phase change cooling is an extreme cooling technology that takes advantage of the phase change from liquid to gas.
A typical computer motherboard has two IDE connectors for connecting up to four drives.
The Master/Slave jumpers on IDE drives can be set to Master, Slave, or Cable Select.
Each IDE interface can have only one Master connected to its cable. The other drive must be set to Slave.
If connecting only one drive, set it as Master.
You can connect up to seven drives on a single SCSI cable.
An SCSI bus can be 8-, 16-, or 32-bit wide.
SCSI-1 has a 50-pin connector, SCSI-2 can have a 25-, 50-, or 68-pin connector, and the SCSI-3 interface can have a 68- or 80-pin connector.
The first connector on an internal SCSI cable is attached to the SCSI adapter, and devices are connected in a daisy-chain fashion.
All SCSI devices are assigned a unique SCSI ID.
A device with lower SCSI ID always gets higher priority.
The SCSI bus must be terminated.
Ensure that the power supply to both the computer and monitor is turned off.
If replacing a monitor, remove the monitor cable.
Obtain the driver for the new monitor.
Connect the new monitor, connect the AC mains, turn on the computer, and let the computer detect the new hardware.
If required, install the driver software using an OS utility such as the Device Manager in Windows XP/2000.
Adjust brightness, contrast, color levels, and the horizontal and/or vertical positioning.
Always back up the system and user data before making changes.
Break complex problems into smaller components.
Do not ignore even the smallest cause of the problem.
Establish priorities when faced with several calls simultaneously.
Complete the documentation after the problem is resolved.
Define and identify the problem.
Analyze the problem thoroughly to find out whether it is due to a user error, a hardware failure, or a software bug.
Test a failed component before concluding that it has actually failed.
Consult documentation and other resources, such as the vendor's web site, online help, or user forums.
Apply the solution and test to confirm that it has fixed the problem.
Prepare documentation of your activities.
The most common screwdrivers required for installation and repair of computer components are the flat blade, Phillips head, and Torx.
Long nose pliers are required to hold connectors or pick up small screws.
A flashlight is very helpful for locating parts of the computer where light is not adequate.
A soldering iron is required to make connections using a solder wire.
A wire stripper set is used to cut wire and strip off the insulation.
A small can of compressed air is useful for removing dust from internal and external parts of the computer, fans, and other components.
An analog or digital multimeter is used to check resistance (continuity), voltage, and current.
Bootable floppy disks are very useful for starting a computer using MS-DOS.
The POST routine detects and tests major hardware components installed on the computer.
A successful completion of POST confirms that the basic components of the computer are functioning as expected.
Software diagnostic tools, such as MSD, help test hardware components.
Problems with the motherboard or the CPU typically result in a "dead" computer.
If a power supply is malfunctioning, the computer will not respond when it is started.
Problems with memory modules (RAM) can be identified from slow response of the computer.
Display problems occur due to incorrect configuration, loose connections, or a failed monitor.
Problems with the keyboard are caused due to a dirty environment.
When the pointer is jumping around the screen, you may clean the mouse or replace it.
Problems with hard disks can be due to a faulty adapter, a failed hard disk, or an incorrect/loose connection.
Problems with CD and DVD drives are mainly related to media—i.e., the disc itself.
Regular PM helps reduce the chances of breakdowns and improves system performance.
The scheduled PM should outline what PM tasks are to be performed and on what intervals.
Visual inspection reveals whether any components are loose in sockets or whether some cooling fans are jammed.
Device drivers, applications, and BIOS should be updated as and when new updates become available.
Temperature and humidity should be controlled in areas where computers are installed.
Regular cleaning of the monitor, keyboard, and mouse should be done with appropriate cleaning products.
UPS and surge protectors should be used for a clean power supply.
Hard disks should be regularly defragmented and unnecessary temporary files should be cleaned out.
CD and DVD drives should be cleaned using lens cleaners.
Tape drives should be cleaned using tape drive head cleaners.
Floppy disk drives should be cleaned using floppy disk drive head cleaners.
This subsection covers a summary of highlights from the "Laptop and Portable Devices" section in the A+ Essentials Study Guide.
The size of a laptop is much smaller than a desktop because all of its components are in a single case.
The cost of a laptop is more than a standard desktop of comparable configuration.
Laptop components are not equally good in performance compared to desktops, and offer limited expandability.
Laptops require special repair skills and proprietary replacement parts.
Most laptop motherboards are proprietary and have a small form factor compared to desktop motherboards.
Most interfaces—such as serial, parallel, USB, video, network, modem, and sound—are integrated due to shortage of space.
Laptop processors are usually soldered directly to the motherboard.
Processor throttling allows the OS to put the processor in active sleep mode or slow-down mode when not in use.
Laptop processors require less power to run than desktop processors.
Laptops use battery power when not connected to the AC mains.
The AC adapter charges the battery as long as the laptop is connected to the AC mains.
A DC adapter can be plugged into a DC power outlet in a car or an airplane.
Nickel Cadmium (NiCd), Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH), or Lithium-Ion (LiIon) are leading types of batteries used for laptops.
The milliAmp-Hour (mAH) rating indicates the capacity of the battery.
Most laptops use LiIon batteries because they are lightweight and have a longer life.
Laptops use smaller memory modules called MicroDIMM or SO-DIMM.
MicroDIMM has 144 or 172 pins and supports a 64-bit data bus.
MicroDIMM is about half the size of a SO-DIMM and has a capacity of up to 1 GB.
SO-DIMM has 72, 100, 144, or 200 pins.
The 72- and 100-pin SO-DIMMs support a 32-bit data transfer while the 144- and 200-pin SO-DIMMs support a 64-bit data bus.
SO-DIMMs have a storage capacity of up to 2 GB.
An Active Matrix LCD screen utilizes the Thin Film Transistor (TFT) technology.
An Active Matrix LCD screen is made up of a matrix of several pixels.
Active Matrix LCDs offer good response time, high screen resolution, and crisp picture quality.
Passive Matrix LCD screens use a simple grid to supply a charge to a particular pixel in the display.
Passive Matrix LCD screens offer lower screen resolution, slower response time, and poorer image quality than does an Active Matrix LCD.
The number of rows and columns of pixels measure screen resolution.
Aspect ratio refers to the ratio of width and height of the screen.
The single fixed resolution of the LCD screen is called the native resolution.
Contrast ratio is the ratio of lightest color and the brightest color that a video display can produce.
Laptops use hard drives, floppy drives, and CD/DVD drives for data storage.
A laptop hard drive is about 2.5" wide and 1/2" thick, and has smaller connectors.
The CD and DVD drives for laptops are about 1/2" thick.
A floppy drive is optional in most laptops.
A trackball functions just like a normal mouse turned upside down.
A touchpoint or a finger mouse uses a small stick with a rubber tip that moves the on-screen pointer.
The touchpad consists of a rubber pad, which is sensitive to a finger's touch.
On a touch screen, you just have to touch an appropriate button in order to select an item from the menu.
The Mini PCI bus is a 32-bit bus operating at 33 MHz that uses a 3.3 volt power connection.
Three different form factors of Mini PCI bus are Type I, Type II, and Type III.
Type I and Type II buses have a 100-pin connector while the Type III bus has a 124-pin connector.
A Type I PC Card is used for memory modules, Type II is used for network and modem adapters, and Type III is used for hard drives.
The PCMCIA bus standard is also known as the PC Card standard.
PCMCIA 2 has a 16-bit bus, and the PCMCIA 3 has a 32-bit bus.
Socket Services Software and Card Services Software are two main components of a PC Card.
External devices such as thumb drives, keyboards, or a mouse can be connected using USB ports.
Most laptops have a 15-pin VGA connector for attaching an external monitor.
Laptops support a variety of wireless connections for networking.
An Ethernet connection can be made using the RJ-45 port.
A telephone line is connected for a dial-up modem using the RJ-11 port.
A docking station is a platform where a laptop can be installed for everyday use.
A proprietary docking port is used to connect the laptop to the docking station.
The docking port contains expansion ports, drive bays for storage devices, and connectors for peripherals.
A port replicator enables you to keep the external components connected to the docking station.
Laptops conform to ACPI or APM standards for managing how the system components use and conserve power. These standards describe how the power management features are to be implemented. For a computer to be ACPI/APM-compliant, both the hardware and the operating system must support the standards.
The ACPI standard describes the global states, processor states, device states, and performance states.
The S3 state defines the standby mode, and the S4 state defines the hibernate mode in Windows.
The G2 state defines the soft off mode and the G3 state defines the mechanical off mode.
The Power Options utility is located within the Control Panel.
The Power Options page allows you to select from preconfigured power-saving schemes.
The Alarms page allows you to configure system response on low battery power.
The Power Meter page shows the current status of the battery.
The Advanced page allows you to configure a password when the laptop returns from standby mode.
The Hibernate page is used to enable or disable the hibernation.
Most of the external devices connected to a laptop are USB-compatible.
The device should not be in use when you are preparing to remove it:
Click the Safely Remove Hardware icon on the Taskbar.
Select the device that you want to remove in the Safely Remove Hardware window and click the Stop button.
Unplug the device when the window prompts that it is safe to remove the device.
Power problems may be due to the AC adapter or due to the battery pack.
Verify that the mains power connection is good and check the small LED on top of the adapter.
A reasonably warm adapter surface is usually an indication of a working adapter.
Verify that the DC power cord is not damaged and that the connector is properly inserted into the laptop.
Remove the DC power cord and verify the DC power output of the adapter with a multimeter.
If there is no output, or a very low DC output, the AC is properly connected, and the LED is lit, try replacing the adapter with a new one.
If the built-in keyboard does not work, try connecting an external keyboard.
If the pointer does not move as expected due to problems with the touchpad, try connecting an external mouse.
Stylus problems are usually caused due to rough handling.
A soft or hard reset helps resolve this problem, or a built-in utility can be used for this purpose.
The laptop display has an LCD screen, a video controller, and the inverter.
A cut-off switch switches off the backlight when the lid is closed.
By connecting an external monitor, you can quickly figure out whether the problem is with the LCD screen or the video controller.
Verify that the cut-off switch is not damaged.
There can be several reasons for a connectivity problem, such as loose connections, incorrect configuration, or insufficient permissions.
For a wired network, verify that the network cable is properly attached.
For a wireless network problem, verify that the wireless connection is enabled in Windows, that a correct SSID setting is used, and that the laptop is within the coverage area of an access point.
You can try to use the Repair utility in Windows to reconfigure the TCP/IP protocol settings.
The main environmental factors that affect the performance of a laptop are temperature, humidity, and cleanliness.
Laptops use very small components that produce heat during normal operation.
You must ensure that the laptop is not operated in areas with high temperatures, and you must ensure that sufficient cooling is available.
Make sure that the area where a laptop is operated is clean and dust-free.
Always carry laptops in protective bags.
This subsection covers a summary of highlights from the "Operating Systems" section in the A+ Essentials Study Guide.
Windows 3.x was the first 16-bit OS to effectively manage computer memory.
Windows 3.1 supported multimedia devices and had an improved GUI.
It included error protection for system and applications through Object Linking and Embedding (OLE).
Windows 3.11 (Windows for Workgroups) supported both 16- and 32-bit applications.
Windows 95 supported both 16- and 32-bit applications.
It had the ability to network computers, and supported Plug and Play (PnP) devices.
Windows 98 was released in 1998, followed by Windows Me.
Windows NT Workstation and Windows NT Server had versions named Windows NT 3.5x and Windows NT 4.0.
Windows NT supported multitasking.
Windows NT introduced domains for effectively managing users, computers, resources, and security in the network.
Windows 2000 OS has Windows 2000 Professional and Windows 2000 Server editions.
Windows XP Professional Edition is used as a client operating system in networked environments.
Windows XP Home Edition is used for standalone home computers.
Windows XP Media Center Edition is used where multimedia capabilities are more important than other features.
Windows Server 2003 R2 is the current server OS.
Editions of this OS include Windows Small Business Server, Web, Standard, Enterprise, and Datacenter.
It supports both 32- and 64-bit microprocessors.
It supports centralized management for applications, users, data storage, and security through a centralized database called Active Directory.
It has strong support for client/server-based applications and services.
It supports server clusters for providing fault tolerance and network load balancing for improved performance.
Windows Vista is the latest desktop operating system from Microsoft.
Different editions of this OS include Home Basic, Home Premium, Business, Ultimate, and Enterprise.
Windows Aero (which is a 3-D graphical interface) and centralized management are some of the attractions of Windows Vista.
Windows Vista includes Internet Explorer 7.
The MAC OS is used primarily on Apple Macintosh computers.
Its GUI is similar to Windows and is called Aqua.
The most current version of this OS is the MAC OS X.
Older Apple computers used PowerPC microprocessors but now use both Power PC and Intel processors.
Linux has Unix-like functionality and is an extremely stable and reliable OS.
Some distributions of Linux are Red Hat, Mandrake, SuSe, and Debian.
The hardware requirements for each variation of Linux OS are different.
There is no standard graphical user interface for Linux.
The Windows desktop is the screen that appears after logon.
It includes the Start menu, the Taskbar, and other icons for application shortcuts.
You can rearrange the icons or change the desktop settings.
The Themes page allows you to select a theme to quickly customize the look and feel of the Windows desktop.
The Desktop page allows you to choose a background color and picture for the desktop.
The Screen Saver page allows you to change the screensaver settings.
The Appearance page has several settings to configure different windows, color schemes, button styles, menus, icons, and font sizes.
The Settings tab includes options for troubleshooting and setting screen resolution and color quality, and displaying adapter configuration.
The Effects page in Windows 2000 contains options to change the visual look of the desktop.
The Web page in Windows 2000 contains Active Desktop settings.
The Taskbar is the bottom-most part on the Windows desktop.
It contains the Start menu, the Quick Launch area, and the Notification Area.
The Start menu is used to run programs as well as configure system settings.
In the middle of the Taskbar, Windows displays buttons for programs that are currently running.
You can change the properties of the Start menu and the Taskbar by right-clicking the Taskbar and selecting an option.
The Start menu appears when you click the Start button.
The Start menu includes shortcuts to installed programs, the Control Panel, a Settings button, and folders such as My Documents, My Recent Documents, My Pictures, My Music, My Computer, and My Network Places.
The Start menu's appearance can be changed to Classic style.
The My Computer icon is used to explore the computer—including the disk drives—and to view their contents.
The My Network Places/Network Neighborhood icon is used to browse the Windows network.
The Recycle Bin is a folder that collects all deleted files or folders.
You can use the Control Panel utilities for most of the configuration tasks related to the operating system itself as well as to the devices and drives.
To access the Control Panel, click Start and select Control Panel.
Windows XP first displays a list of categories of configuration items.
Windows 2000 opens the Control Panel directly.
The System utility in the Control Panel is used to configure system settings.
The Computer Name (Windows XP)/Network Identification (Windows 2000) tab allows you to change the computer name and workgroup or domain membership.
The Hardware page includes tools to manage hardware devices and drivers.
The Advanced tab has buttons to fine-tune performance, system startup, recovery options, and environment variables.
The System Restore utility (Windows XP) is used to restore the OS to a working condition in case it becomes unstable.
The Remote tab (Windows XP) has options to enable/disable Remote Desktop and Remote Assistance.
The Automatic Updates tab (Windows XP) is used to enable/disable Automatic Updates for the OS.
Windows Registry is a collection of system configuration settings.
The Registry hierarchy is organized into keys and subkeys.
The HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT subtree stores Object Linking and Embedding (OLE) data and file associations.
The HKEY_CURRENT_USER subtree contains data about the currently logged-on user.
The HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE subtree contains all the OS and hardware-specific configuration data.
The HKEY_USERS subtree contains a default set of settings and data for each user.
The HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG subtree contains data about the currently loaded hardware profile.
The Registry can be edited using the REGEDIT.EXE or REGEDT32.EXE utilities.
Virtual memory is the hard disk space used for temporary data storage.
It is also known as the swap file or paging file.
Windows uses virtual memory when the system runs out of RAM.
These files are critical to startup and normal operation of the OS.
These files are marked as System and Hidden and are protected as Read-only.
The NTLDR file is used to start loading the operating system.
The BOOT.INI file is used to select an OS and the disk partition where the OS is installed.
The BOOTSECT.DOS file is used in dual-boot systems and contains a copy of MS-DOS or Windows 9x OS.
The NTDETECT.SYS file is used to detect installed hardware and to load a hardware profile.
The NTBOOTDD.SYS file is used to detect and load the SCSI interface.
The NTOSKRNL.EXE file loads the Windows operating system kernel.
The HAL.DLL is the hardware abstraction layer file.
Basic disks are the traditional type of disks.
Windows OS treats all disks as Basic unless they are converted to Dynamic.
Basic disks are divided into one or more partitions.
Windows stores partition information in a partition table.
Each Basic disk can have four primary partitions or three primary and one extended partition.
One of the primary partitions is marked as the Active Partition and is used to boot the system.
An Extended Partition is used to create logical drives.
Logical drives cannot be marked as Active.
Extended Partitions cannot be formatted.
Dynamic disks are converted from Basic disks using the Disk Management utility.
Dynamic disks treat the entire disk as a single partition.
Dynamic volumes can be extended on single or multiple Dynamic disks.
A Simple volume contains space from all or part of a single Dynamic disk.
A Spanned volume contains space from single or multiple (2 to 32) Dynamic disks.
A Striped volume combines space from 2 to 32 Dynamic disks to make a single Dynamic volume.
Dynamic disks on Windows XP and Windows 2000 Professional do not support fault tolerance.
FAT supports 8.3 file format naming and a maximum partition size of 2 GB in Windows 95/98/Me and of 4 GB in Windows NT 4.0/2000/XP.
FAT32 is supported in Windows 95 (OSR2) and later operating systems.
FAT32 supports long filenames up to 255 characters, and disk partitions up to 2 TB (2048 GB).
NTFS supports Dynamic disks, long filenames up to 255 characters, disk sizes up to 16 EB (Exabytes), file-level security, Encrypting File System (EFS), compression, Disk Quotas, and files larger than 4 GB.
Windows Explorer is used to manage files and folders.
You can view, navigate, copy, and move files and folders.
You can create new folders and subfolders and/or delete them.
You can view or change file or folder attributes.
You can search for a particular file or folder and execute program files.
Sharing folders and setting permissions is also done in Windows Explorer.
Windows Explorer can be used for formatting a disk.
Attributes determine the actions a user can perform on a file or folder.
A file or folder with the Read-only attribute cannot be deleted or its contents cannot be changed.
A file or folder with the Hidden attribute is not visible in Windows Explorer.
A file or folder with the System attribute is marked as both Hidden and Read-only.
Advanced attributes include Archiving, Indexing, Compression, and Encryption.
File permissions are used to control access to files.
The Full Control permission grants a user all rights on the resource.
The Modify permission allows a user to change the contents of the file.
The Read and Execute permission allows a user to read the file and execute (run) it.
The List Folder Contents (folders only) permission allows a user to list the files and subfolders inside a folder.
The Read permission allows a user to read a file.
The Write permission allows a user to write files to a folder.
Attended installation can be started from the setup CD-ROM or from a shared network folder.
In an unattended installation method, an answer file provides answers to the questions that are prompted during the installation.
The System Preparation (SysPrep) utility is a disk duplication method that is used to prepare a master image of an existing Windows XP/2000 Professional installation.
The Remote Installation Service (RIS) is used for large-scale unattended deployments of Windows XP and Windows 2000 Professional.
Start the installation from the Windows 2000 Professional installation CD-ROM.
Make sure that the CD-ROM is set to start before the hard disk starts.
The setup process starts with text mode, during which the hard disk is prepared and necessary installation files are copied to the hard disk.
In the GUI phase, the user is prompted for information about the computer, username, and password.
The GUI phase includes the network phase, in which the setup program detects the network adapter and collects information about networking components.
The installation completes when the setup program copies final files to the hard disk, creates Start menu items, registers components, removes temporary setup files, and restarts the computer.
The installation files are stored on a network file server known as the distribution server.
The setup process is started using either the winnt.exe or winnt32.exe command.
From MS-DOS or Windows 3.x, run winnt.exe to start the installation process.
From Windows 95/98/Me/NT 4.0 or Windows 2000 Professional, run winnt32.exe to start the installation.
Activate the retail and evaluation versions of Windows XP Professional within 30 days of installation.
Update the hardware device drivers.
Install software updates for the operating system, including service packs.
Install application software and restore user data files.
You must have administrative rights in order to install devices and drivers.
If the device driver has a digital signature, any user can install the device provided that no user interaction is required during installation.
PnP devices are automatically detected and configured by the computer BIOS and the OS.
Non-PnP devices need to be manually configured.
Change the settings of the virtual file from the System Control Panel or divide it into multiple disks.
Defragment hard disks using the Disk Management utility to improve their read/write performance.
Use the Disk Cleanup utility to free up disk space by deleting temporary files.
Use the Services utility in the Control Panel to identify and disable unused services.
Power-On Self-Test (POST) checks the hardware components and MBR is loaded.
The MBR loads the NTLDR file from the boot device.
The NTBOOTDD.SYS file is loaded if the boot device is SCSI and does not have its own BIOS.
NTLDR loads the filesystems driver to access the FAT, FAT32, or NTFS partitions.
NTLDR reads the BOOT.INI file and selects an operating system.
NTLDR calls on the NTDETECT.COM file to perform hardware detection.
NTLDR calls on the NTOSKRNL.EXE file and the Windows kernel, which changes the screen color from black to blue.
The kernel loads another module known as hardware abstraction layer (HAL.DLL).
The kernel is initialized, and it loads low-level device drivers and filesystems.
The device drivers initialize as they are loaded. The user mode subsystem is loaded, and the computer display changes to the graphical user interface (GUI) mode.
Once the kernel has loaded and is initialized, the system services are started.
The Winlogon service is started, and a logon screen is displayed.
Safe Mode loads only minimum basic system services and device drivers sufficient to boot the OS.
Safe Mode with Networking is similar to Safe Mode but networking devices, drivers, and services are also initialized.
Safe Mode with Command Prompt loads the command interpreter.
The Last Known Good Configuration option loads the last used system configuration that worked well.
The Enable Boot Logging mode is used for diagnosing startup problems.
The Enable VGA Mode starts Windows with basic VGA device drivers.
This is useful in resolving system startup problems.
It allows you to repair critical system files.
You can also enable or disable services that may be causing startup problems.
Recovery Console can be started from the Windows setup CD-ROM, or it can be installed as one of the Advanced Boot Options.
This helps restore the system to a working state if it has become unstable.
It uses System Restore points to store a snapshot of system settings at regular intervals.
It can be accessed from the System Tools in Accessories or from the Help And Support Center.
This is located in the Windows Backup utility.
It is used to restore the system after a major failure.
An ASR disk and a full backup of the system partition of the computer is required.
Talk to the user and gather information about the problem.
Identify the potential causes.
Isolate the problem.
Test-related components.
Apply and test the solution.
Document your activities.
The Blue Screen or the STOP errors are related to hardware and/or incorrectly configured drivers. They are identified by an 8-digit hexadecimal number.
System lockup is usually caused when the system is out of resources.
Problems with I/O devices are due to incorrect configuration of device drivers or failed devices.
An incorrectly installed or configured application will result in the Application Failed to Start error.
The Illegal Operation error is reported when an application attempts to perform an action that is not permitted by the operating system.
A General Protection Fault (GPF) occurs when an application attempts to access the areas of memory that are used by other applications.
The NTLDR is Missing error appears if any of the system startup files are missing or have become corrupt.
The Invalid Boot Disk error is displayed when the system BIOS cannot access the boot partition of the disk.
The Inaccessible Boot Device error appears when the computer finds a critical error with a boot device.
The defrag.exe utility is used to defragment hard disks.
The ntbackup.exe command starts the Windows backup utility.
The chkdsk.exe utility is used to check disks for filesystem errors, and then fix them.
The format.exe command is used to format a disk partition.
The diskpart.exe utility in Windows XP is used to manage disks, volumes, and partitions.
The Computer Management Console is a centralized place to manage the entire system, services, and applications.
The Device Manager utility helps manage and troubleshoot hardware devices and drivers.
The Task Manager provides a real-time view of system performance including CPU, memory, processes, networking, and applications.
The msconfig.exe command opens the System Configuration Utility, which is helpful in verifying the system startup environment.
The regedit.exe and regedt32.exe commands are used to edit the settings stored in the Windows Registry.
The Event Viewer console displays error messages, warnings, and other information about system activities.
This subsection covers a summary of highlights from the "Printers and Scanners" section in the A+ Essentials Study Guide.
Laser printing involves cleaning, conditioning, writing, developing, transferring, and fusing processes.
In the cleaning process, a rubber blade in the cleaning assembly removes the particles of toner residing on the drum's surface, and a discharge lamp removes the remaining charge from the drum and makes it neutral.
In the conditioning process, the primary corona wire charges the drum surface with a high negative voltage (−600 to −1000 volts).
In the writing process, a highly focused beam of laser light scans the drum surface and removes some of the charge.
In the developing process, the toner particles charged with −200 to −500 volts are electrostatically attracted to the drum's surface where the laser light left the image.
In the transferring process, the positively charged paper attracts the toner particles from the drum, leaving the image on the positively charged paper when the drum is pressed over the paper.
In the fusing process, the paper is passed through the fuser assembly containing pressure rollers and heating rollers to apply heat and pressure to the paper that firmly bonds the toner particles to the paper surface.
The printing process starts with cleaning the printhead.
The stepper motor engages rollers to pick a piece of paper from the paper tray and guide it into the printer.
The printhead stepper motor moves the printhead assembly across the paper and stops at each point for a fraction of a second to spray multiple dots of ink on the paper surface.
The paper feed motor then moves the paper to the next line. This process continues until the printing process is complete.
Once the printing process is complete, the paper feed assembly pushes the paper onto the paper tray, and the printhead is then parked in its home position.
These printers use a printhead containing a number of pins.
Low-resolution printers have one column of nine pins in the printhead.
High-resolution printers have 2 columns containing 24 pins in the printhead.
The pins strike an ink ribbon that makes impressions on paper.
The impressions appear as small dots and form appropriate characters on paper.
These printers use heated printhead pins.
These use heat-sensitive paper called thermochromic or thermal paper.
Direct Thermal printers create images by burning a matrix of dots on paper.
Thermal Wax Transfer printers use wax-based ink, which is melted from the ribbon and transferred to the paper surface.
These printers use sticks of solid ink.
These are used for printing high-quality graphics images.
The ink is melted and fed into printheads that contain piezoelectric crystals.
These printers have high-power consumption and long warm-up times.
A parallel interface (IEEE 1284) sends an 8-bit parallel data stream to the printer.
Parallel printers use a parallel printer cable, which has a DB-25 connector (computer) and a 36-pin Centronics connector (printer).
A serial interface sends data to the printer one bit at a time.
The Universal Serial Bus (USB) is the most common type of printer interface.
The IEEE 1394 (Firewire) is the fastest of all types of computer interfaces.
Very few printers have a Small Computer System Interface (SCSI).
The printer BIOS/Firmware detects various components of the printer during startup.
The printer driver acts as an interface between the OS and the printer.
The Page Description Language (PDL) is used to convert an incoming print job into electrical signals.
Printer paper and transparencies are collectively known as print media.
Ink cartridges are used in inkjet and bubblejet printers.
Ribbons are used in daisy wheel and dot-matrix printers.
Toner cartridges are used in laser printers.
Spare parts are considered supplies because they are used to repair printers.
Optional upgrade components include extra paper feed trays, finishing assemblies, and printer memory.
Flatbed scanners use a glass platform where a paper is put face down. A motorized belt moves a lamp to scan the image.
Handheld scanners move the scanner across the image.
In sheetfed scanners the paper is manually moved over a scanning lamp.
Drum scanners are used for high-end applications. The image is placed over a drum, and photomultiplier tubes (PMT) are used to convert optical signals into electrical signals.
The acrylic glass plate functions as a platform for placing documents.
The scanning head assembly contains a light source, a set of mirrors, and a lens that focuses the light onto a charged coupled device.
The light source is made up of a cold cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL).
An array of charged coupled devices (CCDs) or a contact image sensor (CIS) converts the optical signals into electrical signals.
The stepper motor assembly is used to precisely move the scanning head across the surface of the document.
The device driver acts as an interface between the scanner and the operating system.
The user places the document upside down on the glass plate.
The document is illuminated by a CCFL.
The scanning head is moved across the surface of the document using a belt attached to the main stepper motor.
When the entire document is scanned, the scanner completes one pass.
The image is passed through a set of reflective mirrors and focused onto a lens.
The lens passes the image to an array of CCDs through an image filter.
The scanner driver passes the image to the application software used to acquire the image from the scanner.
The application (Photoshop, Corel Draw, etc.) uses a standard language, such as TWAIN, that acts as an interpreter between the scanner and the application.
Most of the newer scanners come with built-in USB or IEEE 1394 Firewire ports.
Some older scanners use parallel, serial, and SCSI ports.
Check the compatibility of the device with the OS.
Obtain necessary hardware, connection cables, and device drivers.
Connect the device to an appropriate port such as parallel, serial, USB, IEEE 1394, SCSI, wired, or wireless network port.
Install the device driver.
Configure and calibrate the device.
Verify the installation and test the device's functionality by printing a test page or by scanning a text and graphics pages.
Paper jams are a result of obstruction in the path that the paper travels.
Paper jams can be a result of worn out rollers, the incorrect type of paper, or poor paper quality.
Poor image quality is a result of dry ink, a damaged ink cartridge, or misalignment of the printhead.
Blank pages are a result of an empty ink cartridge.
Paper jams are mainly caused by poor paper quality or worn out pick up rollers.
Blank pages appear when the toner cartridge is out of toner or when the transfer corona wire is broken.
A faulty primary corona wire causes black pages.
A bad toner cartridge can cause repetitive toner marks scattered across the paper.
A damaged drum can produce vertical lines across the page.
Ghosted images appear when the previous image is not completely erased from the surface of the EP drum.
An incorrect printer driver causes garbled printing output.
Dot-matrix printers need regular preventive maintenance to keep the paper path clear.
If one of the pins on the printhead is broken, a blank line appears across the width of the paper.
If the printer is printing nonreadable characters (garbled prints), the problem lies with the printer driver software.
If the printer is producing consistently faded characters, the printing ribbon needs to be replaced.
If you notice that the printing quality reduces across the width of the paper, the ribbon is possibly not rotating.
If a powered-on scanner does not scan from the application, try to scan manually.
Try to resolve the problem by rebooting the computer.
Incorrect scanning resolution and dust on the glass plate, scanning lamps, or mirrors can cause poor quality of the scanned documents.
The scanning noise is caused at startup because the scanner calibrates itself.
If the scanner does not turn on, check the power cord and the AC mains supply.
This subsection covers a summary of highlights from the "Networks" section in the A+ Essentials Study Guide.
A local area network (LAN) is a network of joined computers in a small office, a home, or a building.
A wide area network (WAN) connects two or more LANs.
A personal area network (PAN) is a network of devices located in close proximity of each other.
A metropolitan area network (MAN) connects LANs in a campus or inside the boundaries of one city.
In the centralized computing model, all processing is done on a central computer, and the clients are called dumb terminals.
A client/server network is based on the centralized computing model.
A client/server network is scalable to very large-scale internetworks.
In a decentralized computing model, all processing and resources are distributed among several computers.
A peer-to-peer (P2P) network or a workgroup is based on a decentralized computing model.
In a star topology, computers (or nodes) connect to each other through a central device, called a hub or a switch.
In a bus topology, all computers are connected to a single cable called a backbone using T-connectors.
In a mesh topology, each computer makes a point-to-point connection to every other computer.
In a ring topology, each computer is connected to its neighboring computer to form a logical ring using a Multi-Station Access Unit (MSAU).
In a wireless topology, computers connect to each other using radio frequencies.
These cables use pairs of insulated cables bundled inside a plastic sheath.
The twists are used to prevent electromagnetic interference, which causes crosstalk.
These cables are identified by category numbers denoted as CAT-1, CAT-2, CAT-3, CAT-5, etc.
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables are inexpensive. CAT5 UTP is the most commonly used type.
Shielded twisted pair (STP) cables come with a layer of shielding material between the cables and the sheath for preventing interferences.
Plenum refers to the space between the main ceiling and the dropped ceiling.
The network cable used in this space is known as plenum cable and is surrounded by a fire-retardant jacket.
The jacket consists of a low-smoke polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or fluorinated ethylene polymer (FEP).
This cable is made up of very thin glass or plastic stretched out and put inside a sheath.
The data transmission is through light signals and is immune to EMI and RF disturbances.
Fiber optic cables are very expensive and need skilled professionals for installation and maintenance.
The single-mode fiber optic cable uses a single beam of light and is made up of 8 to 10 micron core glass/plastic fiber surrounded by 125 micron cladding.
The multimode fiber optic cable uses multiple beams of light and is made up of 50 or 62.5 micron core and 125 micron cladding.
The Registered Jack-11 (RJ-11) is a 4-pin connector and is mainly used for terminating telephone wires.
The Registered Jack-45 (RJ-45) is an 8-pin connector used for terminating twisted pair cables.
An SC connector (subscriber/standard connector) is a push-pull connector used to terminate fiber optic cables.
An ST (Straight Tip) connector uses the "twist-on/twist-off" bayonet mechanism and is an older type of fiber optic connector.
An LC (Lucent Connector) is also used for fiber optic cables with a push-pull mechanism.
An Ethernet hub (concentrator) is the central device that connects all nodes in the segment.
A switch connects multiple nodes in a network segment and sends the signal only to the destination node based on the MAC address.
A MAU, also called a Multi-Station Access Unit (MSAU), is used in Token Ring networks as a central device.
A network bridge connects LAN segments to form a larger segment and divide a large network segment into smaller segments.
Routers are used to connect two or more network segments.
This is the most widely used protocol suite in private networks as well as on the Internet.
It is a fully routable protocol.
It is supported in all major network and desktop operating systems.
This is a full protocol suite used in Novell NetWare networks.
It is fully routable.
TCP/IP networks use IP addresses to identify networks and hosts.
IP addresses are divided into public (registered) or private (unregistered) addresses.
The IP address consists of 32 bits composed of 4 sets of 8 bytes (octet) each.
It is expressed in dotted decimal notation.
Classful IP addresses are divided into classes A, B, and C.
A subnet mask is used to identify the network address from the host address.
This is the process of creating two or more network segments by using the host portion of the IP address.
It creates multiple broadcast domains to reduce broadcast traffic.
It also increases security and helps contain network traffic to local network segments.
In NetWare, network-only servers are assigned a maximum of 47-character hostnames.
IPX/SPX clients do not have hostnames and use their IPX addresses.
NetWare networks are assigned a 32-bit hexadecimal address.
The servers and workstations use a 48-bit hexadecimal address.
The 10 Mbps standards include 10Base2, 10BaseT, and 10BaseFL.
Most of the modern networks support 100 Mbps network speed based on 100BaseTX and 100BaseFX standards.
Gigabit Ethernet networks work at 1000 Mbps and use either copper or fiber optic cabling.
Gigabit standards include 1000BaseLX, 1000BaseSX, and 1000BaseCX.
The 1000BaseT standard uses four pairs of CAT 5 UTP cable.
ISP refers to an organization that provides Internet access or WAN connectivity.
ISPs provide low-cost Internet connectivity to home users via dial-up, cable modem, ISDN (BRI), or Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL).
High-speed connectivity to large organizations is provided through gigabit Ethernet, ATM, ISDN (PRI), T-carriers, or Sonet.
A hierarchy of lower- and higher-level ISPs exists to provide connectivity.
ISPs interconnect with each other at a point known as Internet Exchange (IX).
This allows transmission of data and voice over telephone lines.
It requires dedicated or leased telephone lines.
Computers using the ISDN line need an ISDN adapter or terminal adapter.
BRI ISDN uses 2 B channels of 64 Kbps each for data/voice, and a D channel of 16 Kbps.
PRI ISDN uses 23 B channels of 64 Kbps each for data/voice, and a D channel of 64 Kbps.
DSL technologies use ordinary analog telephone lines to provide digital data transmissions.
A DSL supports data transfer speeds from 128 Kbps to 24 Mbps.
Asymmetrical DSL (ADSL) is the most common and offers higher download speed than upload speed.
Symmetrical DSL (SDSL) supports equal speeds for both data uploads and downloads.
Wireless networks rely on radio frequencies to communicate.
Wireless networks defined in IEEE 802.11 standards use radio frequencies with spread spectrum technology.
Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is the method of transmitting RF signals by rapidly switching frequencies.
Direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) uses a wide band of frequency and is a modulation technique used by wireless networks.
The most popular of the IEEE 802.11 wireless network standards are 802.11b, 802.11a, and 802.11g.
This provides point-to-point wireless communications using direct line of sight.
Infrared radio waves cannot penetrate through walls.
Infrared supports data transfer speeds ranging from 10 Mbps to 16 Mbps.
It provides a secure wireless medium due to the short distance.
This provides short-range communications and is widely used in telephones.
Bluetooth 2.0 supports transmission speeds up to 3 Mbps.
It works over the unlicensed frequency range of 2.4 GHz.
It offers high resistance to electromagnetic interferences.
It does not require direct line of sight.
Ensure that the adapter is compatible with the existing computer hardware.
Ensure that the adapter driver is meant for the OS installed on the computer.
Check whether the adapter is PnP or non-PnP.
Most PnP adapters are automatically detected and configured.
Use the Add/Remove Hardware utility in the Control Panel to add a non-PnP network adapter.
Status indicators on network adapters help troubleshoot connectivity problems.
If the LED light status is "no light or yellow," then the device or the port is not operating, not connected, or faulty.
If the LED light status is "solid green," then the device or port is connected but there is no activity on the port.
If the LED light status is "flashing green," then the device or the port is functioning and is transmitting and receiving data.
If the LED light status is "flashing amber," then the network is congested and collisions are occurring on the network media.
Verify that connectors are properly attached.
Verify that the cables or connectors are not damaged.
Verify that the total length of cables does not exceed the specifications.
Ensure that UTP cables are not run in areas of high EMI such as near transformers or beside high-voltage electric cables.
If a hub fails, all computers will get disconnected.
A failed switch will also result in connectivity problems to all computers.
If a router fails, an entire network segment will not connect to other segments.
Wireless signals degrade due to environmental factors such as EMI, RFI, or walls.
Make sure that all devices support the same wireless standard on the network.
Verify that the clients and the access point are using the correct SSID.
Verify the encryption and authentication settings for the wireless protocol are in use.
This subsection covers a summary of highlights from the "Security" section in the A+ Essentials Study Guide.
Authentication is the process of verifying the identity of a person.
It is the first point of controlling access to a system.
In computer security, authentication protocols are used to verify the identity of a person or an application seeking access to a system, object, or resource.
Biometric devices verify the identity of a user by using human physical and behavior characteristics.
Biometric devices can read or measure and analyze fingerprints, as well as scan the eye retina and facial patterns and/or measure body temperature.
Biometric authentication provides the highest level of security.
These cards store a small amount of data that is used to authenticate a person.
These prevent modification of the data stored on them.
They are immune to EMI and RFI and have built-in protection against physical damage.
A security token is the most trusted method for verifying the identity of a user or a system.
Security tokens are also known as Key Fobs.
They employ multiple factors to verify the identity.
A security token consists of two parts: a hardware device that generates token values at predetermined intervals, and a software component that tracks and verifies the validity of codes.
These are mainly used for Internet-based authentications.
Certificates are a part of the public key infrastructure (PKI).
They are created by a trusted third party known as the Certification Authority or the Certificate Authority (CA).
Certificate servers are used to create, store, distribute, validate, and expire digital certificates.
A CA used within an organization is known as an Enterprise CA or a Standalone CA.
Revoked certificates are published in a Certification Revocation Lists (CRL).
Certificates are also used for software signing.
In computer authentication, a factor is a piece of information that is present to prove the identity of a user.
Utilize a something you know factor such as the password or PIN.
Utilize a something you have factor such as a hardware token or a smart card.
Utilize a something you are factor such as fingerprints, eye retina, or other biometrics that can be used for identity.
Utilize a something you do factor such as handwriting or voice patterns.
This is widely used for local and remote access authentication.
It is a modified form of Password Authentication Protocol (PAP).
It periodically verifies the authenticity of the remote user using a three-way handshake even after the communication channel has been established.
CHAP authentication involves an authentication server and the client.
CHAP cannot work with encrypted password databases.
This is a cross-platform authentication protocol used for mutual authentication.
Kerberos v5 is used on Windows servers as the default authentication protocol.
It ensures the integrity of authentication data as it is transmitted over the network.
It works in a Key Distribution Center (KDC), which is a network server.
The KDC issues secure, encrypted keys and tokens (tickets) for authentication.
The tickets carry a timestamp and expire as soon as the user or the service logs off.
This is a self-replicating application that inserts itself into executable files.
It is created for the sole purpose of destroying a user's data.
The boot sector virus infects the first sector of a hard disk and becomes active as soon as the computer is started.
A parasitic virus infects an executable file or an application on a computer.
This is a malicious code that is embedded inside a legitimate application.
The application appears to be very useful, interesting, and harmless to the user until it is executed.
Most modern Trojans are used to gather information about the user.
Some Trojans allow the user's computer to be controlled remotely by the attacker.
This does not infect any particular executable file.
It resides in the active memory of computers.
It keeps scanning the network for vulnerabilities and replicates itself onto other computers.
Spyware is used to collect personal information stored in the computer.
Adware is the software that displays pop-up advertisements on your computer.
Grayware programs work in an undesirable and annoying manner and may negatively affect the computer's performance.
A firewall is used to protect a private network from external networks or users.
Windows Firewall in Windows XP SP2 is an example of personal software firewall.
Packet Filtering Firewalls inspects the contents of each Internet Protocol (IP) packet and allows or blocks packets inside the network based on predefined and configured rules.
Application Layer Firewalls (application layer gateways) are more advanced than packet filtering, because they examine the entire packet to allow or deny traffic.
Stateful Inspection Firewalls work by actively monitoring and inspecting the state of the network traffic.
Windows provides file- and folder-level security using the NT File System (NTFS).
Files can also be stored and transmitted in encrypted form.
Share permissions provide an outer layer of access control.
NTFS permissions provide more granular control on file and folder access.
Open system authentication is no authentication, and any computer trying to connect is granted a connection.
Shared key authentication requires that the access point and every wireless client know the shared secret key.
The IEEE 802.1x authentication method requires use of advanced encryption and authentication techniques to provide strong authentication.
WPA or WPA2 with Preshared Key authentication methods can be used for smaller home or office networks that cannot implement the IEEE 802.1x authentication mechanisms.
This provides privacy in transmissions between the AP and wireless client.
It uses a CRC-32 checksum for data integrity and privacy.
It uses shared key authentication that allows encryption and decryption of wireless transmissions.
It can use either 40- or 128-bit keys. Up to four different keys can be used.
When it is enabled, the encryption keys and the SSID must match on the AP and the clients.
Files and folders should be secured using appropriate NTFS permissions.
Local security policies should be defined on computers to restrict access.
Access to data should be based on job roles of users.
Access to critical data files should be audited.
Use of floppy disks or CD/DVD discs to copy data should be prohibited.
Data backup ensures data security in the event of a disaster or system failure.
The full backup method backs up all the data in a single backup job.
The incremental backup method backs up all the data that has changed after the last full or incremental backup was taken and changes the archive bit.
The differential backup method backs up all the data that has changed after the last full backup but does not change the archive bit.
Backup tapes must be stored in a secure offsite location.
This is the process of encoding a message using encryption algorithms.
It converts readable plain text into unreadable cryptographic text or cyphertext.
Encryption algorithms provide such security mechanisms as confidentiality, authentication, digital signatures, and public key cryptography.
They are used to calculate a secret key, which is used to encrypt and decrypt messages.
Symmetric algorithms use one key for both encryption and decryption of messages.
Asymmetric algorithms use two keys—one for encryption (public key) and the other for decryption (private key).
A hashing algorithm is used to provide integrity of data.
This is the process of transferring data from one OS platform to another or from one database application to another.
This process converts the data from one format to another.
It is typically performed after a full backup.
This is the process of secure destruction of data.
It is required when old systems are replaced or when old storage media is upgraded.
It ensures that the data does not fall into the wrong hands and cannot be misused by a third party.
A Password Management Policy describes how a user should create, use, and change his passwords.
Blank passwords should not be allowed for any employee.
Passwords should have at least eight characters.
A password should be made up of a combination of upper- and lowercase letters, special characters, and numbers.
Employees should be forced to change their passwords regularly.
Employees should not be allowed to reuse their old passwords for a certain amount of time.
Administrators should use normal user accounts when not performing any administrative tasks.
Users should be educated to lock their workstations when not in use.
Users can also configure screensaver passwords to protect their desktops.
Critical servers and network equipment should be located in a locked room.
Server rooms should be equipped with alarm systems.
Servers and network devices should be configured with strong administrative passwords.
Every computer in a network should have antivirus software installed on it, and the virus signatures should be kept updated.
NTFS and share permissions should be correctly configured.
Administrative access to systems and network devices should be granted only to authorized employees.
Operating systems should be updated with the latest service packs, hotfixes, or security patches.
Applications should be configured properly, and the latest updates should be installed.
Firmware/BIOS should be updated as and when updates are available.
Auditing should be enabled on critical systems and data, and audit logs should be regularly monitored.
Network devices should be configured for optimum security.
The default configuration of network devices and wireless devices should be disabled.
Users should be educated and trained for creating a secure and safe working environment.
This subsection covers a summary of highlights from the "Safety and Environmental Issues" section in the A+ Essentials Study Guide.
A safety hazard can potentially cause physical harm or injury.
A poorly laid-out workplace increases the chances of accidents.
Hazards in the workplace must be identified.
Most hazards can be easily spotted or their risk can be reduced.
Identify loose or trailing network and electrical cables or cables that are not running through proper routes.
Faulty electrical equipment should either be repaired or stored safely.
Workstations located near hazardous materials should be relocated elsewhere.
Persons working on electronic devices should use precautions to prevent electrostatic discharge (ESD).
Consult MSDS for proper handling, usage, transportation, and storage of hazardous materials.
Flammable material should be handled appropriately.
Chemicals, batteries, and cleaning products should be stored at designated places.
Waste materials should be disposed of using appropriate guidelines.
Proper protective wear should be used when working with hazardous materials.
Employees should be trained on safe use of hazardous materials.
Only trained personnel should be allowed to work on locations where hazards exist.
This is a document accompanying chemicals or other hazardous materials.
It provides instructions on safe usage, potential hazards, and methods for safe disposal of a hazardous material.
The MSDS contains the product name, its chemical name, the name of the manufacturer, and the address and telephone number.
A product can be listed as hazardous due to reasons such as toxic, corrosive, or flammable nature.
A product might burn or explode when subjected to certain conditions.
The MSDS contains procedures for safe storage, handling, moving, and transportation of the product.
It explains what labels or signs should be posted inside and outside the designated storage place.
It explains how to contain spillage or leakage of the product.
The person observing a hazard should immediately report it to the concerned supervisor.
Incidents that do not involve personal injury should also be reported.
Incidents involving serious personal injury need immediate attention.
Safety incidents can also cause damage to the property.
Wear ESD wrist straps when working on computer components.
Place components on antistatic ESD table mats.
Discharge static electricity in your body by touching a grounded metal surface.
Hold printed circuit boards from the edges.
Avoid touching the semiconductor chips and connection pins on cards.
Use conductive flooring in places where repairs are done.
Use ESD safe protective packaging for storing and transporting components.
Humidity levels should be controlled. Increasing humidity levels to 70 pecent or above helps reduce static charge build-up.
Electrical and electronic equipment should be connected using grounded 3-pin power cables.
Check the power cords regularly for possible damage.
Power off and unplug the equipment before opening the cover for service or repair.
Move computer parts such as CPUs and printers in carts.
Do not lift or carry any heavy equipment by hand.
Store computer equipment in designated places where humidity and temperature are controlled.
Batteries contain metals and chemicals such as cadmium, copper, mercury, zinc, manganese, lithium, and nickel.
Batteries collected from households are disposed of in hazardous waste landfills.
CRT monitors contain toxic substances such as lead, mercury, cadmium, phosphorus, and barium.
Batteries and monitors should be sent to recycling centers.
Read the MSDS instructions on how to safely dispose of chemicals.
Keep unused chemicals in their original containers.
Do not drain the unused part of chemicals into household drainage.
This subsection covers a summary of highlights from the "Communications and Professionalism" section in the A+ Essentials Study Guide.
Customer privacy means that support technicians should not copy, take away, or misuse a customer's confidential data.
Client confidentiality means that any individual or an organization should not disclose confidential information about their clients to any third party without the consent of the client.
Respect and maintain the trust of your client.
Listen carefully and attentively.
Let the client complete his statement and do not interrupt.
Do not be judgmental or jump to conclusions.
Use effective voice tone and control your body language.
Do not use obscene jokes or talk about sex or race.
Listen attentively and respond with a nod when needed.
Do not look distracted, angry, frustrated, or confused.
Do not keep thinking about something else.
Keep the problem in focus and, if necessary, take notes.
The questions should be directly related to the problem.
The customer should not feel embarrassed or let down.
Ask open-ended questions that encourage the client to come up with a variety of answers.
Show interest when the client is responding.
It's useless to ask a question if you do not bother listening to the answer.
Let the client respond to one question before you ask another question.
Do not finish the sentence for your client. Let her complete what she has to say.
Do not respond too soon or jump to a conclusion. Interpret the client statement, think of a suitable response, and then start talking.
Do not react emotionally to a client's statement.
Do not try to minimize a problem.
Never ask something like "Why?" or say something like "You should not do this." Never criticize a client if the problem is a result of some of her actions.
Do not try to teach the client.
Keep a positive attitude.
Avoid arguments with the client.
Try to understand the problem.
Be respectful to the client.
Do not interrupt the client when he is talking.
Ask for permission before using a client's telephone, fax machine, or other equipment.
Ensure that the client's property is used with care.
Ask for permission when using the Internet connection.