“THE RULER’S Techniques” begins by stating: “The ruler’s techniques [consist of] establishing non-active management and carrying out wordless instructions.” This serves notice that the chapter is not a handbook of tips and tricks for an energetic bureaucrat but a comprehensive plan for achieving the kind of effective self-cultivation, charismatic appeal, and radiant moral force required for a person to be a true universal monarch, a “Son of Heaven.” The ruler’s non-active orientation is made possible by time-tested techniques that have proved efficacious in creating a harmonious and just society in which the common people flourish and officials support their ruler as spokes to the hub. His ability to instruct and yet remain silent as he does so lies in the wondrous power of vital energy (qi), which, through self-cultivation, he possesses in quintessential form. By means of this Quintessential qi, which in its most refined state is referred to in this chapter interchangeably as the Utmost Essence (zhijing) or spirit (shen), the ruler can avail himself of the Way of Heaven above and transform the people below.1 In this manner, the ruler achieves a kind of profound and pervasive resonance with his subjects. Stirring their hearts as a fine melody would, such “wordless instructions” are infinitely more persuasive, far-reaching, and influential than any verbal command or purposeful act could be.
The Chapter Title
We have translated the title of this chapter, “Zhu shu” 
, as “The Ruler’s Techniques.” Zhu is the most general of several possible Chinese words that could be translated as “ruler.” A Zhou-dynasty word known from bronze inscriptions and early literature (but not from Shang oracle bones), its earliest meaning seems to be “one who presides” (for example, over a ceremony) or “host” (of a banquet). Two close cognates are zhu 
, “to prop up,” and zhu 
, “pillar” (specifically, a load-bearing pillar of a building). The Huainanzi authors had other choices: this chapter could have been entitled “Jun shu” 
, “The Prince’s Techniques”; or “Wang shu” 
, “The King’s Techniques”; or even “Huangdi shu” 
, “The Emperor’s Techniques.” The choice of a word with broad implications of “presiding, axial, upholding” therefore was surely deliberate.
Shu straightforwardly means “techniques,” the ways in which an expert exercises his profession or carries out some task. The word implies skill, practice, and specialized knowledge but also a kind of fluency of action beyond verbal description. To exercise shu is to act with an ease possible only as a result of long and diligent practice. Shu was a word much on the minds of late Warring States and Han thinkers because it fit the prevailing ideal of a person whose actions went beyond mere skill or expertise and were derived from being attuned to the Way.
The well-known translation of this chapter by Roger Ames is entitled “The Art of Rulership.”2 We hope that our translation, “The Ruler’s Techniques,” conveys more precisely that this chapter outlines the specific “Techniques of the Way” (dao shu) that enable an individual to succeed as a ruler.
Summary and Key Themes
“The Ruler’s Techniques” describes the methods that a ruler should use to create a beneficent and orderly government and stay on top of it. As the authors assert: “Thus, with techniques, one rules others; without techniques, one is ruled by them” (9.24). As the chapter makes clear, the list of techniques required for successful rule is long and daunting.
Practicing Non-Action
The first and perhaps most important technique to be identified is “non-active management.” With a quiet and tranquil demeanor, impartial and detached, the ruler delegates to his underlings the day-to-day responsibilities of running the government. As the authors expressly point out, this does not mean that the ruler should become inert and do nothing. Even though he acts, nothing emanates from him personally (9.23), so his policies are not biased by his private preferences (9.25), nor are they restricted by the limits of his individual intelligence (9.9–9.11). Rather, the techniques he implements conform to the patterns of the Way implicit in the natural propensities of things. For example, because the ruler adjusts his policies to the yin–yang rhythm of the four seasons, the people find those policies suitable because they seem natural. With non-action as his foundational orientation, the ruler can implement laws and dispense rewards and punishments without being swayed by personal bias. Freed from the quotidian concerns of ruling, his role as “model or gnomon for the world” is given due prominence, and the weighty responsibility of transforming the people moves to the foreground.
Transforming the People by Means of Quintessential qi
If you refine your heavenly and earthly qi, the authors argue, you can merge with the Grand One and, through the Grand One, avail yourself of the unlimited and mysterious Way of Heaven (9.2). Readers of the Huainanzi have already encountered (in chapter 7) a detailed description of the meditative regimens that foster refinement of the bodily energies, and an argument for why the ruler will obtain benefits from adhering to them. “The Ruler’s Techniques” returns to that theme and considers the public and political implications of the ruler’s self-cultivation. The ruler uses his Quintessential qi because, as with the technique of non-action, he needs it to conduct the grand symphony of transformation on the universal scale envisioned by the Huainanzi authors.
The ruler transforms the people most effectively by approaching them not with words but through the demonstrational power of his moral conduct, through a projection of his Quintessential qi in a way that naturally evokes a response from everyone within range: “A great shout can be heard at most only within a hundred paces, but the human will can project over a thousand li” (9.4). The transformation of the people is made easier when the ruler is virtuous and holds on to the handles of authority and positional advantage (9.26). Thus the ruler’s power and his ability to motivate his officials and to persuade the people to do his will depend on charisma rather than coercion: “By proclaiming laws and establishing rewards, [however], one cannot alter habits and change customs because sincerity of heart would not be stirred” (9.7).
Using Positional Advantage and Following Natural Propensities
Positional advantage3 is a key element in the ruler’s capacity to transform the people because it allows him to project his Moral Potency along with the innate force of his Quintessential qi. When the ruler is morally potent and maintains his positional advantage, this transformative process is made easier. Moral Potency without positional advantage is ineffective, but positional advantage without Moral Potency leads to coercion and tyranny (9.19). The goal of the self-cultivated ruler is thus to use his positional advantage to transform the people in a positive way. The ruler possesses positional advantage in part because he is able to appropriate to himself the collective talent and strength of the people and officials: thus the ruler “is carried by the capabilities of others as if they were his feathers and wings” (9.25). He does this by following their natural propensities. The people wish to be good, as naturally as “boats floating on water and carts going on land” (9.10), and the ruler’s task is to allow those natural propensities to emerge and flourish.
Laws, Taxes, Officials, and Administration
Chapter 9’s advice to the ruler is not confined to political theory. On the contrary, “The Ruler’s Techniques” contains a great deal of practical information on how to run a successful administration.
The chapter makes clear that successful rule is grounded in fair and impartial laws, and it makes an extraordinary claim about the origin of law: “Law comes from Rightness. Rightness comes from what is appropriate for the people. What is appropriate for the people accords with the human heart. This is the sine qua non of government” (9.23). At the same time, this is not what in the West would be called “natural law.” Instead, law is defined as a purely human invention: “Law is not a gift of Heaven, not a product of the Earth. It was devised by humankind but conversely is used [by humans] to rectify themselves” (9.23). At the same time, once instituted, “Law is the standard of measurement for the world, the level and marking cord of the ruler” (9.23). According to this theory, good law is a reflection of peoples’ capacity for goodness; bad, coercive, biased, tyrannical laws will fail because they violate the people’s inborn sense of what is right.
The ruler must implement his laws (and other aspects of his administration) through his officials. But the ruler also must constantly be on guard against bad officials, those who engage in flattery, deceit, corrupt practices, and oppression of the people: “The ruler of men values uprightness and esteems loyalty. When the loyal and the upright are in high positions and affairs are dealt with by cleaving to rectitude, flattering deceivers and wicked villains will have no place to advance” (9.18). When those whom he employs are appropriate, the administration will be orderly, and the populace will be harmonious. The officials will feel close to the ruler, and the masses of the people will submit (9.18).
Taxation is an essential function of government, and excessive taxation is recognized as one of the chief complaints that people might have about their rulers. The authors of the chapter thus name the ruler’s unrestrained desire for luxury as a key source of excessive taxation: If “the ruler is eager to carry out projects that are of no use, and the people look haggard and worn” (9.21), then the ruler’s government is on the verge of ruin. In contrast, the sagely ruler demonstrates concern for the people by ensuring that their material needs are satisfied; by amassing adequate reserves so the people can withstand natural disasters; and by instructing them in the rudiments of agriculture and animal husbandry so they have the means to feed and clothe themselves.
The point of the ruler’s techniques is to benefit the people, not to exploit or repress them; and if the people benefit from the government, they will support it: the ruler and his people reciprocally support each other.
Moral Potency and Sage-Rulership
Finally, the authors of “The Ruler’s Techniques” insist that exemplary rulers embody Potency (9.4, 9.10, 9.14, 9.20, 9.21, 9.22).4 Commensurate with the syncretic and comprehensive goals of the Huainan masters and illustrative of their efforts to devise a theory of governance that harmonizes the various wisdom traditions of China’s great past, the salient features of non-action—silence and tranquillity—are refashioned here to allow the ruler’s Potency to shine through. Potency (both in its broadest sense and with the specific connotations of “virtue” that we term Moral Potency) is associated with such rich and varied attributes as Humaneness, Wisdom, Rightness, Sincerity, Rectitude, Kindness, Grace, Filial Piety, Uprightness, Moderation, Restraint, and Frugality (9.18, 9.27, 9.30, 9.31). Potency is exemplified by the great sage-kings of the past, who frame the chapter like two bookends, opening with the Divine Farmer (9.3) and concluding with the paradigmatic Confucian sages Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, Wen, and Wu, and Confucius as the “uncrowned king” (9.29).
Sources
As is the case with so many other chapters in the Huainanzi, the variety of sources from which the authors of “The Ruler’s Techniques” draw is astounding for its breadth. Moreover, as we have seen elsewhere, the Huainanzi draws on its diverse sources through direct and indirect quotations, paraphrases, and allusions. Chapter 12 of the Huainanzi, with its more than fifty references to the Laozi, represents one end of the spectrum of how sources are used, and chapter 9, with only a few citations of named sources, represents the other. The authors usually hide the warp and weft threads of the conceptual tapestry that constitutes chapter 9 of the Huiananzi. Nevertheless, it is clear that the chapter shares ideas and historical references (but less often specific quotations) with the Laozi, Zhuangzi, Lüshi chunqiu, Guanzi, Zuozhuan, Liji, Hanfeizi, and other texts. Many passages in this chapter also have clear parallels with the Wenzi. Readers interested in pursuing further the chapter’s sources should consult Roger Ames’s rigorous and insightful study of this chapter, which identifies and discusses them in more detail.5
The Chapter in the Context of the Huainanzi as a Whole
According to the opening lines of the chapter summary in chapter 21 of the Huainanzi, “‘The Ruler’s Techniques’ [addresses] the affairs [shi 
] of the ruler of humankind.” With this seemingly modest claim, however, the Huainanzi turns an important conceptual corner, making a transition from the text’s first eight “root” chapters, which are primarily concerned with elucidating the Way (dao), and beginning the second half of the book with the first of twelve “branch” chapters, which focus on affairs (shi). In keeping with this transition from theoretical underpinnings to the more practical and detailed affairs of government, the first topic addressed in this chapter is the spectrum of specific techniques (shu) that will enable the ruler to establish an efficacious and judicious regime.6 The chapter describes methods for appointing, overseeing, and evaluating officials so that they exert their abilities to the utmost to regulate the multitudes below, thus enabling the ruler to “straighten the bent and correct the crooked, set aside self-interest [si 
] and establish the public good [gong 
]” (21.2) so that a mutually beneficial and harmonious relationship between ruler and ruled is established throughout the empire. Such, claim the authors, “is the brilliance of the ruler’s techniques” (21/225/8–11).
Sarah A. Queen and John S. Major
1. For an extensive discussion of the subject of resonance as it relates to Utmost Essence (zhijing)—that is, the most refined quintessential qi —see chap. 6. The concept of Quintessential Sincerity (jingcheng) is developed in chap. 10. For both terms, see also app. A.
2. Ames 1994.
3. For a discussion of shi 
“positional advantage,” see app. A and the introduction to chap. 15.
4. For the full range of meanings and connotations of the difficult term de, see app. A.
5. Ames 1994; sources and parallels are discussed in detail in the endnotes to his translation, 239–55.
6. The Huainanzi returns to the important theme of “techniques” in chap. 12.
The ruler’s techniques [consist of]
establishing non-active management
and carrying out wordless instructions.
Quiet and tranquil, he does not move;
by [even] one degree he does not waver;
adaptive and compliant, he relies on his underlings;
dutiful and accomplished, he does not labor.
Therefore,
though his mind knows the norms, his savants transmit the discourses of the Way;
though his mouth can speak, his entourage proclaims his words;
though his feet can advance, his master of ceremonies leads;
though his ears can hear, his officials offer their admonitions.1
Therefore,
his considerations are without mistaken schemes;
his undertakings are without erroneous content.
His words [are taken as] scripture and verse;
his conduct is [taken as] a model and gnomon for the world.
His advancing and withdrawing respond to the seasons;
his movement and rest comply with [proper] patterns.
His likes and dislikes are not based on ugliness or beauty;
his rewards and punishments are not based on happiness or anger.
Each name names itself;
each category categorizes itself.
Affairs emerge from what is natural;
nothing issues from [the ruler] himself.
Thus kings in antiquity wore caps
with strings of pearls in front so as to mask their vision
and silk plugs in their ears so as to obstruct their hearing.
The Son of Heaven surrounded himself with screens so as to isolate himself.
Thus,
what the ruler patterns himself on is far away, but what he grounds himself in is nearby;
what he governs himself with is great, but what he preserves is small.
Now,
if his eyes looked recklessly, there would be profligacy;
if his ear listened recklessly, there would be delusion;
if his mouth spoke recklessly, there would be disorder.
One cannot fail to guard carefully these three gateways.
If you wish to regulate them, that is in fact to distance yourself from them;
if you wish to embellish them, that is in fact to injure them. [9/67/3–11]
Heavenly qi becomes your ethereal soul;
earthly qi becomes your substantive soul.2
Return them to their mysterious dwelling place, so that each resides in its proper place.
Preserve and do not lose them, so that above you communicate with the Grand One,
for the essence of the Grand One communicates with Heaven,
and the Way of Heaven is mysterious and silent, shapeless and without pattern.
Heaven’s limit cannot be reached;
its depths cannot be plumbed.
Still it transforms together with humans, [though] knowledge cannot grasp it. [9/67/13–15]
In ancient times, when the Divine Farmer ruled the world,
his spirit did not lunge forth from his chest;
his wisdom did not go beyond the four sides [of his body].
He cherished his humane and sincere heart.
Sweet rains fell in their season;
the five grains multiplied and prospered.
In the spring there was birth, in summer growth;
in the fall, harvest; in the winter, storage.
He inquired monthly and investigated seasonally;
when the harvest ended, he reported the achievements [to the ancestors].
Each season he tasted the grain offerings
and sacrificed [to the ancestors] in the Mingtang.
The construction of the Mingtang was [such that] it had a roof but no sides.
Wind and rain could not assail it;
cold and heat could not harm it.
Slowly and haltingly [the ruler] entered the hall. He nurtured the people with public spiritedness; the people [in turn] were simple and steady, straight and sincere.
They did not engage in angry struggle, but goods were sufficient.
They did not strain their bodies, but they completed their accomplishments.
They availed themselves of the gifts of Heaven and Earth and lived in harmony and unity with them.
Therefore,
his awesome demeanor was stern but not exercised;
his punishments existed but were not used;
his laws were sparing and uncomplicated.
Thus [the Divine Farmer’s] transformation [of the people] was spiritlike. His territory
to the south went as far as Jiaozhi
and in the north to the Youdu Mountains.3
To the east it stretched to Sunrise Valley,
and to the west it reached to Three Dangers Mountain.
There was none who failed to follow him. At that time
the law was generous and punishments were lenient;
prisons and jails were vacant and empty.
Throughout the world, customs were one, and none harbored wickedness in their hearts. [9/67/17–23]
Government in the era of decline was not like that.
Those above loved to seize and knew no limit;
those below were as rapacious as wolves and would not yield.
The people, impoverished and suffering, struggled angrily;
affairs exhausted their energy without achieving anything.
Cleverness and deceit sprouted forth;
theft and plunder flourished openly.
Those above and those below resented each other; laws and commands had no currency.
Officials had authority but did not take responsibility for returning to the Way; instead, they went against the root and embellished the branches.
They diminished and decreased rewards
and strengthened and increased punishments,
hoping in this way to govern well. This is no different from
grasping a crossbow and calling a bird
or wielding a club and approaching a dog4
—the disorder will only increase. [9/68/1–4]
When waters are muddy, fish gasp for air [near the surface];5
when the government is harsh, the people become disorderly.
Thus those who raise tigers, leopards, rhinoceroses, and elephants
give them pens and cages,
provide for their desires,
feed them appropriately,
yet the animals still harbor great anger and cannot live out their normal life spans because they live under compulsion. Thus it is that
when those above have many clever schemes, those below have much deceitfulness.
When those above have many matters to deal with, those below have many fabrications.
When those above are troubled and vexed, those below are unsettled.
When those above have many wants, those below struggle harder against one another.
Failing to correct the root
but attending to the branches
is like
spreading dirt to stop a dust storm
or bringing firewood to put out a fire. [9/68/4–8]
Thus with sages,
their undertakings are sparing and thus easily managed;
their desires are few and thus easily satisfied.
They do not give but are humane;
they do not speak but are trustworthy.
They do not seek but they attain;
they do not act but they succeed.
Clodlike,6 they preserve Genuineness, embrace Potency, and project Sincerity. The world follows them as an echo responds to a sound or a shadow imitates the form [that casts it], for what they cultivate is the root.
Punishments and chastisements are not enough to modify habits;
executions and mutilations are not enough to proscribe wickedness.
Only spirit transformation is [to be] prized. Essence at its utmost is spirit. [9/68/10–12] A great shout can be heard at most only within a hundred paces, but the human will can project over a thousand li.
Winter’s sunshine,
summer’s shade—
everyone seeks them, but no one makes them so.
Thus the semblance of Utmost Essence
is not called forth but comes of itself;
is not waved off but departs of itself.
It is obscure and dark; we do not know who made it. Its achievements accomplish themselves.
The wise cannot discourse about it;
the analytical cannot describe it. [9/68/14–16]
Long ago, Sunshu Ao7 slept peacefully, and the men of Ying had no occasion to use their weapons. Yiliao of Shi’nan juggled crossbow pellets, and [although] the two houses [i.e., those of Duke Bo and Zixi] had difficulties, none could take issue with [Yiliao’s] refusal.8
Armor of leather and metal,
belligerent stares and clenched fists—
how inadequate these are as a defense against weapons and swords;
scrolls of treaties, rolls of silk,
mutilating punishments and [executioners’] axes—
how meager these are as ways to get out of difficulties!
To rely on the eyes [alone] to see
or to depend on words [alone] to command—
it is hard to rule that way. [9/68/16–19]
When Qu Boyu was prime minister, Zigong9 went to see him and asked, “How do you govern a country?” He answered, “I govern it by not governing.”
Viscount Jian [of Zhao],10 wanting to attack Wey, sent Scribe An11 to look things over. He came back and reported, saying, “Qu Boyu is prime minister. We cannot send in troops yet.”
How could strong fortifications and precipitous defiles be as effective as [men like] these]?
Thus,
Gao Yao,12 who was mute, served as minister of justice, and there were no cruel punishments in the world. He had [qualities] of greater value than speech.
Music Master Kuang, who was blind, served as grand tutor, and Jin had no disorder in government. He had [qualities] more valuable than sight.
Thus,
the commands that do not [rely on] words,
and the vision that does not [rely on] seeing,
are what make Fuxi and the Divine Farmer our teachers. [9/68/21–25]
The transformation of the people comes not from what [the ruler] says but from he does.
Thus,
Duke Zhuang of Qi13 was fond of bravado and would not allow [anyone] to argue with him about fighting. So his state had many difficulties, and its decline led to the rebellion of Cui Zhu.
King Qingxiang of Chu14 liked sex and did not allow [anyone] to discuss his habits [with him]. So many of the people fell into disorder, culminating in the affair of Zhao Qi.15
Thus the movements of the Utmost Essence are like
the generative [power] of springtime qi
and the slaying [power] of autumn qi.
Not even a relay carriage or a galloping horse could go that far. Thus a ruler of men is like an archer. When he [releases an arrow] if his aim is slightly off, it will always miss [the target] by a wide margin. Thus the ruler is very careful in how he evokes a response. [9/68/25–9/69/2]
Rong Qiji16 plucked his qin just once, and Confucius was joyful for three days in response to its harmony.
Zou Ji17 played one note on his qin, and King Wei of Qi18 was mournful all evening in response to its sadness.
By playing on the qin and the se
and giving form to the notes,
one can make others sad or joyful. By proclaiming laws and establishing rewards, [however], one cannot modify habits and change customs, because sincerity of heart would not be stirred.19
When Ning Qi20 sang a song in the shang mode from under the cart,21 Duke Huan of Qi sighed and suddenly understood [and appointed him a high official]. How deeply the Utmost Essence enters into humans!
Thus it is said,
“If you hear the sound of music,
you know the customs of the place from which it arises;
if you see the customs, you know their transformations.”
Confucius studied music under Master Xiang22 and [thereby] understood the will of King Wen of Zhou. This was because upon seeing subtleties, he could know the obvious.
Jizi of Yanling, hearing the music of Lu, knew the customs of the Shang and Xia dynasties. From assessing the close at hand, he recognized the distant.
What was created in highest antiquity and disseminated a thousand years ago has not been extinguished. This is emphatically so in the case of what transforms the people in the present era. [9/69/4–9]
During the reign of King Tang [of the Shang dynasty], there was a seven-year drought.23 The king offered himself as sacrifice at Mulberry Forest. Thereupon
clouds from the Four Seas gathered,
and rain fell for a thousand li.
Embracing his basic substance and imparting his sincerity, he evoked a response from Heaven and Earth, his spirit making itself known beyond the [four] quarters. How could promulgating orders and prohibitions suffice to accomplish something like this?
In ancient times, the Utmost Essence of the sage-kings took form within them-selves, and their personal likes and dislikes were forgotten outside themselves. They
spoke simply to express their emotions,
issued orders to make clear their intentions,
displayed [their essential qualities] in rites and music,
and exemplified them in songs and ballads.
Their achievements
have spread to a myriad generations without being impeded
and have pervaded the four directions without being depleted.
Even birds, beasts, and insects were refined and transformed24 by them. How much more so were they effective in maintaining laws and carrying out commands. [9/69/11–15]
Thus,
the loftiest [of rulers] transforms by means of his spirit.
The next lower [ruler] convinces the people to act without transgressions.
The next lower one rewards the worthy and punishes the unruly. [9/69/17]
The balance beam, in regard to left and right, is unbiased in its weighing, and thus it can be level.
The marking cord, in regard to inside and outside, is unbiased about the crooked and the straight, and thus it can be true.
The ruler, in regard to law, is unbiased in his likes and dislikes, and thus he can promulgate commands.
The steelyard, in weighing the light and the heavy, is not off by [even the weight of] the head of a mosquito.
The stretched string, in straightening the crooked, makes no mistake [even as small as] the tip of a needle.
The ruler, in rectifying the deviant, is without personal bias.
Wickedness cannot distort him;
slander cannot disorder him.
When
Potency has no place to stand,
and hatred is not stored away,
this is to employ the techniques of rulership and dispense with the human mind. Therefore the wisdom of the one who rules does not enter into it. [9/69/17–20]
Now,
for boats to float on water
and carts to go on land
is their natural propensity. If
a carriage hits a tree and breaks an axle,
or if a boat runs aground and shatters the hull,
there is no reason for people to bear resentment against the tree or the rock; they will blame the lack of skill [of the carriage driver or the boatman]. They know that [trees and stones] possess no [conscious qualities]. Thus
when the Way includes wisdom, there is confusion;
when Potency includes the mind, there is danger;
when the mind includes the eyes, there is bedazzlement.
No weapon is more powerful than awareness and the will. Even the great sword Moye is inferior to them.25
No brigand is as strong as yin and yang. The drumsticks and drums [signaling attack] are inferior to them.
Now the weight and the balance beam, the compass and the square, once fixed do not change.
Their calibrations are not altered for the sake of Qin or Chu;
their form does not change for the Hu or the Yue [tribes].
Constant and unswerving, going straight and not meandering, taking form in a single day and passed down for ten thousand generations, they act through non-action.
Thus,
states have rulers who perish, but no era can see the destruction of the Way.
People have distress and poverty, but principles never fail to be passed on.
From this standpoint, non-action is the Ancestor of the Way. Attaining the Ancestor of the Way, one responds to things without limit. When one relies [merely] on human talents, the highest kind of statecraft is difficult. [9/69/22–27]
[King] Tang [of Shang] and [King] Wu [of Zhou] were sage-rulers but could not equal the people of Yue in managing small craft and staying afloat on rivers and lakes.26
Yi Yin was a worthy prime minister, but he could not equal the Hu people in mounting fine steeds or taming wild northern horses.
Confucius and Mozi were erudite but could not equal the mountain-dwelling people in navigating dense undergrowth or traversing dangerous passes.
From this perspective, human knowledge, in relation to things, is shallow. Desiring to illuminate all within the seas and preserve the ten thousand places, if the ruler does not accord with the norms of the Patterns of the Way but relies on his own ability instead, then he will not reach his goal. Thus wisdom is not sufficient to rule the world. [The tyrant] Jie’s strength could
break an ox’s horn, straighten an iron hook,
twist [strands of] iron together, and fuse metals.
[His men] Qin Yi and Da Xi27
in the water could kill the giant yüan-turtle and the crocodile
and, on land, could catch the [common] bear and the brown bear.28
Nevertheless, Tang, with only three hundred armored chariots, surrounded [Jie’s forces] at Mingtiao and captured them at the [Nan]Jiao Gate. From this perspective,
strength29 is not sufficient to control the world;
wisdom is not sufficient to rule;
bravery is not sufficient to be strong.
Thus, that human talents are not enough to do the job is obvious. A ruler of men need not descend from his palace halls to know about matters beyond the Four Seas because
he avails himself of things to know about things;
he avails himself of people to know about people.
Where collective strength is employed, it is always victorious;
where collective wisdom is employed, it is always successful.
A tube well does not house giant turtles or crocodiles; it is too narrow.
An ordinary courtyard does not contain giant trees; it is too small.30
Now when it comes to lifting a heavy ding vessel, [a person] with meager strength will not be able to do it. As to picking it up and transporting it, one need not wait for someone who is stronger.31 Thus a village of a thousand people has no broken rafters, and a population of ten thousand has no project they cannot carry out. [9/70/1–11]
Now [the horses] Hualiu and Lü’er32 could go a thousand li in a day, but if we made them chase a rabbit, they would not be comparable to a wolf or a dog. [This is because] their skills and abilities have limits.
An owl at night can grab a flea or a mosquito and can distinguish the tip of an autumn hair, but in daylight the focus of its eyes cannot discern hills and mountains. Its form and nature are at odds with each other.
Now,
the teng snake floats in the fog and soars;
the ying dragon rides on the clouds and ascends.
When an ape gets in a tree, it jumps with agility;
when a fish gets in water, it swims quickly.
Thus in ancient times when they made a carriage,
the one who painted its surface did not draw designs on it,
and the one who drilled holes did not carve designs.
Workers did not have two different skills;
scholars did not hold two positions;
each stuck to his profession
and did not interfere with others.
Each person obtained what was suitable to him;
each thing obtained what gave it security.
Hence,
tools and utensils were not cumbersome;
duties and tasks were not despised.
When debts are small, they are easy to repay;
when duties are few, they are easy to sustain;
when responsibilities are light, they are easy to fulfill.
When those above reduce the workload,
those below find it easy to do it successfully.
In this way, the ruler and his ministers work closely together for a long time without imposing on each other. [9/70/13–18]
The Way of [one who] governs people is like [that of] the corpse impersonator in [the sacrificial rite of] the ling star.33 Austere, mysterious, and silent, he auspiciously and happily receives the blessing. He who has attained the Way does not try to embellish what is ugly or make good what is false. He is like a cloak that if worn by one person is not too large and if by ten thousand is not too small.
If the ruler
gravely implements generosity
and gravely implements severity,
then the Way of ruling will come through.
“Generosity” means to emphasize the awarding of largesse. When those without merit are richly rewarded and those who do not work hard receive high rank, those attending to their duties will grow lax, and those who roam about [seeking official position] will press to advance their situations.
“Severity” means to punish recklessly. When those who are innocent are put to death and those who act honestly are punished, then those who cultivate their persons will not encourage goodness, and the wicked will look lightly on defying their superiors. Thus acting generously gives birth to licentiousness, and acting severely gives birth to disorder.
Customs of licentiousness and disorder
are habits of a perishing state. [9/70/20–25]
Thus in the governance of an enlightened ruler,
when the state implements punishments, there is no place for the ruler’s anger.
When the court bestows rewards, there is no place for the ruler’s involvement.
One who is punished does not resent the ruler, for the punishment suits the offense.
One who is rewarded does not feel gratitude toward the ruler, for the reward has been earned by merit.
In such a state the people understand that rewards and punishments all come from themselves. Thus they perform their duties and serve their callings, not feeling that they should receive special tribute from their ruler. Thus
the court is full of weeds and devoid of footprints;
farmers’ fields are well tilled and devoid of weeds.
“Of a great ruler,
those below know only that he exists.”34 [9/70/27–9/71/1]
The axle tree of a swape is planted upright and does not move, [but] in tipping up and down, [the balance arm] is constrained by it.
The ruler is tranquil and calm and does not become agitated, [but] the hundred officials obtain their compliance from him.
It is like the soldier who carries the battle flag: if he points it the wrong way, there will be disorder.
Cleverness does not suffice to bring great peace;
wisdom does not suffice to dispel danger.
Praising Yao and disparaging Jie is not as good as casting aside intelligence and cultivating the Way.
If [the ruler is] pure, tranquil, and non-active,35 Heaven will provide the seasons for him.
If [the ruler is] honest, frugal, and keeps to moderation, Earth will yield its wealth for him.
If [he] empties out his intelligence yet accords with Potency, the sage will make a course of action for himself.
Thus,
to the [one who is] low, the myriad things revert;
to the [one who is] empty, the world gives what it has. [9/71/1–5]
In this way,36 the ruler begins by displaying his propriety, establishing it as the foundation. Thus using the natural propensity of the people as his carriage and the wisdom of the people as his horse, though [traversing] dark wastelands and perilous defiles, still no confusion can arise.
Because the ruler dwells in a deeply secluded place, avoiding scorching heat and damp cold [and because] he makes layers of doors to separate the gate from his inner rooms, he is prepared against evil men and deceivers.
Inside [his state], he knows nothing of the situation in village houses or gates;
outside it, he knows nothing of the forms of mountains and marshes.
Even outside the curtains,
the eye cannot see beyond ten li,
and the ear cannot hear more than a hundred paces away.
Nevertheless, there is nothing in the world that [the ruler] does not perceive,[because] his sources of information are rich and those who draw from him are many. Thus,
without going out his door, he knows the world,
and without glancing out his window, he knows the Way of Heaven.37
If he relies on the wisdom of the people, the whole world will not suffice to contain it;
if he relies on his own mind alone, he will not be able to protect even himself. [9/71/7–13]
Thus the ruler covers [the world] with his Potency. He does not act on [the basis of] his own wisdom but follows what will bring benefit to the myriad [common] people. Just raising his heel is enough to bring benefit to the people. Hence,
though he places himself on top of the people, they do not find him heavy;38
though he situates himself in front of the people, they do not find him injurious.
Though they elevate him, they do not feel he is too lofty;
though they support him, they do not tire of him. [9/71/15–17]
The Way of the ruler is round, revolving and turning endlessly, transforming and sustaining, like a spirit, vacant, gliding without apparent purpose, always at the rear and never taking the lead.
The way of the official is square, discussing practicalities and being in the right place. In accomplishing tasks, he is the first to take the lead. Guarding his store of knowledge and parceling out his insight, he thereby establishes his success.
Therefore,
when the ruler and [his] officials follow different Ways, there is order.
[When they follow] identical Ways, there is disorder.
When each obtains what is appropriate to him and situates himself in his proper place, above and below can work with each other.39 [9/71/17–20]
In listening to affairs of government the ruler is
empty of mind and soft of will;
clear, bright, and unclouded.
Thus the many officials work with him like the spokes of a wheel and advance in unison. Whether foolish or wise, worthy or unsatisfactory, none fails to use his abilities to the fullest extent. In this way, the ruler obtains the means to control his ministers, and they obtain the means to serve their ruler, so the Way of ruling the state is clear.
King Wen [of Zhou] was wise. He [also] was fond of soliciting opinions. Thus he was a sage.
King Wu was brave. He [also] was fond of soliciting opinions. Thus he was victorious.
If one uses the knowledge of many people, there is nothing that cannot be undertaken.
If one employs the strength of many people, there is nothing that cannot be overcome.
Even Wu Huo40 could not lift the weight of a thousand jun,41 but if many people work together as one, then a hundred men would have more than enough strength [to lift it]. Thus,
if [the ruler] relies on the strength of just one man, then even that of Wu Huo would not be enough;
if he relies on the knowledge of many people, then the world will not suffice to contain it.42 [9/71/22–26]
Yu diverted the Yangzi and cleared the Yellow River in order to bring great benefit to the world, but he could not get the water to flow westward.
Lord Millet extended arable land and reclaimed grasslands so the people could devote their strength to agriculture, but he could not get grain to grow in winter.
Is it that the efforts of these men were inadequate? [No,] the natural propensity [of water and grain] made it impossible. Now to advance a project that the natural propensity [of things] makes impossible, rather than to comply with the norms of the Patterns of the Way— this is something that [even] a sage, however spiritlike, could not accomplish. How much more so would this be the case with any contemporary ruler!
Now,
if the load in the cart is heavy and the horses are weak, even Zaofu could not get them to go very far.
If the cart is light and the horses fine, even a middling workman could get it to go fast.
Thus how can even sages, in carrying out affairs, oppose the norms of the Patterns of the Way or go against the constraints of nature, making
the crooked straight
and the bumpy smooth?
[The sage] never fails to use things according to their natural qualities.
Therefore,
if you combine the strength [of many] to lift something, there is nothing in which you cannot succeed.
If you collect the wisdom of many, there is nothing you cannot accomplish.
You can make a deaf person chew sinews [to soften them], but you cannot make him hear.
You can make a mute tend the stables, but you cannot make him talk.
Physical forms [may] have what is incomplete;
abilities may have aspects that are limited.
Thus a particular form belongs in a particular place, and a particular ability addresses a particular task.
If one’s strength surpasses his burden, lifting it will not be heavy;
if one’s ability is appropriate to the task, accomplishing it will not be difficult.
When each matter—small or large, long or short—obtains what is appropriate to it, the world will be as one, and no one will have the means to surpass another. The sage makes use of people’s various capacities; thus no talent is wasted. [9/72/1–10]
The ruler of men values uprightness and esteems loyalty. When the loyal and the upright are in high positions and affairs are dealt with by cleaving to rectitude, flattering deceivers and wicked villains will have no place to advance. It can be compared to the way [that]
the square and the circular cannot cover each other,
and the crooked and the straight cannot fit inside each other.
That birds and beasts do not gather in the same place is because they belong to different species.
That tigers and deer do not travel together is because their strength is unequal.
Thus when a sage accomplishes his will and ascends the throne, the flattering deceivers and depraved villains who wish to oppose him become like
a sparrow catching sight of a hawk
or a rat encountering a fox.
There certainly will not be much more life for them!
Therefore, the ruler of men in every matter cannot fail to be careful. When those whom he employs are appropriate, then
above, the country will be orderly;
below, it will be harmonious.
The officials will feel close to the ruler;
the masses of the people will submit.
When those employed are not appropriate, then
the country will be in danger;
superior and inferior will disagree;
officials will be resentful;
and the people will be disorderly.
Thus if a matter is dealt with wrongly, to the end of his life the ruler will suffer. In gaining or losing the Way, the power must lie with the ruler. Thus,
if the [line of the] marking cord is straight above,
the board will be straight below.
There is no great affair involved. It is just a matter of following what has been laid out, and it will be so. [9/72/12–18]
Thus,
when the ruler is sincere and upright, honest officials will carry out their duties, and wicked men will go into hiding.
When the ruler is not upright, evil men will achieve their goal, and loyal ones will hide themselves.
Why is it that people do not break open jade and stones but do break open melons and gourds? It is because there is nothing to be gained [by cutting open] jade and stones, so we do not assault them. If the ruler holds fast to rectitude and exercises fairness, it will be [as easy as] using the marking cord and the level [to mark a line] from high to low. [Even] if officials bring in wicked practices, they will [have as little effect as]
eggs thrown against stones
or fire tossed into water.
Thus,
King Ling of Chu43 admired narrow waists, and the people cut down on their food and starved themselves.
King Goujian [of Yue]44 loved bravery, and people all put themselves in danger and vied at risking death.
From this perspective, [he who wields] the handles of power and positional advantage finds it easy to modify habits and change customs.
When Yao was [only] a commoner, he could not transform people through Humaneness even for an area of [only] a li.
When Jie ascended the throne, his commands were carried out, and what he forbade stopped.
From this perspective, it is clear that worthiness is not sufficient to create order, but positional advantage can change customs. The Documents says, “When the One Man [i.e., the ruler] encounters good fortune, the myriad people depend on it.”45 This is what is meant here. [9/72/20–25]
In the world, many are confused by name and fame, and few investigate the real situation. Therefore
hermits are venerated for their reputations;
roving debaters are noted because of their persuasiveness.
If we look into the reasons why they are venerated and noted, we will find it is due to nothing other than the fact that the ruler does not distinguish clearly between the grounds of benefit and harm and esteems the disputations of great masses of people. A well-governed country is not like this.
Those who discuss policy must be looked into [in accordance with] the law;
those who carry out official matters must be regulated by bureaucrats.
Superiors uphold [official] titles and use them to evaluate actual performance;
officials take care of their duties and carry out their work efficiently.
Words are not permitted to exceed reality;
actions are not permitted to overstep the law.
The numerous officials come together like the spokes of a wheel, with no one daring to usurp the prerogatives of the ruler. If a matter does not lie within the scope of the law but can benefit the state or support its administration, then one must carry out [procedures of] threes and fives to make a covert investigation, in order to discern its outcome [for the ruler].46 [He] must also use [the technique of] listening on all sides to investigate its transformations, not leaning toward one viewpoint or favoring one side. Thus he stands at the center yet is omnipresent, spreading his light to all within the Four Seas, while the numerous officials are impartial and upright, none daring to do anything wicked. The hundred officeholders transmit [the details of] their duties and strive to leave behind a meritorious legacy. When
the ruler is the essence of enlightenment above,
the officials exhort [one another] to work hard below.
The traces of wickedness are [thus] extinguished,
and many successes follow day after day.
This is why brave men will give their utmost to the armed forces.
In a disordered country, it is not thus.
Those who are praised by the multitudes are richly rewarded though devoid of accomplishments.
Those who stick to their duties are punished though free of guilt.
The ruler above is in the dark and does not understand.
Officials form factions and are disloyal.
Persuasive talkers roam about engaging in debates.
People who embellish their actions compete for offices.
When the ruler above issues a law, [such officials] denounce it according to [their respective factions]. What the law prohibits, they transgress in their wickedness.
Those who are taken to be wise devote themselves to artifice and deceit;
those who are taken to be brave devote themselves to contention and struggle.
High officials usurp authority;
low functionaries seize positional advantage.
Cliques and factions become widespread and toy with their superiors. Although the state seems to [still] exist, people of antiquity would have said, “It has [already] fallen.”
Moreover,
not to regulate official functions,
not to take up shield and armor,
not to cultivate the southern fields,
yet still to enjoy fame as a worthy or a sage—that is not the way to promulgate one’s teachings in a state.
Qiji and Lü’er were the fastest horses in the world, but if [charioteers] had goaded them and they did not go, reined them in and they did not stop, then not even fools would have driven them. Now at the crux of chaos and order,47 there are signs that can be observed, yet none of the rulers of our age can discern them. Their way of governing is obstructed. [9/72/27–9/73/10]
Expediency and positional advantage are the ruler’s carriage.48
Rank and emolument are the officials’ harness and bit.
Thus the ruler
institutes central control of expediency and positional advantage,
wields the handles of rank and emoluments,
surveys carefully the regulation of slowness and speed,
and apportions what is given and taken.
Thus all the world works hard but is not tired. Now the relationship between official and ruler
is not as close as [that] between father and son
or as intimate as that between bones and flesh [i.e., blood relations].
Nevertheless [the official] will use all his strength and even risk his life and will not reject his ruler’s control. Why? It is [the ruler’s] use of positional advantage that makes [the official] behave like this. [9/73/12–14]
Formerly Yu Rang49 was an official of Viscount Wen of Zhonghang50 when Earl Zhi51 attacked the Zhonghang clan and annexed its territory. Yu Rang turned against his ruler and served as an official for Earl Zhi. Earl Zhi and Viscount Xiang of Zhao52 fought near Jinyang. Earl Zhi was killed, and his country was divided into three. Yu Rang, hoping to get revenge against Viscount Xiang of Zhao, lacquered his body to raise leprous [sores], swallowed ashes to disguise his voice, and pulled out his teeth to change his looks. Can it be that with the heart of one man, he served two masters? In one case he turned against his master and left him, while in another case he sacrificed his life to follow him. Can it be that the positional advantage of following one master and abandoning the other was different? [No,] the kindness and grace with which he was treated was what made it so.
When [the tyrant] Djou ruled the world, he assembled the Lords of the Land. [Everywhere]
people used their feet to arrive
and plied their oars to come through.
No one failed to submit to him. Nevertheless, King Wu, with only three thousand armored warriors, captured him at Muye. Can it be [simply] that the Zhou people were willing to die and the Yin [Shang] were rebellious? [No,] because [King Wu]’s Moral Potency and Rightness were abundant, his commands were carried out.
Now,
when the wind is strong, the waves rise;
when trees flourish, birds gather.
Each engenders qi in the other.
Thus,
if the official does not get what he wants from the ruler,
the ruler also cannot get what he wants from the official.
What transpires between rulers and officials is due to the positional advantage of reciprocal obligations. Thus if the official gives all his efforts and is willing to risk his life for his ruler, the ruler will measure the official’s accomplishments and issue ranks on that basis. Thus,
the ruler cannot reward an official who has no accomplishments;
an official also will not die for a ruler who lacks Moral Potency.
If the ruler’s Moral Potency does not flow down to the people but he still desires to make use of them, it is like beating a wild horse or like not waiting for the rain yet seeking the ripe grain: methods that are surely impossible. [9/73/16–24]
The Way of the ruler is
to abide in tranquillity and thereby to cultivate the self;
to practice economy and thereby lead those below.
If he is tranquil, those below will not be disturbed.
If he is frugal, the people will not be resentful.
When those below are disturbed, government is disordered.
When the people are resentful, [the ruler’s] Moral Potency is wanting.
When government is disordered, worthies will not offer proposals.
When [the ruler’s] Moral Potency is wanting, brave men will not die for him.
Thus if the ruler
is fond of fierce birds and wild animals,
precious curiosities and exotic things,
is violent and excitable,
does not cherish the people’s strength,
goes riding and hunting at inappropriate times,
then
the responsibilities of the hundred officials will be disordered;
their affairs will be labored, and their resources will be exhausted.
The populace will grow miserable and sorrowful;
their means of livelihood will be neglected.
If the ruler is fond of
high terraces and deep pools,
carved, polished, engraved, and figured [gemstones],
finely embroidered and artfully ornamented [designs],
fine and thick silks and linens,
precious baubles of pearl and jade,
then taxes will be unrestrained, and the people’s strength will be exhausted.
When Yao governed the world, he did not covet the wealth of the people, nor did he rest secure in the position of ruler. Perceiving that the people expended their strength in struggle, [so that]
the strong mistreated the weak, and
the many oppressed the few,
therefore Yao practiced personal economy in his actions and made clear the humaneness of mutual love so as to harmonize and pacify [the people]. Therefore
the thatching [on his house] was not trimmed;
the beams and pillars were not carved.
His state carriage was not decorated;
his floor mats were not hemmed.
His sacrificial broth was not seasoned;
his grain was not hulled.
He made tours of inspection and taught by example;
he labored hard for [the sake of] the world;
[his influence] spread throughout the Five Peaks.
Could it be that the support he received was not sufficient for his enjoyment? He treated the whole world as his altar of grain [i.e., as his state] but did not seek personal gain from it. When he became old and his will grew weary, he abdicated in favor of Shun, as if stepping back to kick off his sandals.53
It follows that an age in decline is not like this. Upon gaining the wealth of the world and the positional advantage of rulership, [the ruler] exhausts the strength of the people just to satisfy the desires of his eyes and ears. His will is preoccupied with
palaces, pavilions, ponds and gardens,
wild animals, [common] bears and brown bears,
amusing himself with fine objects and judging the merits of rarities.
Thus,
the impoverished people do not have even the dregs of grain from the brewery to eat,
yet tigers, wolves, [common] bears and brown bears gorge themselves on fodder and meat.
The people wear short garments of the coarsest cloth that do not even completely cover them,
while those in the palaces wear brocade and embroidered gowns.
The ruler is eager to carry out projects that are of no use,
while the people look haggard and worn.
All this makes [the people of] the world disquieted in their natures. [9/73/26– 9/74/10]
The ruler of men, [by virtue of] his position, is like the sun and moon in their brightness. The people of the world, as one,
strain their eyes to look at him,
strain their ears to hear him,
crane their necks, and stand on tiptoe to gaze at him. For this reason,
unless he is calm and indifferent, he will not be able to shine forth his Moral Potency.
Unless he is still and tranquil, he will not be able to extend [his rule] to distant places.
Unless he is lenient and great [hearted], he will not be able to bind together and cover [the realm].
Unless he is kind and generous, he will not be able to embrace the people.
Unless he is fair and upright, he will not be able to render judgments. [9/74/12–14]
Thus the worthy ruler’s employment of others is like a skillful artisan’s management of wood.
Large pieces are used for boats and barges or pillars and rafters;
small ones are used for tholes and pegs.
Long pieces are used for eaves and rafters;
short pieces for red [-lacquered] brackets and capitals.
Whether small or large, long or short, each has something for which it is appropriate. The compass and the square [shape them] square or round; each has something for which it is suitable. They have different shapes and varying qualities, but there is nothing that does not find its [proper] use. Of all things in the world, none is more poisonous than the xitu plant,54 but an accomplished doctor puts it in his bag and keeps a supply of it, for it is useful in some treatments. Thus, if among the products of the forests and the thickets, there are none that may be ignored, how much more so is this the case with people?
Now [it may be] that someone is not promoted at court and his fame is not celebrated in country songs, not because the person is unsatisfactory, but because the office he holds is not appropriate to his true abilities. When a deer ascends a mountain, a roebuck cannot follow. Yet when [the deer] descends again, [even] a shepherd boy can chase it. Natural talents have long suits and shortcomings. For this reason,
someone with a talent for grand schemes cannot be entrusted with [a task requiring] nimbleness and cunning.
Someone with petty wisdom cannot be given responsibility for a great project.
People have abilities;
material things have shapes.
For some, taking responsibility for one thing is too burdensome;
for others, taking responsibility for a hundred things seems light.
Thus,
one who can calculate things in minute detail would be lost [dealing with] large numbers on the scale of Heaven and Earth;
someone who never misses in small calculations would become confused when dealing with grand affairs.
Likewise,
a fox cannot be used to attack an ox;
tigers cannot be used to catch rats.
People’s talents are such that some wish to
pacify the nine provinces,
unite the lands beyond,
preserve an endangered state,
or revive an extinguished [royal] line.
Their will is set on
straightening the Way and rectifying evil,
resolving difficulties and ordering the disorderly.
Yet they are charged with the minutiae of court ceremonies.
Others are
adept and clever, petty and backbiting.
[They] advance through flattery, rely on persuasion,
follow the vulgar customs of country lanes,
and defile themselves before the ears and eyes of the masses.
Yet they are entrusted with authority over the world, at the crux of order and disorder.
This is like
using an ax to split a hair
or a knife to cut down a tree.55
In each case it is inappropriate. [9/74/16–28]
The ruler of men uses
the eyes of the world to see,
the ears of the world to hear,
the wisdom of the world to make plans,
and the strength of the world to contend.
Thus his orders and commands are able to penetrate to those below, and the true feelings of the ministers are known by [the ruler] above.
The hundred offices are regulated and efficient;
the numerous officials work together like spokes [at the hub of a wheel].
The personal pleasure [of the ruler] does not determine the granting of rewards;
[his] personal anger does not determine the meting out of punishments.
Thus,
his awesome dignity will be established and not be destroyed;
his comprehensive illumination will shine and not be obscured;
his laws and commands will be clear and precise and will not be [considered] harsh;
his ears and eyes will penetrate everywhere and will not be blocked.
The dispositions of good and bad will be laid out before him daily, and there will be nothing to which he is opposed.
Thus worthies will use their wisdom to the utmost, and the untalented will use all their strength [to serve him]. His Moral Potency and grace will cover the world impartially; the many officials will work hard to fulfill their duties and will not be indolent.
The near at hand will find security in [the ruler’s] nature;
the far-off will respond to his Moral Potency.
Why is this so? [It is because the ruler] has attained the Way of making use of people and does not rely merely on his own qualities. Thus,
those who travel with chariots and horses do not wear out their legs but can go more than a thousand li.
Those who rely on boats and oars need not [know how to] swim but can cross the rivers and seas. [9/75/1–6]
Now, [of those who have] the feelings of a ruler of men, there is none who does not want to gather unto himself all the wisdom in the world and use to the fullest extent the strength of the masses. Yet making known their intentions to act with exemplary loyalty, the numerous officials rarely escape putting themselves in danger. If someone offers a proposal and it is correct, even if it is from a brushwood gatherer in coarse clothing, it should not be rejected. If someone offers a proposal and it is incorrect, even if it comes from the chief minister or the ruler himself and is extolled in writing in the ancestral hall, it should not necessarily be implemented. When deciding where truth or falsity lies, wealth and poverty, honors or meanness, may not be discussed. When an enlightened ruler listens to his ministers,
if their proposals are such as can be used, he will not feel ashamed of the [low] rank [of the proposer].
If their words are such as can be put into action, he will not criticize their rhetorical style.
A benighted ruler is not like this.
Even if his favorites and intimates are wicked and dishonest, he will not be capable of seeing it.
Even if those far away from him and in low positions exert all their strength and show the utmost loyalty, he will not be capable of knowing it.
Those who speak forthrightly are beaten down by [the ruler’s] own words.
Those who [loyally] admonish are punished as if guilty of crimes.
[A ruler who] acts in this way yet still wants to shine his light throughout the world and preserve the myriad districts [of the realm] is like someone who
blocks his ears and tries to distinguish high from low [tones]
or who covers his eyes and tries to distinguish between blue and yellow.
That is a long way from enjoying sharp hearing and keen eyesight! [9/75/8–14]
Law is the standard of measurement for the world, the level and the marking cord of the ruler.
[He who] proclaims the laws does so to [impose] law on the lawless;
[he who] sets up rewards does so to reward those who deserve rewards.
After the laws are set,
those who obey the laws are rewarded,
and those who fall short of the marking cord[’s line] are punished.
For the honorable and noble, the punishments are not decreased,
and for the lowly and base, the punishments are not increased.
If someone disobeys the law, even if he is [otherwise] worthy, he must be punished.
If someone meets the standard, even if he is [otherwise] unworthy, he must be found innocent.
Thus the Way of the public good will be opened up, and that of private interest will be blocked.
In ancient times,
a system of responsible officials was established so as to restrain the people and thus prevent them from doing just as they pleased.
The position of ruler was set up to control the officials so that they could not carry out [policy] on their own.
Laws, records, propriety, and Rightness were used to restrain the ruler so that he could not exercise absolute authority.
When none of the people could blindly follow their own desires, the Way was triumphant.
When the Way was triumphant, Patterns were apparent.
Thus government returned to non-action. Non-action does not mean [that the ruler] froze and was inert but that nothing any longer emanated from the ruler personally. [9/75/16–21]
Now the inch comes from the millet grain; the millet grain comes from physical forms. Physical forms come from shadows; shadows come from the sun. This is the root of standards of measurement.56
Music comes from the [pentatonic] notes; the notes come from the pitch-pipe tones; and the pitch-pipe tones come from the wind. This is the ancestry of sound.57
Law comes from Rightness. Rightness comes from what is appropriate for the people. What is appropriate for the people accords with the human heart. This is the sine qua non of government.
Thus,
those who penetrate to the root are not confused about the branches.
Those who see the fundamental are not confused about the details.
Law is
not a gift of Heaven,
not a product of Earth.
It was devised by humankind but conversely is used [by humans] to rectify themselves. Thus,
what you have in yourself you must not criticize in others;
what you lack in yourself you must not seek in others;
what is established for inferiors must not be disregarded by superiors;
what is prohibited to the people must not be practiced by [the ruler] himself.
A country that can be said to be lost is not one without a ruler but one without laws.
To twist58 the law does not mean to have no laws [at all] but, rather, that the laws are not employed. That is equivalent to not having laws. Thus when the ruler first establishes laws, he begins by making himself an example and a standard; thus the laws are implemented in the world. Confucius said,
“If the ruler himself is upright, even though he does not issue orders, they are carried out;
if he is not upright, though he issue orders, they are not followed.”59
Thus when the prohibitions apply to [even the ruler] himself, then his orders will be carried out among the people. [9/75/23–30]
The sage-ruler’s [conduct of] government is like Zaofu’s charioteering.60 He smoothes the ride by controlling the reins and bit and regulates the speed by harmonizing with [the horse’s] lips and breathing. Having the correct standard within his own breast, he exercises control with the whip in his hands.
Inwardly he draws on what is within his heart;
externally he accords with the horse’s will.
Thus he is able
to advance and retreat in a line as straight as if laid out with a marking cord
and to turn circles as round as if drawn with a compass.
He selects a route that will take him far away and still has energy (qi) and strength left over. [He can do this] because he has sincerely mastered the [necessary] technique. Thus,
[the exercise of] authority and positional advantage is the ruler’s chariot chassis,
and the high-ranking ministers are the ruler’s team of horses.
For the body to leave the safety of the chariot chassis and the hands to lose their responsiveness to the team of horses’ intentions and yet still be able to avoid danger is something that has never been accomplished from ancient times to the present.
Thus if the chariot and the horses are not coordinated, [even the master charioteer] Wang Liang would not be able to choose a route.
If the ruler and his ministers are not in harmony, even Tang and Yu [i.e., Yao and Shun] would not have the ability to govern.
If [the ruler] uses the [proper] technique to drive them, even the wisdom of Guan [Zhong]61 and Yan [Ying] would be employed to the fullest.
If [the ruler] illuminates distinctions to control them, even the wickedness of [men like] [Robber] Zhi62 and [Zhuang] Qiao63 could be stopped. [9/76/1–6]
If you lean over the railing and peer into the bottom of a well, even if you have superior eyesight, you could not see the reflection of your own eye’s pupil. But if you look at your reflection in a mirror, you can see it in only a one-inch portion of the mirror. Thus an enlightened ruler’s
eyes and ears are not worn out;
his essence and spirit are not exhausted.
When things come into view, he looks at their appearance;
When events transpire, he responds to their transformations.
When what is near at hand is not in disorder,
then what is far away will be ordered.
Thus,
he does not use haphazard methods
but carries out the unalterable Way.
Thus of his myriad undertakings, none fails to go according to plan. [9/76/8–11]
Now if the horses are matched to the chassis and the driver’s heart is in harmony with the horses, a charioteer can travel perilous roads and go for long distances, advancing and retreating and turning circles, with nothing failing to accord with his will. [But if] even steeds as fine as Qiji and Lü’er were given to female bondservants to drive, they would revert to their own intractable ways, and the servants could not control them. Thus the ruler does not prize [people] being the way he wants them of their own accord but prizes there being no chance for them to go wrong. Thus it is said,
“Do not make it possible for people to have desires; then you need not tell them not to seek things.
Do not make it possible for people to grab things; then you need not tell them not to struggle.”
In this way, [individual] talents are set aside and the Way of public service will be carried out. Those who have ample [talent] will be restrained by appropriate measures, while those whose [abilities] fall short will be used [for something]. Thus all within the seas can be made as one. [9/76/13–17]
Now if a ruler ignores [the relationship between] position and duties and listens to undeserved reputations, rejects those who work for the public good, and employs people according to friendship and factions, then those of bizarre talents and frivolous ability will be promoted out of turn, while conscientious officials will be hindered and will not advance. In this way, the customs of the people will fall into disorder throughout the state, and accomplished officials will [have to] struggle at court.
Thus laws, regulations, standards, and measures are the means by which the ruler controls his subordinates. If he ignores them and does not use them, it is like trying to drive a horse without reins and bit. The numerous officials and the common people [alike] manipulate the ruler instead. Thus,
with technique, one rules others;
without technique, one is ruled by them. [9/76/19–21]
If a fish [large enough to] swallow a boat leaps out of the water, it will be overcome by crickets and ants because it has left its dwelling place.
If an ape or a monkey leaves its tree, it will be caught by a fox or raccoon dog because it is out of [its proper] place.
If the ruler of men ignores what he should preserve and struggles with his ministers and subordinates about [the conduct of] affairs, then those with official posts will be preoccupied with holding on to their positions, and those charged with official duties will avoid dismissal by following the whims of the ruler. This will cause capable ministers to conceal their wisdom and not put it to use, and so their responsibilities will instead shift back to the ruler. [9/76/22–24]
Now what makes the wealthy and noble work hard, the adept at management examine things judiciously, and the proud and unruly be respectful is the fact that their positional advantage does not equal that of the ruler. If the ruler does not rely on capable people
but wants to do everything himself, then his wisdom will be taxed daily, and he will be burdened with responsibilities.
If the ruler is frequently exhausted by attending to lesser duties, he will not be able to make broadly known [the proper] patterns.
Proper conduct will deteriorate throughout the state, and he will no longer be able to exert exclusive control.
His knowledge by itself will be insufficient to govern,
and his majesty will be insufficient to impose punishments.
Thus he will lack what it takes to deal with the world.
If joy and anger form in [the ruler’s] heart
and desires manifest themselves in his outward appearance,
those charged with official duties will abandon what is proper and pander to the ruler, while those who hold office will distort the law and follow the prevailing wind.
Rewards will no longer match accomplishments;
punishments will no longer correspond to crimes.
The hearts of superiors and subordinates will part ways;
ruler and ministers will resent each other.
Thus, when those who hold the reins [of government] pander to their superiors and commit errors, there will be no way to hold them accountable. When those who commit crimes are not punished, the numerous officials will lapse into turmoil and disorder, and wisdom will not be able to resolve the situation. Baseless slander and unwarranted praise will sprout forth, and enlightenment will not be able to clarify the situation. If he does not rectify the root by returning to the natural, then the ruler will be taxed even more, and his ministers will become even less restrained. It would be like skinning an animal yourself instead of letting a master cook do it or [trying to] carve wood for a master carpenter. If a man were to race a horse on foot, even though he tore his tendons [in the effort], he would not catch up, but if he mounted a chariot and took the reins, the horse would be responsive to its bit. Thus if Bo Le selects the steeds and Wang Liang drives them, an enlightened ruler can ride without the trouble of selecting horses or driving and can undertake a journey of a thousand li. He is carried by the capabilities of others as if they were his feathers and wings. [9/76/26–9/77/5]
Thus the ruler of men practices non-action; he has a basis [for what he does] but is devoid of personal preferences. If he practiced action, slander would arise. If he had personal preferences, flattery would come forth.
In ancient times,
Duke Huan of Qi was fond of exotic flavors, so Yi Ya64 boiled his eldest son to entice him.
The ruler of Yu was fond of treasures, so Jin used jade disks and fine horses to lure him.
The king of the Hu [tribes] loved music, so Duke Mu of Qin65 used female musicians to seduce him.
In all these cases,66 because some benefit was presented to them, they fell under the control of others. Thus,
“what is planted well cannot be uprooted”;67
what is established by [mere] words has no physical form.
Now,
Fire is hot but water extinguishes it.
Metal is hard but fire melts it.
Wood is strong but axes cut it;
water flows but earth blocks it.
Only what fashions and transforms us cannot be overcome by things.
Thus,
not [letting inner] desires emerge is called “barring the door”;
not letting external depravity enter is called “blocking the gate.”
If what is inside is locked in
and what is outside is blocked out,
what matter would not be properly regulated?
If what is outside is blocked out
and what is inside is locked in,
what matter would not be successful?
Only if you do not use something [now] can you use it later;
only if you do not act [now] can you act later.
If the essence and spirit are overworked, they become dispersed;
if the ears and eyes are [employed] excessively, they become exhausted.
Thus a ruler who has the Way extinguishes planning and discards intent. Quiet and empty, he waits.
He does not speak for the officials;
he does not do their jobs.
According to their job titles, they are assigned responsibilities;
as their offices are employed, they discharge their duties.
[They have] responsibilities without [written] instructions,
duties without [formal] teaching;
he takes “I don’t know” as the Way,
and “How is it done? as a treasure.
In this way, someone is responsible for each of the affairs [handled by] the numerous officials. [9/77/7–15]
Holding on to the handles of authority and positional advantage makes it easy to transform the people.
That the ruler68 of Wey took into service [Confucius’s disciple] Zilu was because [the ruler’s] authority was heavy.
That Dukes Jing69 and Huan of Qi made ministers of Guan Zhong and Yan Ying was because [the rulers’] positions were exalted.
That [sometimes]
the timid can subdue the brave
and the unintelligent can control the wise
is because they can use positional advantage successfully. Now,
the limbs of a tree cannot be larger than its trunk,
the stem cannot be stronger than the root.
So it is said that light and heavy, large and small, have that by which they mutually control each other. It is like the way the five fingers are attached to the arm. They can grasp, extend, snatch, or grab, and none [happens] other than as we wish it. This is to say, the small are appendages of the large. Thus to have the benefit of positional advantage means that what you hold is very small but what you manage is very large; what you guard is very compact, but what you control is vast. Thus a tree trunk ten [hand]spans [in circumference] can support a roof weighing a thousand jun, and a key five inches long can control the opening and closing [of a door]. How can this small amount of material be sufficient for the task? The position they occupy is the important thing.
Confucius and Mo Di cultivated the techniques of the former sages and had a penetrating understanding of the theories of the six arts. Their utterances adhered to their doctrines, and their personal actions embodied their will. [Yet] those who, admiring their Rightness and following their influence, submitted to them and served them did not amount to more than a few tens of individuals. But if they had occupied the position of Son of Heaven, everyone in the world would have become Confucians or Mohists.
King Zhuang of Chu70 was distressed because Wen Wuwei was killed in [the state of] Song.71 He pushed up his sleeves in anger and arose [to invade Song]. [Officials] in robes and caps fell in with him at every stage along the road so that at last they formed a whole army beneath the walls of Song. [His grasp of] the handles of authority was weighty.
King Wen of Chu72 liked to wear a cap of xie fur,73 and the people of Chu imitated him. King Wuling of Zhao74 attended court wearing a belt [decorated with] shells and a cap [plumed] with pheasant feathers, and the [entire] state of Zhao transformed [their dress] along with him. Yet if an ordinary person were to go to court wearing a xie-fur hat, a belt of shells, and a cap [plumed] with pheasant feathers, he could not avoid being laughed at by others. [9/77/17–26]
There is not one in ten thousand among the common people who loves goodness, rejoices in uprightness, and, without waiting to hear what is forbidden or punishable, naturally stays within the scope of the laws and standards. But if [the ruler] hands down commands that must be followed, so that those who obey them benefit and those who disobey them suffer, then before the sun [dial’s] shadow has moved, no one within the Four Seas will fail to toe the line.
Thus, grasping a sword or a glaive by the blade and [advancing to fight]—not even Beigongzi75 or Sima Kuaikui76 could be used to respond to an enemy attack [in that manner]. But if he were to grasp the hilt and raise the tip of the blade, then even an ordinary person might prevail. If [even] Wu Huo [or Jie Fan]77 were to pull on an ox’s tail from behind, even though the tail might break off, still the ox would not go where they wanted it to [because] that would be working against [its natural propensities]. But if you put a mulberry stick through [the ox’s] nose, even a five-foot-tall child could lead it anywhere within the Four Seas, [because] that would be complying with [its natural propensities].
With a seven-foot oar you can steer a boat to the right or to the left because it uses the water [itself] to assist it. The Son of Heaven issues commands. His orders are implemented and his prohibitions observed because he uses the people [themselves] as his positional advantage. [9/77/28–9/78/4]
If the ruler defends the people against what does them harm and opens [a way] for the people to have what brings them benefit, then his awesomeness will spread like the bursting of a dike or the breaking of a dam. Thus if you follow the current and head downstream, it is easy to reach your goal; if you gallop with your back to the wind, it is easy to go far.
When Duke Huan of Qi set up his government, he got rid of meat-eating animals, [got rid of] grain-eating birds, and took down snares and nets. With these three undertakings, he pleased the common people.
When [Tyrant] Djou murdered his uncle, Prince Bi Gan,78 his blood relatives79 grew resentful. When he cut off the legs of people who were crossing the river in the early morning, tens of thousands of people rebelled. With these two undertakings, he lost the world.
Now,
[a ruler’s] Rightness cannot be relied on to benefit everyone in the world, but if it benefits one person, the world will follow his example.
[A ruler’s] cruelty might not be enough to harm everyone in the world, but if it harms one person, the whole world might rise in rebellion.
Thus,
Duke Huan made three undertakings and [subsequently presided over] nine gatherings of the Lords of the Land.
Djou performed two undertakings, and [subsequently] he could not live even as a commoner. Thus one cannot but be careful of one’s actions. [9/78/6–10]
When the ruler levies taxes on the people, he must first calculate what the harvest will bring in, weigh what the people have in storage, and find out, [in anticipation of] abundance or dearth, the numbers of people who have a surplus or a shortage. Only after this should he use [tax revenues to pay for] chariots, carriages, clothing, and food to satisfy his desires.
High terraces and multistoried pavilions, serried rooms, and linked chambers—it is not that they are not elegant, but when the people do not even have hollowed-out caves or wattle huts in which to shelter themselves, an enlightened ruler does not enjoy them.
Rich [food], strong wines, and sweet pastries—it is not that they are not good, but when not even husks of the grain or beans and peas make it to the mouths of the people, then the enlightened ruler does not find [such delicacies] sweet.
A well-made bed and finely woven mats—it is not that these are not restful, but when the people live in frontier walled towns, braving danger and hardship, dying in the meadowlands [leaving] sun-bleached bones, an enlightened ruler does not [lie] peacefully [in his fine bed].
Thus those who ruled over humanity in antiquity felt such sorrowful despondency80 for [the troubles of] the people that
if some went hungry in the state, his food would not be heavily seasoned;
if some people were cold, in winter he would not wear furs.
When the harvest was abundant and the people prosperous, only then would the ruler set up the bells and drums and display the shields and axes [used in ceremonial dances]. Ruler and ministers, superiors and subordinates, then with one mind took pleasure in them, so that there was not a single sorrowful person in the state. [9/78/10–17]
Thus people in ancient times created
[instruments of] metal, stone, bamboo, and strings to express their joy;81
weapons, armor, axes, and halberds to display their anger;
wine cups and libations, [sacrificial] meat stands and platters, pledges and toasts, to verify their happiness;
unbleached mourning garments and straw sandals, breast-beating and gyrating, crying and weeping, to communicate sorrow.
These all are cases of things that swell up internally and then become manifest externally. But] coming down to [the times of] disorderly rulers,
in taking from the people, they did not calculate their strength;
in seeking [taxes] from those below, they did not measure their savings.
Men and women were not able to pursue their callings of farming and weaving because they had to supply the demands of their superiors. Their strength was exhausted and their resources were depleted. Rulers and ministers despised one another. Thus [if just when] the people reached the point that, with parched lips and agitated livers, they had only enough for the moment with nothing put aside, the rulers began to have the great bells struck, the drums beaten, the reed pipes played, and the qin and se plucked, it would have been just like descendants donning armor to enter the ancestral temple or wearing silk gauze to go on a military campaign. [One could say that] they had lost sight of that from whence joy in music arises. [9/78/19–24]
Now as people pursue their livelihoods, if a single man follows the plow, he can till no more than ten mu of land. The yearly harvest from fields of middling quality would not exceed four dan per mu. His wife and children and the elderly and infirm must also rely on this. Sometimes there are diverse calamities such as floods, droughts, and natural disasters. He also has to pay the taxes to the ruler for the expenses of chariots and horses, and soldiers and armor. From this point of view, the life of commoners is pitiful indeed! Now over the great [expanse] of Heaven and Earth, [on average] a three-year period of farming should produce a surplus of one year’s grain. Thus roughly
over nine years, there should be three years’ savings,
six years’ accumulation in eighteen years,
and nine years’ reserve in twenty-seven years.
Even if there were floods, droughts, or natural disasters, none of the people would become distressed and impoverished and be left to wander about in utter destitution.
Thus if the state does not have
a reserve of nine years’ production, it is called “insufficient.”
Without six years’ accumulation, it is called “pitiful.”
Without three years’ surplus, it is called “impoverished.”
Thus humane princes and enlightened rulers are restrained in what they take from those below; they are measured in supporting themselves. As a result, the people can receive the bounty of Heaven and Earth and not encounter the difficulties of hunger and cold. But if there are greedy rulers and violent princes, they vex those below, plundering and confiscating [goods] from the people to gratify their insatiable desires. Consequently, the people have no means to avail themselves of Heaven’s Harmony or tread the path of Earth’s Bounty. [9/78/26–9/79/6]
Food is the root of the people;
the people are the root of the state;
the state is the root of the ruler.
For this reason, the ruler of men
above, follows the seasons of Heaven;
below, relies on the resources of Earth;
and in their midst, uses the strength of the people.
Thus
living things grow to maturity;
the five grains flourish abundantly.
The ruler [is responsible for] teaching the people how to
nourish and care for the six [kinds of] domestic animals,
plant trees in the [proper] season,
work at laying out paddy fields and open fields,
start [seedlings of] and plant mulberry trees and hemp.
According to whether the soil is fertile or infertile, high or low, they sow each place with what suits it. In hilly and precipitous places where the five grains will not sprout, they plant trees and bamboo.
In spring they prune the dry branches.
In summer they take fruits and melons.
In autumn they gather vegetables and grains.
In winter they cut firewood.
All these are resources for the people. Thus while alive, they have no lack of things to use, and when dead, their corpses are not abandoned.
Thus by the laws of the former kings,
when hunting they did not wipe out herds;
they did not catch fawns or baby animals;
they did not drain marshes to get fish;
they did not burn forests to capture [animals].
[In the ninth month],82 before dholes had offered their sacrifices, the nets [for catching animals] were not spread out in the wild.
[In early spring] before otters had sacrificed fish,83 the fishnets were not put in the water [because the fish were too small].
[At the beginning of autumn,] when the eagles and falcons had not yet been used to seize [other] birds, nets [for catching birds] were not placed in valleys and gorges.
[In the ninth month,] before the leaves had fallen, axes were not brought into the mountains and forests.
[In the tenth month,] before the insects had gone into hibernation, the fields were not burned off.
Pregnant animals were not killed;
fledgling birds and eggs were not taken.
Fish that were not [at least] a foot long were not caught;
pigs that were not [at least] a year old were not eaten.
Thus grasses and trees grew like steam rising into the air, and birds and beasts returned [to their habitats] like the flowing of a spring. Flying birds ascended to the sky like smoke or clouds. This was [all] because the conditions were ripe for them. [9/79/8–16]
Thus, according to the administrative policies of the former kings,
When the clouds from the Four Seas gathered [at the beginning of spring], the field boundaries were repaired.
When frogs and toads called and the swallows descended and arrived [in the third month], the roads were opened and byways cleared.
When yin [qi] descended to the hundred springs [in the tenth month], the bridges were repaired.
When the [lunar lodge] Extension culminated [at dusk in the third month], various grains were industriously planted.
When the star Great Fire [Antares] culminated [at dusk in the fourth month], millet and beans were sown.
When the [lunar lodge] Emptiness culminated [at dusk in the eighth month], winter wheat was planted.
When the [lunar lodge] Pleiades culminated [at dusk in the twelfth month], reserves of grain were stored, and firewood was cut.84
The ruler reported upward to Heaven, and he made pronouncements downward to the people. The reason that the former kings in those ways
responded to the seasons and put all in order,
strengthened the state and benefited the people,
and populated the wilds and attracted [settlers] from distant lands,
was because their Way was complete. It was not that they were able too see with their own eyes and personally went on foot [to investigate]. They wanted to benefit the people. Their wanting to benefit the people was never neglected in their [own] hearts, so the officials naturally were conscientious. The heart is incapable of accomplishing even one of the tasks of the nine apertures and the four limbs [of the body], but in moving, resting, hearing, and seeing, all take the heart as their master because it never forgets to benefit them. [9/79/18–22]
Thus Yao did good, and much additional goodness came about [because of it].
[The tyrant] Jie did wrong, and much additional evil came about [because of it].
When goodness accumulates, success is reached; When wrong accumulates, failures proliferate. [9/79/24–25]
Generally people say that you want
your heart to be small [cautious] and your will to be large [expansive];
your wisdom to be round [full] and your conduct square [proper];
your abilities to be many and your affairs few.
“The heart should be cautious” means that you should consider difficulties before they arise, prepare for calamities before they occur, guard against transgressions and be careful about small matters, and not dare to give rein to your desires.
“The will should be expansive” means that you should bring together and embrace the myriad states, unify and standardize diverse customs, ally and shelter the commoners as if uniting them as a single people, and act as the hub when [opinions about] right and wrong converge like the spokes of a wheel.
“Wisdom should be round” means that you turn like a circle with no distinction between beginning and end, and flow to the four directions like a deep and inexhaustible spring. When the myriad things arise together, there is nothing to which you fail to turn your attention and respond.
“Conduct should be square” means that you should be straight and unswerving, pure and uncorrupted. Even if you are destitute, you never change your patterns, and when successful, you never force your will [on others].
“Abilities should be many” means that you must be competent in both civil and military matters, and adhere to proper deportment both in movement and at rest. In your actions, in promoting and demoting, you always do what is appropriate. You meet with no opposition, and so nothing is incomplete or inappropriate.
“Affairs should be few” means that you grasp the handles and wield the techniques [of governance], get what is important so as to respond to the multitudes, grasp the essence so as to govern widely, dwell in quietude and stay centered, revolve at the pivot, and use the one to bring together the myriads, like bringing together [the two halves of] a tally.
Thus,
if your heart is cautious, you can put a stop [to problems] in their incipient stages.
If your will is great, there will be nothing you do not embrace.
If your knowledge is round, there will be nothing you do not know.
If your conduct is square, you will not act in certain instances.
If your abilities are many, there will be nothing you cannot put in order.
If your affairs are few, the essence will be what you grasp. [9/79/27–9/80/7]
In ancient times when the Son of Heaven held court, he arranged for
lords and ministers to present forthright admonitions,
scholars of wide learning to chant the Odes,85
music masters to sing critiques of government,
and the populace to offer their opinions.
Secretaries recorded the ruler’s misconduct;
chefs cut down on his delicacies.
But still this was not considered sufficient, so
Yao put in place a drum [at the palace gate] for anyone wishing to admonish [him];
Shun set up a board on which to post criticisms;
Tang had a superintendent of rectitude;
King Wu set up a small drum to remind him to be careful.
[Thus], when mistakes were still trivial, there already were precautions taken against them.
According to the sage’s concept of goodness, no act [of goodness] is so small that it should not be carried out.
According to his concept of misconduct, no act [of misconduct] is so trivial that it should not be corrected.
Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, King Wen and King Wu confidently faced south and ruled the world. In those times,
when a gong was struck, they ate;
when the [musical composition] “Concord”86 was played, the table was cleared.
After finishing their rice, they offered a sacrifice to the stove god. In their conduct, they did not make use of shamans’ invocations.
Ghosts and spirits did not dare to work black magic on them;
mountains and rivers did not dare to harm them.
They could be said to be [truly] noble. Yet they were
preoccupied and fearful,
daily more and more careful.
From this point of view, then, the sage’s heart is cautious. The Odes says,
“Indeed this King Wen
was cautious and reverent;
illustriously he served the High God,
thus securing good fortune.”87
Is this not what is referred to here?
When King Wu of Zhou attacked the Shang dynasty, he
disbursed the grain from the Zhuqiao granaries,
distributed the money from the Lutai treasury,
built a mound over Bi Gan’s tomb,
designated as exemplary the [ancestral] village of Shang Rong,88
brought under royal control the ancestral temple of Cheng Tang,
and freed Ji Zi from prison.89
He let people of all sorts remain in their own homes and till their own fields.
He did not distinguish between old and new [friends]
but drew near only to those who were worthy.
He made use of those who had not previously served him
and employed those who were not [previously] his own men,
comfortably treating the newcomers as if they had long been in his employ. From this point of view, then, the sage’s will is expansive.
King Wen of Zhou
comprehensively surveyed successes and failures
and everywhere investigated right and wrong.
[He considered] what made Yao and Shun glorious
and [why] Jie and Djou perished,
then recorded all [his findings] in the Mingtang. Thereby he increased his wisdom and expanded his erudition so he could respond to anything that departed from the foursquare. From this point of view, then, the sage’s wisdom is round.
King Cheng and King Kang
carried on the task of Kings Wen and Wu,
preserved the institution of the Mingtang,
looked into the traces of [ancient states] that endured or perished,
and observed the alterations of success and failure.
If something
contravened the Way, they would not say it;
contravened Rightness, they would not do it.
Their words were not spoken heedlessly;
their actions were not carried out heedlessly.
They selected what was good, and only then would they pursue a course of action. From this point of view, then, the conduct of the Superior Man is square.
Confucius’s penetrating qualities [were such that]
in wisdom he surpassed Chang Hong;90
in bravery he was superior to Meng Ben.91
His feet were quicker than an agile rabbit;
his strength could lift a city gate.
His abilities certainly were many. Nevertheless,
his bravery and strength were not heard about;
his skills and mastery were not known.
It was only through carrying out filial piety and the Way that he became an “uncrowned king.” His affairs certainly were few.
In the 242 years of the Spring and Autumn period, fifty-two states perished and thirty-six rulers were assassinated. Confucius
upheld goodness and condemned wickedness, [thereby]
perfecting the Way of [the True] King.
His discussions certainly were broad. Nevertheless,
when he was besieged in Kuang,
his expression and complexion did not alter.
He plucked [his qin] and sang without pausing.
When it came to the point that his life was in danger,
when he encountered calamities and dangerous difficulties,
he clung to Rightness and practiced his principles, and his will was fearless. His sense of discrimination [between life and death] certainly was clear.
Thus, [in serving] as minister of justice in Lu, when he heard cases, he invariably came to a decision. In compiling the Spring and Autumn Annals, he did not give accounts of ghosts and spirits, nor did he dare to [inject] his personal opinions.
Now the wisdom of sages certainly embraces many things; what they preserve gets to the essence. Thus when they take some action, the outcome is invariably glorious. The wisdom of a foolish person certainly is very little, yet the things he tries to do are numerous. Thus when he acts on something it is certain to fail. In wisdom, Wu Qi92 and Zhang Yi93 did not compare with Confucius and Mo Di, yet they contended with rulers of ten-thousand-chariot states. This is why they eventually had their bodies torn apart by chariots and their lineage wiped out.94 Now
if [the ruler] uses uprightness to transform [the people] by teaching, that is easy and he will certainly succeed.
If he uses depravity to manipulate society, that is difficult and he will certainly fail.
Now, if you are going to establish a pattern of conduct and make it general throughout the world, to abandon the easy route that is sure to succeed and to follow the difficult way that is bound to fail would be the height of stupidity and confusion.
The six opposites must, without fail, be scrutinized carefully. [9/80/9–9/81/4]
To be thoroughly knowledgeable about the ten thousand things yet not to know about the Way of humankind—this cannot be called Wisdom.
To be thoroughly loving toward all sorts of [living] things yet not love human-kind—this cannot be called Humaneness.
Humaneness is the love of one’s own kind.
Wisdom means one cannot be confused.
A humane person may be in the midst of [witnessing] a mutilating punishment or an execution, but it is evident from his countenance that he cannot bear to do so.
A wise person may be in the midst of dealing with a vexing and challenging matter, but it is evident from his efficacy that he is not in the dark.
His inner sense of reciprocity is reflected in his [outward] feelings. What he does not wish for himself he does not do to others.95
From [knowing] the near, he knows the distant;
from [knowing] himself, he knows others.
That is how [the sage] acts on the concord of Humaneness96 and Wisdom.
If in small matters there is teaching, then in great matters there is preservation [of the state].
If in small matters there are punishments, then in great matters there is peace.
How compassion is to be expressed in action is a matter for the man of wisdom alone to decide. Thus Humaneness and Wisdom sometimes disagree and sometimes agree. When they agree, [the ruler employs] uprightness, when they disagree, [he employs] expediency. The [standard of] Rightness is the same. [9/81/6–11]
Functionaries and secretaries adhere to the law, but the ruler controls them through Rightness. [A ruler] who is lawful but lacks Rightness is no different from the functionaries and secretaries; this is not sufficient for [true] government.
Farming as an occupation is laborious;
weaving as an occupation is burdensome.
Though they are laborious and burdensome, the people do not abandon them because they know that it is through those means that they can clothe and feed themselves. It is an essential quality of human beings that they cannot do without clothing and food. The Way of clothing and feeding oneself must begin with farming and weaving. This is something that the people in their tens of thousands all recognize. Things like farming and weaving begin with hard work, but in the end they are inevitably beneficial.
Things for which preparations can be made in advance are innumerable, but the number of preparations [actually] undertaken by the foolish are few.
Matters in which expedient measures may be applied are many, but those in which expedient measures are [actually] undertaken by the foolish are few.
This is why foolish people have so many troubles.
Things for which one can prepare, the wise prepare for as completely as possible.
Things to which expedient measures can be applied, they apply them as completely as possible.
This is why the wise have so few troubles. Thus,
the wise first meet with resistance but later [bring about] concord;
the foolish begin in joy and end in grief. [9/81/13–18]
Today, what should we do to win honors?
Tomorrow, what should we do to accord with Rightness?
All this is easy to say.
Today, what should we do to accord with Rightness?
Tomorrow, what should we do to win honors?
This is hard to know.
If you ask a blind musician, “What is plain white like?”
he will say, “It is like unbleached silk.”
If you ask him, “What is black like?”
he will say, “It is like deepest black.”97
If you take something white and something black and show them to him, however, he will not be able to distinguish between them. People use their eyes to perceive white and black and their mouths to speak of white and black. The blind music master has the means to speak of white and black but not the means to know white and black. Thus in speaking of white and black, he is the same as other people, but in not being able to distinguish them, he is different from other people.
Everyone, whether foolish or wise, worthy or deficient, knows that internalizing filial piety toward his parents and outwardly displaying loyalty to his ruler is Rightness. But few can set an example of loyal and filial conduct or know whence [those qualities] arise. Now as to people’s thoughts, there is no one who does not first consider his [opinion] correct and then act on it. What distinguishes whether their [conduct] is correct or incorrect is the difference between foolishness and wisdom.98 [9/81/20–25]
In human nature
nothing is more valuable than Humaneness;
nothing is more urgently needed than Wisdom.
Humaneness is used as the basic stuff;
Wisdom99 is used to carry things out.
These two are the root. Add to them
bravery, strength, eloquence, mental acuity,
cleverness, quickness, diligence, discrimination,
ingenuity, mental agility, sharpness, keenness,
thoroughgoing brilliance, and penetrating insight,
and they all would serve to increase [a person’s] advantages. But if someone who is personally lacking in self-cultivation is trained in skills and arts but has no Humaneness or Wisdom that he can manifest as his fundamental character, then the more he augments his strong points, the more it will add to the damage he can do. Thus,
someone who lacks Humaneness but is brave and daring is like a madman brandishing a sharp sword.
Someone who lacks Wisdom but is eloquent and quick tongued is like driving a fine horse but not knowing which way to go.100
Even though you may have talent and ability, if you apply it where it is not suitable, it will suffice only to promote deception and cover up wrongdoing. [In that case,] having many skills would be not as good as having few. Thus those who are consumed with ambition cannot be given access to positional advantage, and those who are basically foolish cannot be given a “sharp tool.”101 [9/81/27–9/82/2]
When fish have water, they swim in it and enjoy themselves; but if [the dikes] break and the water dries up, then they will be eaten by insects. If you strengthen and repair the dikes and embankments and replace the water that leaked out, the fish will be restored and benefit from it.
A country has something by means of which it is preserved;
people have something by means of which they stay alive.
What preserves a state is Humaneness and Rightness;
what keeps people alive is good conduct.
If a state lacks Rightness, even if it is large, it will certainly perish.
If people lack goodness of will, even if they are brave, they will be injured.
The government of a state is by the fiat of the ruler and no one else. Being filial to parents, brotherly to siblings, and honest with friends all can be accomplished without commands from above. To put aside what you can accomplish and seek to do what you cannot control is absurd. [9/82/4–7]
If a scholar living in low and obscure circumstances wants to gain access to the ruler, he must first revert to himself.
There is a Way to gain access to the ruler. But if you lack fame and reputation, you cannot gain access.
There is a Way to gain a reputation. But if you do not gain the trust of your friends, you cannot gain a reputation.
There is a Way to gain the trust of your friends. But if in your dealings with relatives you do not make them happy, your friends will not trust you.
There is a Way to make your relatives happy. But if your self-cultivation does not [lead to] sincerity, you cannot manage your family.
There is a Way to make yourself sincere. But if your mind is not focused on the One, you cannot be sincere.
The Way lies in what is easy, but [people] seek it in what is hard.
The proof lies in what is near, but [people] seek it in the far away.
That is why no one gets it. [9/82/7–11]
Translated by Sarah A. Queen and John S. Major
1. This sentence breaks the parallelism of the whole passage, so we suspect that the text might have originally read, “his officials receive the admonitions [of others].”
2. For heavenly and earthly qi, see 3.1: “[The qi that] was pure and bright spread out to form Heaven; [the qi that] was heavy and turbid congealed to form Earth.” In Han belief, the body of a living person was inhabited by two souls: (a) the hun 
, an ethereal yang soul that departed from the body at death, and (b) the po 
, an earthy, substantive, corporeal yin soul that remained with the corpse after death and was entombed with it. Funerary offerings placed in the tomb were for the benefit of the po soul. See also 7.7 and 16.1. The link made here between heavenly and earthly qi and the hun and po souls of the ruler suggests a direct macrocosm–microcosm relationship between the cosmos and the sage.
3. Jiaozhi is identified with a kingdom in part of what is now northern Vietnam, in the floodplain of the Red River, and the Youdu Mountains are near the Gulf of Zhili. See 20.28.
4. See 16.157.
5. This proverb recurs in 10.97, 16.59, and 20.2.
6. Kuairan 
(lit., “clodlike”) probably is a reference to the “Great Clod” (dakuai 
) in Zhuangzi 2. The concept of a self-contained and inviolable state is similar to that of the “Unhewn” (pu 
), for which see, for example, 1.2.
7. Sunshu Ao (fl. ca. 598 B.C.E.) was the prime minister of Chu.
8. Yiliao 
of Shi’nan was a mighty knight of Chu, surnamed Xiong 
, whose aid was sought by Duke Bo in a vendetta against Prime Minister Zixi but who refused despite bribery and threats. See Zuozhuan, Ai 16. Stories about him appear in Zhuangzi 20, 23, and 25. The remark here about “juggling crossbow pellets” parallels a speech attributed to Confucius in Zhuangzi 24. According to Gao You, when Duke Bo’s emissary Shi Qi came to appeal to Yiliao, he was juggling crossbow pellets and did not stop even when Shi Qi threatened him with a sword. See Zhang Shuangdi 1997, 1:903n.18.
9. Zigong 
(also known as Duanmu Si 
) was a disciple of Confucius who, after the death of the Master, went on to a career as a merchant and diplomat.
10. Viscount Jian of Zhao 
(also known as Zhao Yang 
[d. 475 B.C.E.]), a ministerial vassal of Jin, was the successful leader of the Zhao clan in factional struggles against rival vassal clans. He was a proponent of government reform known for casting the penal laws of Jin onto bronze tripods for public display.
11. Scribe An 
(also known as Scribe Mo 
) was a knight of Jin, surnamed Cai 
, who served as grand scribe of the ducal court.
12. Gao Yao 
was a legendary sage official in the time of Yao and Shun.
13. Duke Zhuang of Qi (r. 553–548 B.C.E.) consorted with the wife of, and was consequently murdered by, his minister Cui Zhu.
14. King Qingxiang of Chu 
was the ruler of Chu from 299 to 263 B.C.E.
15. Zhao Qi 
, according to Gao You, was a grandee of Chu. See Zhang Shuangdi 1997, 1:907n.4. He is otherwise unknown.
16. Rong Qiji 
was a hermit of the Spring and Autumn period. The story of his encounter with Confucius is recounted in Liezi 1.
17. Zou Ji 
(d. ca. 341 B.C.E.), a minister of Qin under two sovereigns, rose to the post of prime minister under King Wei, and oversaw sweeping government reforms.
18. King Wei 
of Qi (r. 356–320 B.C.E.) was the second Tian-clan sovereign to hold the throne of Qi and the first to assume the title of king. He was famous for his patronage of scholars at Jixia in the Qi capital of Linze.
19. See the discussion of sincerity of heart in 20.7.
20. Ning Qi 
, a native of Wei during the Spring and Autumn period, began life in poverty and ultimately rose to succeed Guan Zhong as prime minister of Qi. See 10.94, 11.6, 12.14, and 13.16.
21. This incident is described most fully in 12.14 and is alluded to several times in the text. See 10.94, 11.6, and 13.16.
22. Master Xiang 
is identified by Gao You as the grand musician of Lu, but several later commentators take issue with this, noting that that the Analects gives a different name to that figure. See Zhang Shuangdi 1997, 1:909n.11.
23. According to other sources, a five-year drought.
24. Taohua 
—that is, transformed as clay is transformed into ceramic by being fired in a kiln.
25. The precious sword Moye, mentioned several times in the Huainanzi, took its name from Mo Ye 
, wife of the legendary swordsmith Gan Jiang 
and herself a superlatively skilled smith. See 19.4. See also Olivia Milburn, “The Weapons of Kings: A New Perspective on Southern Sword Legends in Early China,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 128 (2009): 427.
26. A similar point is made in 19.5.
27. Qin Yi is the same as 
in the Mozi; Da Xi is not mentioned in extant literature.
28. The brown bear, pi 
(Ursus arcticus), is a large northern Eurasian bear similar to the North American grizzly bear.
29. The text reads yong li 
. Wang Niansun argues strongly for deleting li and retaining yong. We feel that, on the contrary, yong should be dropped here, as it duplicates the yong two lines later.
30. A similar statement appears in 2.10.
31. That is, several people can join together in accomplishing that task. See also 9.16.
32. Hualiu 
and Lü’er 
were two of the legendary “eight thoroughbreds” that formed the chariot team of King Mu of Zhou, described in the Mu tianzi zhuan.
33. Ling 
here is probably used as an alternative form of ling 
, “numinous.” The corpse impersonator (shi 
) represented the soul of a dead person in certain sacrificial rituals.
34. Laozi 17.
35. The phrase qing jing wuwei, describing the attributes of the ideal ruler, occurs often in the Mawangdui Huang-Lao silk manuscripts.
36. The thirty-six characters preceding this sentence in the text are repeated almost verbatim at the beginning of 9.16. They were mistakenly duplicated here at some unknown time in the past, and we have deleted them in this translation as an inappropriate interpolation.
37. Laozi 47.
38. Laozi 61.
39. This section closely parallels LSCQ 3, section 5. See Knoblock and Riegel 2000, 109–13.
40. Wu Huo 
was a strongman of Qin who served King Wu (r. 310–307 B.C.E.).
41. A jun 
equals thirty catties (jin 
or 
), thus roughly sixteen pounds.
42. Compare 9.15.
43. King Ling of Chu 
(r. 540–529 B.C.E.) was a powerful ruler who expanded Chu’s territory through conquest. His throne was usurped by his younger brother, and he died ignominiously in exile.
44. King Goujian of Yue 
(r. 496–465 B.C.E.) was a powerful ruler and colorful character of the late Spring and Autumn period whose story figures in many texts. He was initially humbled in defeat and forced to serve as the personal servant of King Fuchai of Wu. Later he rose to destroy Wu and become hegemon of the Zhou realm.
45. Shang Shu 47/0476. See Qu Wanli, Shang Shu jinchu jinyi (Taipei: Commercial Press, 1970),180. This line is also quoted in 10.60.
46. We follow Lau (HNZ, 73n.1) in emending this line to read bi xing canwu yi yin kao zhi 
. Canwu refers to a procedure for analyzing problems; “threes,” to the triad of Heaven, Earth, and Man; and “fives,” to the Five Phases. See also 20.11 and 21.2; and Ames 1994, 247–48n.129.
47. Zhi luan zhi ji 
. This phrase recurs in 9.22 (9/74/27–28), as well as in 13.12. It seems to refer to the concept of a “tipping point” at which order and chaos hang in the balance.
48. Quan 
in the sense of “expediency” refers to a policy or course of action that, on balance, is preferable to other available choices. Compare Mozi 44 (MoZ 11.1/192/17): “[Selecting] from among concrete [choices] by weighing them is called expediency.” The term quan in this sense occurs frequently in the later chapters of the Huainanzi, notably in chap. 13. See chap. 13 also for quan as “balance” or “moral equilibrium,” and chap. 15 for quan as “heft.”
49. Yu Rang 
was a famous knight of Jin whose legend is recounted in many texts as an ideal of devoted service and indomitable resolve. His biography is recorded in Shiji 86.
50. Viscount Wen of Zhonghang 
(also known as Xun Yin 
) was the leader of the Zhonghang clan, one of the six great ministerial clans of Jin. He was driven into exile, at which point his clan’s holdings were divided among the other vassals of Jin.
51. Earl Zhi 
(also known as Earl Yao 
of Zhi [d. 453 B.C.E.]) was a colorful figure whose tale is recounted in many texts as an example of overreaching ambition. As leader of the Zhi clan, he seemed poised to bring all the vassal clans of Jin under his sway, until his overbearing belligerence drove the Hann, Wei, and Zhao clans to unite to destroy him.
52. Viscount Xiang of Zhao 
(d. 425 B.C.E.) was the leader of the Zhao clan who orchestrated the alliance that brought down Earl Zhi and led ultimately to the partition of the state of Jin into the three independent kingdoms of Hann, Wei, and Zhao.
53. That is, his giving up the throne was no more difficult for him than discarding a pair of worn-out sandals.
54. Xitu 
, also identified as wutou 
, or Aconitum, is a genus of plants that includes wolfsbane.
55. The same image is used in 16.126.
56. Compare 3.31.
57. Compare LSCQ 6.2/29/8: “In the age of the great sages, when great wisdom ruled the world, the qi of Heaven and Earth joined together and produced the wind. When the sun had reached its utmost point the moon gave the wind a sound and this gave birth to the twelve tones of the pitch pipe” (Knoblock and Riegel 2000, 157).
58. Bian 
usually means “to vary” in a positive sense but here clearly is a pejorative term meaning “to twist” or “to pervert.”
59. Analects 13.6.
60. A closely similar passage is in Liezi, chap. 5 (LieZ 5/32/13–16). See A. C. Graham, trans., The Book of Lieh-tzŭ: A Classic of Tao (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), 114.
61. Guan Zhong 
(also known as Guanzi 
, Guan Yiwu 
, and Zhongfu 
[d. 645 B.C.E.]) was perhaps the most famous statesman of early China. He served as prime minister under Duke Huan of Qi, increased the power of his ruler through basic reforms and policies, and invented the office of hegemon. Scholars agree that the well-known text bearing his name (Guanzi) was written and compiled long after his death.
62. Robber Zhi 
was a legendary bandit of great daring, cunning, and ferocity. His name is preserved in the title of chap. 29 of the Zhuangzi and is invoked in many early texts as an exemplar of rapine.
63. Zhuang Qiao 
was a man of Chu who led a revolt during the reign of King Huai (r. 328–299 B.C.E.).
64. Yi Ya 
(also known as Yong Wu 
) was a servitor of Duke Huan of Qi who gained great favor through his surpassing skill as a chef. When Guan Zhong was dying, he advised Duke Huan to banish Yi Ya, but the duke was too fond of his cooking to do so. Ultimately, Yi Ya joined in a rebellion against Duke Huan and starved him to death in his own palace.
65. Duke Mu of Qin (r. ca. 650–621 B.C.E.). See chap. 7, n. 61.
66. A similar passage appears in 7.16.
67. Laozi 54.
68. Duke Chu 
(r. 492–481 B.C.E.).
69. Duke Jing of Qi 
(r. 547–490 B.C.E.) was placed on the throne by the rebel Cui Zhu. He is reputed to have been a harsh and licentious ruler but to have improved somewhat under the edifying influence of Yan Ying.
70. King Zhuang of Chu 
(r. 613–591 B.C.E.) initially had little interest in government, but through the remonstrance of loyal ministers, he became a competent and forceful leader and rose to be hegemon of the Zhou realm.
71. Wen Wuwei 
(also known as Shen Zhou 
), a Chu vassal, was sent on a diplomatic mission to Qi without asking the ruler of Song for free passage through his territory and was killed. See Zuo zhuan, Xuan 14.
72. King Wen of Chu 
(r. 689–677 B.C.E.) was the ruler who first established Chu’s capital at Ying. He is credited for contributing to Chu’s status as a major power through territorial expansion.
73. The xie 
is identified as a single-horned bovine animal said to be able to distinguish between people who told the truth and those who did not. A cap supposedly made from the animal’s fur was popular for a time in Chu and was adapted for use at the court of Qin.
74. King Wuling of Zhao 
(r. 325–295 B.C.E.) was a dynamic ruler who initiated political and military reforms, most famously the adoption of “Hu tribe dress” (i.e., trousers) for a new corps of mounted archers. He expanded Zhao’s territory but fell victim to factional fighting among his sons and was starved to death in his own palace.
75. Beigongzi 
(also known as Beigong You 
) was a famous swordsman of Qi mentioned in Mencius 2A.2 as a paragon of courage.
76. Sima Kuaikui 
was a knight of Zhao during the Warring States period, famed for his skill with a sword.
77. The phrase jie fan 
is troublesome. Some commentators read it as a personal name, presumably a legendary strong man like Wu Huo. Others see it as a meaningful phrase, indicating that the strong men pulled the ox’s tail “so hard that . . .” We have tentatively come down on the side of the former possibility but put the binome in brackets to indicate the uncertainty surrounding it.
78. Prince Bi Gan 
, a minister to the tyrant King Djou of the Shang, was renowned for his sagacity. Because he remonstrated with the king, Djou ordered his heart cut out, reportedly to see whether the heart of a sage was different from that of an ordinary human being.
79. Literally, his “bones and flesh” (gurou 
).
80. Canda 
; this phrase also occurs in 10.28 (10/85/3) as a feeling that is “conveyed [from the ruler] to the hearts of others.”
81. “Joy” here includes the concept of “music,” the single character 
meaning both “joy” (pronounced le) and “music” (pronounced yue).
82. In this passage, the designations of seasons and months are not in the text but have been supplied by commentators.
83. For the supposed habit of dholes and otters of “sacrificing” small animals and fish, see 5.1 and 5.9.
84. For the twenty-eight lunar lodges (xiu 
), see chap. 3 and app. B. The association of calendrical months with the culminations of particular lunar lodges is a feature of chap. 5’s ritual calendar.
85. This appears to be a reference to the Odes, although shi 
could also refer to poetry in general.
86. Yong 
is described in books of ritual as a musical composition to accompany the end of a meal.
87. Odes 236, verse 3.
88. Shang Rong was a (possibly legendary) Shang-dynasty worthy who was punished by the tyrant Djou for honest admonitions against the king’s abuses. King Wu’s actions are also mentioned in XZ 98/27/53. Interestingly, the Huainanzi itself serves as the locus classicus for the identification of Shang Rong as Laozi’s teacher. See also 12.47 and 20.28.
89. Ji Zi had been imprisoned by the tyrant Djou for his admonitions against the king. He was to have been executed but feigned madness and was imprisoned instead. See Shiji 3 /12b–13a.
90. For Chang Hong, see 13.12 and 16.52. He is mentioned as a worthy in Zuozhuan, Ai 3/1; ZZ 73/26/2; and elsewhere.
91. Meng Ben (also known as Meng Yüe) was a fearless hero known for his acute vision. See, for example, Mencius 10/2a/2.
92. Wu Qi 
(d. 381 B.C.E.) was a famous statesman and soldier of the Warring States period. He led armies for Lu and Wei and eventually was employed as prime minister by King Dao of Chu. He led Chu effectively until the king’s death, when the aristocratic clans of Chu murdered him out of resentment. A text on military strategy attributed to him, the Wuzi, is extant.
93. Zhang Yi 
(d. 310 B.C.E.) was a statesman, strategist, and diplomat of the Warring States period. A native of Wei, he traveled as a “roaming persuader” seeking employment at various courts until he was made prime minister of Qin by King Hui. In this post, he was able to forge a league of states subordinate to Qin and to greatly expand the state’s power.
94. Zhang Yi was not torn apart by chariots. Commentators suggest that this may be an error for Su Qin or Shang Yang, who were indeed dismembered. See Zhang Shuangdi 1997, 1:1022n.52.
95. Compare LY 22/12/2 and 32/15/24.
96. Reading ren 
as ren 
.
97. Dan or tan 
, a deep black presumably with some special tactile quality, now unknown.
98. Reading zhi 
as zhi 
, to maintain the consistency of the argument in this passage.
99. Again reading zhi 
as zhi 
, to maintain the consistency of the argument in this passage.
100. The text is corrupt at this point and seems to be missing two or three words, but the general sense of this sentence is clear from the context.
101. The “sharp tool” is a reference to political power. Compare Laozi 36.