“PROFOUND PRECEPTS” poses a question: How is the ideal ruler to bring order and harmony to society? The chapter’s answer is that the ruler must follow the promptings of his inner heart and honor his innermost feelings as the basis of his rule, rather than relying on laws, rituals, institutions, or the advice of worthies. “Profound Precepts” thus evinces a deep commitment to concepts of moral autonomy and moral agency that echo the radical optimism of Mencius, who centuries earlier argued passionately for the potential and power of human emotions to uplift the world. Thus the ideal ruler seeks goodness within himself1 and thereby brings goodness to the world. He is able to do so because the moral inclinations of his human heart, expressed in such intrinsic feelings as Humaneness and Rightness, are shared by all humanity. Thus guided by his own inherent feelings, he is able to connect in a profound way with his people, leading them by means of a kind of empathetic resonance that is more powerful than any commands he might utter. Through vigilant introspection, the ruler establishes a close communion with the stirrings of his inner heart, relying on his personal Humaneness and Rightness to establish a government under which the people are loved and benefited as a father loves his son. There is a perfect resonance between ruler and ruled; thus by cultivating his inherent feelings, the ruler sets the world in order.
The Chapter Title
The title of this chapter is “Mou cheng” 
. Both elements of that phrase present challenges to the translator.
Mou (skein, bundle) is generally understood to be a loanword for either of two closely similar graphs: miu 
(erroneous, fallacious) or mu 
(ponderous, weighty). The implications of the two possibilities for understanding the chapter title overall point in opposite directions.
The root meaning of cheng is “to weigh in a scale”; thence “weigh, assess, evaluate,” “assessment, evaluation,” and from there a host of extended and metaphorical meanings, including “to declare” and “to praise.”
Most commonly, the chapter title has been read as miu cheng and accordingly has been rendered as “Erroneous Appraisals” or equivalent phrases such as “Des évaluations fallacieuses.”2 Presumably the implication is that the reader will learn from this chapter how to identify and guard against erroneous opinions. That reading finds some support in the chapter 21 summary of this chapter, which says it will enable a person “to find fault with persuasions and attack arguments, responding to provocations without error.” Nevertheless, that interpretation seems strained, and the phrase understood as miu cheng seems unsatisfactory as a chapter title.
Read alternatively as mu cheng, the title could mean “Profound Evaluations” or “Profound Appraisals.” In this case, advocated by some commentators, the title would allude to the content of the chapter and its intellectual profundity, the very kind of wisdom one might hope to consult when confronted with the “false explanations and combative arguments” that one sought to challenge and correct.
Both these approaches are acceptable, but we believe that there is a third and better alternative that would interpret the title to mean “Profound Precepts.” Such a rendering would point specifically to the literary form of the chapter and allude to its potential utility in the formal debates and other kinds of oral exchanges characteristic of the period. In this reading, the cheng of the title is understood to refer to a type of gnomic wisdom encapsulated in brief precepts. These could be cited in various oral contexts to argue against false opinions, precisely as the chapter 21 summary suggests.
In fact, several texts from the late Warring States through the Han, such as the Yanzi chunqiu, Guanzi, Shuo yuan, and Lun heng, support such a reading, as these texts use the word cheng to denote the utterance of a precept or indicate when a precept is about to be cited in the course of a conversation. This usage takes the form “someone presented a precept saying” (jin cheng yue 
, sometimes abbreviated to simply cheng yue 
). A typical example from Yanzi chunqiu depicts Yan Ying (d. 500 B.C.E.) offering a precept to Duke Jing of Qi (held title, 547–489 B.C.E.): “With clothing, nothing compares with what is new; with people, nothing compares with what is old.”3 Chapter 32 of the Guanzi, “Minor Appraisals” (Xiao cheng 
), includes a handful of brief precepts attributed to Guanzi like the following: “It is good to criticize oneself. Then the people will have nothing to criticize. If you are incapable of criticizing yourself, you will be criticized by the people.”4 The Shuo yuan cites many precepts, including the following from the Changes: “The eastern neighbor slaughtering an ox does not compare with the western neighbor’s Yue sacrifice.”5 Similarly, the Lun heng contains a passage in which Confucius cites the following precept: “Life and death are a matter of fate; wealth and honor rest with Heaven.”6 Thus the meaning of cheng as “precept” seems to have been well established in the Han era.
The translation of this chapter title is indeed a complicated matter, and a good case can be made for each of the versions discussed here. We believe that the translation “Profound Precepts” both best conforms to how the words of the chapter title would have been understood at the time the Huainanzi was written and best describes the content of the chapter, which does in fact contain many brief precepts.
Summary and Key Themes
“Profound Precepts,” like so many chapters before it, opens with a poetic and moving exaltation of the inclusiveness, perfection, and limitlessness of the Way. Accordingly, those who “embody the Way” (10.1) or “follow Heaven’s Way,” identifying their qi with that of the origins of all things (10.3), do so through direct experience (10.113). With this identity established, they transcend the vast majority of human beings. Leaving behind the more typical human emotions that arise in response to the phenomenal world—such as sorrow, joy, happiness, and anger—for a deeper level of inner experience that enables one to generate a range of different feelings from deep within the interior of the self, they respond to others with a profound sense of inner equanimity and move them with these feelings of a wholly different order (10.1). Such is the basis of Moral Potency in the world embodied in the ideal of the Superior Man and the sage.7
The Superior Man is associated with many virtues, chief among them being Humaneness, Rightness, and Goodness (10.32, 10.77, 10.101). Undoubtedly, the pair Humaneness and Rightness are most important. As section 10.6 explains, “If not for Humaneness and Rightness, the Superior Man would have nothing to live for.” He acts out of Humaneness and Rightness at every turn (10.82, 10.106). More “intimate than a father” (10.29), Humaneness is understood as the “visible proof of accumulated kindness” (10.5). The kindness of a humane heart is particularly valued for its ability to move others in profound ways (10.34).8
The Superior Man’s ability to embody Rightness is attributed to the inner state of his heart and mind: he persistently “ponders Rightness” (10.67), “fears losing Rightness” (10.6), wishes to practice Rightness (10.33), and either “advances and obtains” or “withdraws and yields by means of Rightness” (10.82). “More exalted than a ruler” (10.29), the Rightness of the Superior Man includes “a sense of appropriateness” (10.87). More specifically, it is “what comports with the human heart and conforms to what is appropriate for the majority of humankind” (10.5).9
The Superior Man also is synonymous with Goodness, which he reflects on constantly, assessing the measure of his personal virtue (10.32) and attending to acts of goodness, no matter how trivial. Through persistence and dogged determination, his seemingly banal acts of goodness slowly accrue to become something truly outstanding (10.9, 10.101, 10.102): “Radiantly it rivals the brilliance of the sun and moon. No one in the world can restrain or repress it” (10.71). Ever mindful of doing good in the world, the Superior Man understands that such goodness is rooted in his Heaven-ordained nature, and whether or not he encounters good or bad fortune is a matter of destiny (10.77).10 Accordingly, it is always better to seek for goodness not in others but in the deepest recesses of oneself (10.42).
The Superior Man stands out from the crowd because he possesses a number of additional qualities. When he acts, he is mindful of the consequences of his actions (10.23). He is a perfect blend of cultural refinement and natural substance (10.23). And he is able to foretell the course of an affair by the characteristics it exhibits at its inception (10.21). He also is marked by a willingness to speak the truth and disregard the consequences of doing so, making him a reliable critic of the ruler (10.10) and giving him a sense of circumspection when his person is concerned (10.46) and a sense of vigilance when pondering the stirrings of his innermost heart (10.31). Indeed, the Superior Man is decidedly preoccupied with his interior landscape, for this is where his moral compass lies. As the autonomous author of his moral destiny, he cannot do otherwise. The text clearly explains: “Thus, goodness or evil is our own doing; bad or good fortune is not our own doing. Thus the Superior Man complies with what lies within him; that is all he can do” (10.76). Accordingly, the Superior Man’s Way, the ultimate ethical model of emulation for the remainder of humankind, must be sought within the self:
The Way of the Superior Man is
close but cannot be attained,
low but cannot be ascended,
contains nothing inside it, but cannot be filled. It is
enduring yet brilliant,
far-reaching yet illustrious.
To understand this and so follow the Way is something that cannot be sought in others but only attained from the self. If you abandon the search within yourself and seek it in others, you will have strayed far from it. (10.65)11
The sage, like the Superior Man, does not follow the crowd. He is marked by an equal dose of moral autonomy; listening to his own heart and disregarding the opinions of others, he “reverts to himself and does not take [the lead from others]” (10.113; see also 10.58). Indeed, for both the Superior Man and the sage, “obtaining oneself” and “seeking within the self” are the most important qualities of the morally perfected person.12 Thus the sage, like the Superior Man, is also fiercely independent and self-reliant. One passage explains that this independence is the very quality that enables the sage to connect to others. There the sage is likened to a drum: “There is no instrument that is in tune with it, and no instrument that cannot be accompanied by it” (10.51). And like the Superior Man, he is unconcerned with the evaluations of others; he follows his own inner compass (10.113).
Yet the sage differs from the Superior Man in possessing certain qualities unique to this ideal. Although the sage shares with the Superior Man the ability to know the future of an event before it unfolds, based on the qualities it exhibits at its inception (10.7, 10.83, 10.96), the sage’s perspicacity endows him with additional qualities not associated with the Superior Man. It enables him to do such things as recognize and understand the subtleties of things that would confuse the average person (10.115), act in a timely fashion (10.89), and find something of use in everything, preparing “even the shavings from the timber” (10.16). His intellectual prowess is matched by certain emotive qualities that contribute to his unique qualities as an ideal personality: chief among them are a sense of foreboding (10.111) and anxious concern (10.20, 10.48, 10.72, 10.79), which appear as persistent emotions of his inner landscape.
When he occupies a position of political leadership, the sage nurtures the people (10.21), moving and transforming them with his intrinsic feelings (10.25) in a spiritlike fashion (10.31) that is commensurate with their inherent qualities (10.56).13 So vital and powerful are these two aspects of sagely governance that one passage claims: “If you cherish feelings and embrace inherent qualities, Heaven cannot kill you; Earth cannot bury you. Your voice will resound throughout the space between Heaven and Earth; your brightness will match the sun and moon” (10.41). The spiritlike transformation of the people is accomplished by means of nonverbal communication through the Quintessential qi of the human heart, providing the physiological basis for unspoken forms of communication between the ruler and his people and among people in general (10.24).14 Accordingly, the sage’s government is marked by Perfect or Utmost Potency (zhi de 
).15 When the ruler embodies the sage’s Perfect Potency, “His words are identical with his plans; his actions are identical with his intentions. Above and below are of one mind” (10.3). His government is a balanced admixture of the guiding patterns of culture and the intrinsic feelings of humanity (10.54). He thereby gains the hearts of the people by promoting what they love (10.20).16 Thus although the text readily concedes that verbal communication is essential to governance, it is what is communicated nonverbally that is most clearly prized. As one passage explains:
A three-month-old infant does not yet understand the distinction between benefit and harm, but the love of a kind mother is conveyed to the infant because of her feelings.
Thus the usefulness of what is spoken—how manifestly tiny it is!
The usefulness of what is not spoken—how vastly great it is! (10.26)
The central claim of the chapter is that the best rulers conduct themselves in accordance with their innermost feelings (10.11) and thereby move the hearts of those whom they rule. Accordingly, much of the chapter outlines the details of how human resonance works, demonstrating the centrality of the human heart and the feelings that correspond to this deeper psychic world and how these feelings evoke various kinds of sympathetic and resonant responses from other human beings.17 Of particular relevance here is the concept of inner sincerity, apparently an emotion or attitude that appears to be identified with one’s deepest psychic landscape that should ideally precede one’s speech and actions and accompany the expression of other feelings. Of the many kinds of intrinsic feelings prized in the chapter and distinguished from the more pedestrian emotional responses to external stimuli, feelings that arise purely as responses to the external world, there is no doubt that sincerity enjoys pride of place.18 Sincerity is said to make people responsive to the commands of their leaders: The ruler wills it, and the people fulfill it. This is because of inner sincerity (10.56, 10.17, 10.25). Sincerity has the power to move things that are quite distant from oneself (10.22) and gives rise to an internal joy and calm (10.57).19
Sources
“Profound Precepts” confirms and develops concepts and terms that appear in a group of early texts typically associated with Confucius and his early followers: the Lunyu, Liji, Mengzi, Xunzi, Zisizi, and Wuxingpian (Mawangdui and Guodian versions). The Superior Man, the morally perfected ideal of these early texts, figures prominently in the chapter and is frequently contrasted, as in the Lunyu, with its counterpart, the petty man.20 Moreover, the Superior Man is associated with a number of characteristics consonant with these texts: he embodies the twin virtues of Humaneness and Rightness. He also is associated with Rightness, Goodness, Trustworthiness, and Loyalty. As in the Lunyu, he is a perfect blend of cultural ornamentation (wen) and natural substance (zhi) (10.23). He also is mindful, cautious, or circumspect of his solitude (shen qi du 
), a quality commensurate with the Superior Man of the Zhongyong, Wuxingpian, and Liji. Most important, as in these early texts, the Superior Man follows the moral inclinations of his own heart and is guided primarily by this internal compass rather than the opinions of others. Other concepts as well bear the stamp of these early texts. The chapter’s discussion of the related concepts of Heaven and destiny draws on or alludes to the Mengzi and Xunzi. The chapter’s emphasis on human feelings as the primary source of ethical action is clearly indebted to the Mengzi, as are the arguments for accumulating small acts of goodness so as to establish truly outstanding virtue. “Profound Precepts” follows the Lunyu and Mengzi in contrasting the Superior Man’s concern for Rightness with the petty man’s concern with profit. The concept of sincerity, which is mentioned often, is reminiscent of that in the Zhongyong.21 “Profound Precepts” develops these foundational ideas by linking them to the more recent vocabulary of inner cultivation centering on the “Quintessential qi” as the physiological basis for human resonance evident in such texts as chapter 49, “Inner Cultivation” (Nei ye 
), of the Guanzi and chapter 9.5, “Breaking Through (via the Quintessential qi)” (Jing tong 
), and chapter 18.3, “Communicating (via the Quintessential qi)” (Jing yu 
), of the Lüshi chunqiu.
The Chapter in the Context of the Huainanzi as a Whole
As the chapter summary in chapter 21, “An Overview of the Essentials,” suggests, “Profound Precepts” analyzes and differentiates various assessments of four essential concepts—the Way, Moral Potency, Humaneness, Rightness—and a number of additional notions intimately related to these four. As the summary explains: “It proposes similes and selects appositions to match them with analogies. It divides into segments and forms sections, to respond with brief aphorisms.” Such a collection of profound precepts (mou cheng) is meant to provide the reader with the first of several weapons in a growing conceptual arsenal meant to be deployed to defend certain kinds of intellectual territory: “It is what makes it possible to respond without error when provoked by devious explanations and combative assessments” (21/225/13–14).
Sarah A. Queen and John S. Major
1. “Profound Precepts” argues frequently that the Superior Man is one who seeks (the Way) within himself (e.g., 10.17).
2. Respectively, Donald Harper, “Huai Nan Tzu chapter 10: Translation and Prolegomena” (master’s thesis, University of California, 1978); Le Blanc and Mathieu 2003.
3. YZ 5.5/41/28: 
: “
,
.”
4. GZ 32/85/11: 
,
;
,
. See also 32/84/31. Unfortunately, it appears that this chapter has survived through the ages only in partial form, as the second half of the chapter currently consists of two anecdotes unrelated to the materials that constitute the first half of the chapter. The following chapter of the Guanzi, entitled “Four Evaluations” (Si cheng 
) and consisting of four exchanges between Duke Huan of Qi and Guan Zhong, uses the term cheng in the alternative sense of “appraisal” or “evaluation.”
5. SY 20/173/17–18: 
:
(The western neighbor, being on the right side [all doors face south], is more highly esteemed than the eastern neighbor). For another example from the Shuo yuan, see the anecdote in which the humble attendant Zhao Cangtang seeks to persuade his lord, the heir Ji of Zhongshan, to send an emissary to visit his father, Marquis Wen of Wei. Zhao Cangtang initiates his persuasion by presenting a precept saying: “When a son for three years does not listen to his father’s inquiries, he cannot be called filial; when a father for three years does not inquire after his son, he cannot be called kind” (
;
,
: (SY 12.6/95/20). Additional precepts are recited as the story unfolds. See SY 12.6/96/18 and 12.6/96/20.
6. LH 28/127/6: 
,
.
7. For other references to the Way, see 10.1, 10.3, 10.5, 10.62, 10.65, 10.74, 10.77, 10.79, 10.85, 10.86, 10.88, 10.100, 10.107, and 10.114.
8. For other discussions of Humaneness, see 10.5, 10.6, 10.28, 10.34, and 10.106.
9. For other references to Rightness, see 10.5, 10.6, 10.29, 10.33, 10.46, 10.48, 10.67, 10.70, 10.82, 10.87, 10.88, 10.91, and 10.104.
10. For other references to the randomness of good and bad fortune, see 10.7, 10.60, 10.76, 10.77, 10.83, 10.99, 10.111, and 10.112.
11. For other references to the Superior Man, see 10.6, 10.10, 10.21, 10.23, 10.27, 10.28, 10.31, 10.32, 10.46, 10.65, 10.66, 10.67, 10.77, 10.82, 10.101, and 10.106.
12. For the importance of the self as the ultimate arbiter of the virtuous life, see 10.17, 10.22, 10.24, 10.31, 10.32, 10.42, 10.49, 10.58, 10.65, 10.86, 10.106, and 10.113.
13. For additional references to the sage, see 10.7, 10.8, 10.15, 10.25, 10.30, 10.36, 10.37, 10.40, 10.48, 10.51, 10.58, 10.83, 10.89, 10.90, 10.91, 10.96, 10.111, 10.113, and 10.118.
14. For other references to the essence or Quintessential qi, see 10.18, 10.24, 10.94, and 10.103.
15. For additional references to Moral Potency, see 10.73, 10.85, 10.91, 10.102, 10.104, 10.105, and 10.106.
16. For further discussions of the ideal ruler and government described in this chapter, see 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 10.9, 10.13, 10.29, 10.44, 10.52, 10.55, 10.56, 10.64 (Mandate of Heaven), 10.74, 10.78, 10.84, 10.85, 10.86, 10.89, 10.98, 10.100, and 10.104.
17. For various references to the heart, see 10.2, 10.4, 10.5, 10.11, 10.17, 10.20, 10.21, 10.41, 10.47, 10.53, and 10.94.
18. For references to feelings, see 10.11, 10.25, 10.26, 10.34, 10.35, 10.36, 10.41, 10.45, 10.50, 10.53, 10.54, 10.58, 10.62, 10.67, 10.68, 10.69, 10.81, and 10.99.
19. For more on sincerity, see 10.17, 10.22, 10.25, 10.56, 10.57, 10.72, 10.103, and 10.116. Is sincerity an emotion or a quality of emotions? See 10.72. Note that Mencius regarded sincerity as one of the hallmarks of the morally perfected person.
20. See 10.6, 10.33, 10.39, 10.60, 10.66, 10.67, 10.71, 10.87, and 10.106.
21. In addition, in “Huai Nan Tzu chapter 10,” Harper has pointed out that the style of argumentation prominent in the first half of the chapter, which draws heavily on the Odes and Changes, is reminiscent of a style of argumentation associated most typically with the Xunzi and the evaluation of historical figures is consistent with various positions articulated in the Analects and Mengzi. He also argues for strong affinities between this chapter and the Zisizi.
The Way at its highest has nothing above it;
at its lowest it has nothing below it.
It is more even than a [carpenter’s] level,
straighter than a marking cord,
rounder than a compass,
and more square than a [carpenter’s] square.
It embraces the cosmos and is without outside or inside. Cavernous and undifferentiated, it covers and supports with nothing to hinder it.
Therefore, those who embody the Way
are not sorrowful or joyful;
are not happy or angry.
They sit without disturbing thoughts,
and sleep without dreams.1
Things come, and they name them.
Affairs arise, and they respond to them.2 [10/82/15–17]
The ruler is the heart of the state.
When the heart is well ordered, the hundred joints are all secure;
when the heart is unsettled, the hundred joints are all confused.
Thus
if your heart is well ordered, your limbs and body [can] ignore each other.
If your state is well ordered, ruler and minister [can] forget each other.3 [10/82/19–20]
The Yellow Emperor said,
“Broad and infinite,
[I] follow Heaven’s Way,
and my qi is identical with the Origin.”4
Thus when [the ruler] has perfected Potency,
his words are identical with his plans;
his actions are identical with his intentions.
Above and below are of one mind. [10/82/20–21]
Those who have no divergent paths or distorted views
erect barriers to falling into depravity;
open the path to following goodness.
Thus the people will turn toward the foursquare.
Thus the Changes says,
“Unite the people in the fields.
It is advantageous to cross the Great River.”5 [10/82/21–22]
The Way is what guides things;
Potency is what supports nature.
Humaneness is visible proof of accumulated kindness.6 Rightness is what comports with the human heart and conforms to what is appropriate for the majority of humankind.7
Thus
when the Way was extinguished, Potency was employed.
When Potency declined, Humaneness and Rightness were born.8
Thus
the earliest era embodied the Way but did not have Potency.
The middle period had Potency but did not cherish it.9
The latter-day era was anxious and fearful lest even Humaneness and Rightness be lost. [10/82/24–26]
If not for Humaneness and Rightness, the Superior Man would have nothing to live for.
If he loses Humaneness and Rightness, he will lose the reason for his existence.
If not for cravings and desires, the petty man would have nothing to live for.
If he loses his cravings and desires, he will lose his reason for living.
Thus
the Superior Man fears losing Rightness.
The petty man fears losing what is valuable to him.10
When we look at what people fear, we understand how different they are. [10/82/24–28]
The Changes says,
“Chasing a deer without a guide.
It goes into the forest.
For the Superior Man to follow it would not be so good as to abandon it.
Should he follow it, he would encounter difficulty.”11 [10/82/30]
If your generosity is ample, your reward will be great;
if your hatred is great, your misfortune will be profound.
To give meagerly yet hope extravagantly, to nurture hatred yet be free of suffering— such has never been the case from ancient times until the present.
This is why the sage
looks into things that have gone before
and so understands what is to come. [10/82/30–10/83/2]
Might not one say that the sagely Way is like a wine jar set up in the middle of an intersection? People passing by will pour some out. [Some will take] more, some less, in unequal amounts; but all will get what they think is appropriate.12
For this reason, the way to obtain [the allegiance of] one person is the same as the way to obtain [the allegiance of] a hundred. [10/83/2–3]
If people take as the standard what they desire from their superiors and apply it to the way they treat their subordinates, who would not support them?
If they take what they desire from their subordinates as a standard for treating their superiors, who would not like them?
The Odes says,
“Beloved is the One Man [the king].
In his responses to the Lords of the Land, he follows Potency.13
The careful exercise of Potency is great.
The One Man is small.
If you do good in the small,
you can do good in the great.” [10/83/3–5]
When the Superior Man sees [the ruler’s] transgressions, he forgets about punishment [for pointing it out]. Thus he is able to remonstrate.
When he sees a worthy, he forgets about [the worthy’s low] rank. Thus he is able to yield modestly.
When he sees others who do not have enough, he forgets [his own] poverty. Thus he is able to give charitably.14 [10/83/7]
Feelings are attached to one’s center [i.e., the heart];
conduct is manifested on one’s outside.
Whenever conduct stems from feelings, though [it is] excessive, [it will cause] no resentment.
Whenever it does not stem from feelings, though one’s conduct is loyal, it will bring bad consequences. [10/83/7–8]
Lord Millet brought wide-ranging benefits to the world, but still he did not brag about it. Yu neither wasted his efforts nor wasted his resources, but he still regarded himself as deficient.
Those to whom
fullness is like a sinkhole,
and substance is like emptiness
get the most out of them. [10/83/10–11]
All people
find worthy what pleases them
and are pleased by what makes them happy.
There is no age that does not promote “worthies.” [But] some [rulers] thereby bring order, some bring chaos. It is not that [rulers] deceive themselves; it is just that they seek out “worthies” who are the same as themselves. But if the ruler is not necessarily a worthy himself and he looks for someone just like himself hoping in that way to obtain a worthy, it certainly is not going to work. To let Yao evaluate Shun is permissible, but to let Jie evaluate Yao is like using a sheng to measure a dan [i.e., they are incommensurable].15 [10/83/13–15]
Now if you call a fox a raccoon dog,16 it is certain that you do not know what a fox is, nor do you know what a raccoon dog is. If it is not that you have never seen a fox, then surely you have never seen a raccoon dog. [In one sense,] a fox and a raccoon dog do not differ, as they belong to the same class of animals. But if you call a fox a raccoon dog, you do not know either the fox or the raccoon dog.17
For this reason,
if you call a worthless person a worthy, it is certain you do not know what a worthy is.
If you call a worthy a worthless person, it is certain you do not know what a worthless person is. [10/83/15–17]
When a sage is above [i.e., in power],
then the people rejoice in his governance;
when he is below [out of power],
then the people admire his steadfastness.
When a petty man is in high position, it is like bedding down on a gate or keeping cocoons in the sunshine.18 One would not get a moment’s peace.
Thus the Changes says,
“Mounting the horse, it turns about;
weeping blood, it flows torrentially.”19
This means that when a petty man is in a position beyond his station, he will not last long in it. [10/83/19–21]
There is nothing that does not have some use.
Tianxiong and wuhui20 are the [most] virulently poisonous of herbs, but a good physician uses them to save people’s lives.
Dwarves and blind musicians are the troubled invalids of humankind, but the ruler of men uses them to perform music.
For this reason, the sage prepares even the shavings from the timber.21 There is nothing that he does not use. [10/83/23–24]
With one shout, a brave warrior can cause the Three Armies to retreat. What disperses them is his complete sincerity.22
Thus
if you command, but [the troops] do not [comply] harmoniously;
if you have intentions, but [the troops] do not support you,
it surely is the case that something is not in accord with your inner heart.23
Thus the reason that Shun, without descending from his mat, [was able to] preserve the world was because he sought it within himself.24 Thus if the ruler makes more and more excuses, the people will practice more and more deceit. To have a body that is crooked and a shadow that is straight—such a thing has never been heard of. [10/83/26–10/84/2]
What persuasive speech cannot get at, appearance and demeanor can get at.
What appearance and demeanor cannot get at, a flash of emotion can express.
What is stimulated in the mind then becomes clear in the intelligence; finally it issues forth and takes form. The essence,25 at its utmost, can shape the dynamics of an encounter, but it cannot give clear warning. [10/84/4–5]
The horses of the Rong and Dee people all can run and gallop. Some go short distances, some go far, but only Zaofu could get the most out of the horses’ strength.
The peoples of the Three Miao tribes all can be made loyal and trustworthy. Some are worthy, some are worthless, but only Tang26 and Yu27 could integrate their good points.
They must have possessed something that cannot be transmitted.
Earl Mu of Zhonghang seized a tiger with his bare hands, but he could not capture it alive. No doubt his physical strength was outstanding, but his ability did not extend that far.28 [10/84/7–9]
If you use what a hundred people can do, you will obtain the strength of a hundred people.
If you promote what a thousand people love, you will gain the hearts of a thousand people.
By analogy, it is like chopping down a tree and pulling out its roots. Of the thousand branches and the ten thousand leaves, none can fail to follow. [10/84/9–10]
The kindly father’s love for his son is not in order to be repaid29 but because [the love] cannot be removed from his heart.
The sage-king’s nurturance of his people is not because he seeks to use them but because his nature cannot do otherwise.
It is like
fire, which is naturally hot,
and ice, which is naturally cold,
what cultivation is necessary for that?
When it comes to relying on the strengths of others or trusting to the merits of others, it is like a fire on a boat.30 Thus the Superior Man sees the beginning and knows the end. [10/84/12–14]
Matchmakers praise people, but not because they esteem them.
[People] hire laborers and force-feed them, but not because they love them.
One’s own loving father and kind mother could do no more than this. But when something is done for a purpose, kindness does not enter into it.
Thus you do not see off guests in the same way you greet them.31
What you give to the dead is not what you set aside for the living.
Sincerity comes from the self, but what is moved by it is far-off. [10/84/14–16]
To dress in brocades and embroidery and ascend the ancestral temple is to value [outer] refinement.
To hold gui and zhang tablets32 in front of yourself is to esteem [inner] substance.
If your [outer] refinement does not overwhelm your [inner] substance, you may be called a Superior Man.33
Therefore,
it takes a year to build a chariot, but if it lacks a three-inch long linchpin, you cannot gallop off in it.34
It takes a carpenter to frame up a door, but without a foot-long door latch, you cannot close it securely.
Therefore when the Superior Man acts, he thinks about the results. [10/84/18–20]
The essence of the heart can transform [others] like a spirit, but it cannot point out things to them.
The essence of the eye can cut through obscurities, but it cannot give clear warning.
What lies within the dark and obscure cannot be verbalized to others.
Thus,
Shun did not descend from his mat, and the world was ordered.
[The tyrant] Jie did not leave his throne, and the world was disordered.35
Certainly, feelings are deeper than spoken commands. To seek from others what one lacks in oneself—such has never been heard of from ancient times to the present. [10/84/22–24]
If the speech is identical but the people trust it [in some cases], it is because trust preceded the speech.
If the command is identical but the people are transformed by it [in some cases], it is because sincerity lay beyond the command.36
When sages rule above and the people are moved and transformed, it is because their feelings have paved the way for them. When there is movement above and no response below, it is because feelings and orders are at variance with one another.
Thus the Changes says,
“The overbearing dragon will have [reason to] regret.”37 [10/84/24–26]
A three-month-old infant does not yet understand the distinction between benefit and harm, but the love of a kind mother is conveyed to the infant because of her feelings.
Thus the usefulness of what is spoken—how manifestly tiny it is!
The usefulness of what is not spoken—how vastly great it is! [10/84/26–27]
To personify the words of a Superior Man is trustworthiness.
To internalize the resolve of a Superior Man is loyalty.38
When loyalty and trust form internally,
the stimulus impels a response externally.
Thus
[when] Yu grasped a shield and a battle-axe and danced on the double staircase, the Three Miao tribes submitted [to his rule].39
When an eagle hovers above the river, fish and turtles plunge and flying birds scatter.
By necessity they distance themselves from harm. [10/84/27–10/85/1]
A son dying for his father or a minister dying for his ruler is something that has happened throughout the ages. It is not that they died for the sake of fame but that they harbored within themselves a kindly heart, and so they could not walk away from the troubles [of the father or ruler].
Thus people’s delight in what they find agreeable does not exactly create a path for them; the path is [simply] there and they follow it.
The Superior Man’s sorrowful despondency does not exactly take definite form, but it is conveyed to the hearts of others.
It is not something that comes in from outside but something that emerges from within [one’s own] center [i.e., the human heart]. [10/85/1–3]
Rightness is more exalted than a ruler.
Humaneness is more intimate than a father.
Thus
the ruler in relation to his ministers [has the power to] kill them or let them live, but he cannot force them to do their jobs with negligent unconcern.
A father in relation to his children [has the power to] reject them or raise them, but he cannot force them to be without anxious concern.40
Thus
when Rightness transcends the ruler himself,
and Humaneness transcends the father himself,
the ruler is exalted and his ministers are loyal;
the father is compassionate and his children are filial. [10/85/5–6]
When sages rule, they transform and nurture [the people] in a spiritlike way.
[If the ruler was of] the highest type, [the people] said, “I [do this because] it is my nature!”
[If the ruler was of] the next rank, [the people] said, “How subtle he is to be that way!”
Thus the Odes says,
“He manages the reins [of government]
as if they were the silk ribbons [of a dancer].”41
The Changes says,
“Concealing his elegance, he is able to persevere.”42 [10/85/8–9]
Actions undertaken near at hand cause a civilizing influence to spread far away. Now when he examined his evening gait, the Duke of Zhou was embarrassed by his shadow.
Thus the Superior Man scrutinizes [himself] in solitude.43 To abandon what is close at hand in expectation of what is far-off is to obstruct [one’s path]. [10/85/9–10]
To hear of goodness is easy. To use it to correct oneself is difficult.
Now when the Master saw the three alterations of grain [i.e., seed, sprout, and ripened form], he sighed deeply and said, “The fox turns its head toward its burrow and dies. But my head [droops like] grain.”44 Thus when the Superior Man sees goodness, he takes pains with respect to himself. If your own self is rectified, then transforming the far-off [by example] will be easy.
Thus the Odes says,
“You do not [act] personally; you do not [show] affection;
and the common people do not trust you.”45 [10/85/12–14]
In his pursuit of affairs,
the petty man says, “If only I could get what I want.”
The Superior Man says, “If only I could [practice] Rightness.”
In seeking something they are the same;
what they are expecting is different.
If you strike [the planks of] a boat in the middle of the water,
fish plunge and birds scatter.
They hear the same thing; they behave differently.
Their feelings are one.46 [10/85/16–17]
For setting out a pot of food, Xi Fuji47 received a commendatory inscription at his village gate.
For giving a packet of dried meat [to Ling Zhe],48 Zhao Xuanmeng49 saved his own life.
As acts of propriety, these were not outstanding, but they overflowed with Moral Potency.
Thus when a humane heart’s responsive kindness connects [with another], sympathetic sorrow is born. Thus it enters deeply [into the hearts of] others. [10/85/17–18]
With a piercing cry,
the family elder arouses kindness and generosity,
whereas the creditor elicits competition and strife.
Therefore it is said,
“There are no weapons more fearsome than the human will. The Moye sword is inferior to it.
There are no assailants greater than Yin and Yang. The drum and drumstick are smaller than them.” [10/85/18–20]
When sages practice goodness, it is not to seek fame, yet fame follows. They do not expect fame to be accompanied by profit, yet profit comes to them.
Thus people’s anxiety and happiness are not the result of following a deliberate path. The path takes them there, and the feelings emerge. Thus the very highest [sages] do not [concern themselves with] outward appearances. Thus they are as if
rubbing their eyes when smarting,
grabbing a support when stumbling. [10/85/22–23]
The sage’s conduct of government is silent and does not make a display of worthiness. Only after [his reign] has come to an end do you know that it can be [considered] great.
It is like the movement of the sun: [even the great horse] Qiji cannot compete with how far it goes. [10/85/23–24]
When we seek something at night, we are as blind as a music master. But when the eastern sky opens, how bright it is!
When you act with a view toward gain, loss follows.
Thus the Changes says,
“Stripping them away, they are not successively exhausted,
Thus they are received again in returning.”50 [10/85/24–26]
Amassing the thin makes the thick.
Amassing the low makes the high.
Thus
every day the Superior Man works diligently and thereby attains glory.
Every day the petty man works shoddily and thereby reaps ignominy.
But [the increments of] diminution and increase [are such that] even Li Zhu could not clearly discern them. [10/86/1–2]
King Wen
listened for what was good as if he could not attain it
and dwelt on what was not good as if it were an unlucky portent.
It was not that the days were insufficient. His anxious concern [within himself] compelled him to do so.
Thus the Odes says,
“Though Zhou is an old country,
its mandate is new.”51 [10/86/2–3]
If you cherish feelings and embrace inherent qualities,
Heaven cannot kill you;
Earth cannot bury you.
Your voice will resound throughout the space between Heaven and Earth, [and] your brightness will match the sun and moon. This is because you take joy in it. [10/86/3–4]
If you turn to goodness, even if you err, you will not be censured.
If you do not turn to goodness, even if you are loyal, you will invite calamity.
Thus
being censorious toward others is not so good as being censorious toward yourself.
Seeking it [i.e., goodness] in others is not so good as seeking it in yourself.52 [10/86/4–5]
Sounds sound themselves.
Appearances display themselves.
Names announce themselves.
People53 find their appropriate functions themselves.
There is nothing that is not intrinsic.54
The spear is wielded to pierce.
The sword is wielded to stab.
That things announce themselves is apparent. What cause do they have to resent others?
Thus,
Guanzi’s patterned brocade was ugly, but he ascended the ancestral temple.
Zichan’s55 dyed silk was beautiful, but he gained no respect.56 [10/86/7–8]
Empty yet able to be filled,
insipid yet acquiring flavor,
wearing coarse garments but embracing a jade [scepter].57
Thus,
when of two minds, you cannot obtain [the allegiance of even] one person;
when of one mind, you can obtain [the allegiance of] a hundred.58 [10/86/9–10]
If a boy plants an orchid, it will be beautiful but will not be fragrant.
If a stepson is fed, he will grow fat but will not flourish.
[This is because] feelings are not mutually shared in the intercourse between them.59 [10/86/12]
Life is [a dwelling] that you borrow;
death is [a home] to which you return.
Thus,
Hong Yan,60 upright and humane, stood up and died.
Prince Lü61 bared his chest to receive the knife.
They would not let what was [temporarily] entrusted to them harm that to which they would return.
Thus,
When the age is well governed, you use Rightness to protect yourself.
When times are disordered, you use yourself to protect Rightness.62
The day that you die [marks] the end of your actions. Therefore, the Superior Man is careful every single time he uses his person. [10/86/12–14]
Those who lack bravery are not initially fainthearted, but when difficulties arise, they lose their self-control.
Those who are greedy and covetous are not initially lustful, but when they see profit they forget the harm involved.
When the Duke of Yu saw the jade bi of Chuiji, he did not know that the calamity of Guo would befall him.63 Thus [only] the most advanced human beings cannot be repressed or diverted. [10/86/16–17]
People’s desire for glory is for their own sake. What good is that to others? [But] when sages act to implement Rightness, their anxious concern emanates from within. What benefit is it to them personally?
Thus
emperors and kings have been numerous, but the Three Kings alone are praised.
The poor and lowly have been numerous, but Bo Yi64 alone is esteemed.
Does being wealthy make you a sage? Then sages would be numerous.
Does being poor make you humane? Then the humane would be numerous.
Why, then, are sages and humane people so rare? Oh, what a joy is an independent and focused resolve! [10/86/19–21]
As each day rolls by hastily and the days renew themselves, you forget that old age will come upon you.
From your young and tender years,
to your becoming gray and old,
[the years] inevitably pile up in this way. If you do not deceive yourself, you will not deceive others.
It is like crossing a bridge [made from] a single [log]. Just because there is no one else present does not mean you do not struggle [to maintain] your countenance. Thus it is easy to get people to trust you, but difficult to trust yourself should you cloak yourself in [deceptive] clothing. [10/86/21–24]
When feelings precede actions, no action is unsuccessful. When nothing is unsuccessful, there is no vexation. Released from vexation, you become content.
Thus,
the comportment of Tang [Yao] and Yu [Shun] was such that it did not violate their feelings. They pleased themselves, and the world was well ordered.
[The tyrants] Jie and Djou were not intentionally thuggish. They pleased themselves, and the many concerns [of government] were laid waste.
When their likes and dislikes are critiqued, order and disorder are distinguished. [10/86/24–10/87/2]
The actions of the sage
are not joined with anything
and are not separated from anything.
By analogy, it is like a drum.
There is no instrument that is in tune with it,
and no instrument that cannot be accompanied by it. [10/87/4]
With instruments of silk (strings) and bamboo or metal and stone, their size and length have gradations.65 They make different sounds, but they harmonize.
With ruler and official or superior and subordinate, their offices and functions have grades. They perform different tasks but act in unison.
Now
the weaver daily advances
while the tiller daily retreats.
Their tasks move in opposite directions, but in accomplishment they are one. [10/87/4–6]
Shen Xi heard a beggar’s song and was saddened. When he went out to see who it was, it was his mother.66 At the battle of Ailing, [King] Fuchai of Wu67 said, “The Yi raise their voices. Such is the multitude of Wu!”68 What was the same was that there were voices, but the beliefs derived from them were different; they were inherent in the [respective] feelings [of the singers].69
Thus,
if the heart is sad, the song is not joyful.
If the heart is joyful, the wailing is not sorrowful.
After the three years of mourning were over, Minzi Jian picked up his qin and played. The Master said, “His playing was correct, but it sounded wrong.”70 [10/87/6–8]
Culture is the means by which we connect to things.
Feelings bind inwardly,
but desires manifest themselves externally.
If you use culture to obliterate feelings, feelings will be lost.
If you use feelings to obliterate culture, culture will be lost.
When the guiding patterns of culture and feelings interpenetrate, the phoenix and the qilin will roam extensively. That is to say, the embrace of your Utmost Potency will be far-reaching. [10/87/8–11]
Shu Ziyang71 said to his son, “A good workman immerses himself in his square and his chisel.” Between the square and the chisel, there certainly is nothing than cannot be brought to completion.
What sage-kings used to control the people,
what Zaofu used to control horses,
what Physician Luo72 used to control illnesses:
they all took what they needed from the same basic material. [10/87/11–13]
The ruler wills it.
The people fulfill it.
This is because of his inner sincerity.
Before saying a word, he is trusted;
without being summoned, they come.
Something precedes it. [10/87/15]
Those who are worried about others not knowing them do not know themselves.
Arrogance and pride are born from inadequacy.
Flamboyance and deceit are born from arrogance.
People who have inner sincerity are joyful and unworried.
It is like
the owl loving to hoot
or the bear loving to pace—
Where is there anyone who should be arrogant? [10/87/15–17]
In spring the maid grieves.
In autumn the warrior mourns.
They know that things will transform.73
With howling or weeping, sighing and grieving, we recognize sounds that are [genuinely] actuated.
With bearing and visage, rouge and tint, and with bending and stretching, standing and crouching, we recognize feelings that are feigned.
Thus the sage trembles at [what he keeps] within himself and so attains the highest ultimate. [10/87/19–21]
When a meritorious reputation follows success, that is Heaven’s doing;
when compliant principles meet with acceptance, that is humankind’s doing.
Grand Duke Wang and Duke Dan of Zhou were not created by Heaven for [the benefit of] King Wu.
Marquis Chong and Wulai74 were not engendered by Heaven for [the benefit of the tyrant] Djou.
As with the era, so with the men. [10/87/23–24]
Education is rooted in the Superior Man, [but] the petty man is enriched by it.
Profit is rooted in the petty man, [but] the Superior Man fattens on its results.
Formerly, in the time of Donghu Jizi,75 people did not take goods that were left on the road. Hoes and plows and leftover grain were stored at the head [of the fields], enabling the Superior Man and the petty man each to obtain his appropriate [share].76
Thus, “when the One Man77 encounters good fortune, the many people depend on it.”78 [10/87/26–27]
Those in the highest position esteem their left side. Thus subordinates say to superiors, “I am on your left.” Such is the artful speech of a minister.
Those who are below esteem their right side. Thus superiors say to subordinates, “I am on your right.” Such is the condescension of the ruler.79
Thus,
if the superior moves to the left, he loses what makes him respected.
If the minister shifts to the right, he loses what makes him esteemed. [10/87/29–30]
Small instances of haste harm the Way;
false pretenses disrupt the proper order.
When Zichan drafted his writings, lawsuits proliferated, [even though] there was no depraved [intent].80 If you lose touch with your feelings, your words will be obstructed. [10/88/1–2]
The way of perfecting a country is that
tradesmen should have no false dealings;
farmers should have no wasted labor;
scholars should take no clandestine actions;
officials should make no evasion of the laws.
It is analogous to someone setting out nets. When he pulls on the guide rope, the myriad eyes open. [10/88/4–5]
Shun and Yu did not accept the Mandate of Heaven the second time [it was offered].81 What Yao and Shun transmitted82 was great, but it first took shape in something small.
“He tested [Shun] with the royal wives,
extended it to the brothers as well.
When he abdicated clan and state,”83
the whole world followed his example.
Thus,
with weapons, one uses what is great to understand what is small;
with humankind, one uses what is small to understand what is great. [10/88/5–7]
The Way of the Superior Man is
close but cannot be attained,
low but cannot be ascended,
contains nothing inside it, but cannot be filled. It is
enduring yet brilliant,
far-reaching yet illustrious.
To understand this and so follow the Way is something that cannot be sought in others but only attained from the self. If you abandon the search within yourself and seek it in others, you will have strayed far from it. [10/88/9–10]
The Superior Man has ample joy but insufficient reputation.
The petty man has insufficient joy but ample reputation.
When one looks at the difference between being ample and being insufficient, they are clearly very far apart. To hold something [noxious] in your mouth and not spit it out, or to have something in your feelings and not let it blossom forth—these are things that have never been heard of. [10/88/12–13]
The Superior Man ponders Rightness and does not anticipate profit.
The petty man craves profit and does not regard Rightness.
The Master said, “Both weeping said, ‘Oh! What to do? You took advantage of me!’
Their sorrow was the same, but the reasons for it were different.”
Thus sorrow and joy penetrate deeply into people’s feelings.84 [10/88/13–15]
If digging ditches and damming ponds is not done properly, it will overwork and distress the people. If each [project planner] follows his own desire, disorder will result. The feelings [behind their actions] are the same, but the way [each] applies [those feelings] to people is different.85
Thus
Tang [Yao] and Yu [Shun] strove daily, thereby leading to their kingships.
Jie and Djou erred daily, thereby leading to their deaths,
without knowing that later ages would condemn them. [10/88/17–19]
Human feelings are such that
people are joyful when they avoid what brings them suffering
and sorrowful when they lose what brings them joy.
Thus,
knowing the joy of life,
you will necessarily know the sorrow of death. [10/88/21]
If you have Rightness, you cannot be deceived by profit.
If you have courage, you cannot be intimidated by fear.
Similarly those who are starving and thirsty cannot be deceived with an empty bowl.
When people multiply desires, they decrease Rightness.
[When people] multiply anxieties, they injure knowledge,
[When people] multiply fears, they injure courage. [10/88/23–24]
Rudeness is born of the petty man.
[Even] the [“barbarian”] Man and Yi can [behave like] that.
Goodness is born of the Superior Man.
Radiantly it rivals the brilliance of the sun and moon. No one in the world can restrain or repress it.
Thus,
a well-governed state rejoices in the means by which it is preserved;
a perishing state rejoices in the means by which it is lost. [10/88/26–27]
If metal86 and tin are not melted, they cannot be poured into the mold.
If the ruler’s anxious concern is not sincere, he cannot serve as a model for the people.
If his anxious concern is not grounded in the people, the ruler will cut his ties to them.
If the ruler returns to the root, his ties to the people will be firm. [10/88/29–30]
The Utmost Potency [is attained when]
small matters are completed
and great matters are initiated.
Duke Huan of Qi initiated [great matters] but was not attentive to details.
Duke Wen of Jin87 was attentive to details but did not initiate [great matters].
Duke Wen obtained what he wanted within his private quarters but failed beyond the borders.
Duke Huan failed within his private quarters but obtained what he wanted at court. [10/89/1–2]
Water flows downward, becoming wide and great.
The ruler puts himself below his minister, becoming comprehensive and brilliant.
If the ruler does not contend with his ministers for achievement, the Way of governing will prevail.
Guan Yiwu and Baili Xi88 were the ones who properly aligned and brought to completion their various achievements; Duke Huan of Qi and Duke Mu of Qin89 [merely] accepted them and assented to them. [10/89/4–5]
On a bright day you might confuse east for west, but if you are confused, you have only to see the sun to realize your mistake.
Marquis Wu of Wey90 said to his officials, “You young fellows should not call me old and treat me like a dotard. If I make mistakes, you must point them out to me.” Actually, if Marquis Wu had not shown in this way that he was not a dotard, he would in fact have been in his dotage. Thus he grew old but was not ignored. He comprehended the principles by which [states] are preserved or lost. [10/89/7–10]
People do not possess the ability to create, but they possess the ability to act.
They possess the ability to act, but they do not possess the ability to perfect.
What people do is perfected by Heaven.
Even if people do good deeds all their lives, if not for Heaven, they would not succeed.
Even if people do evil deeds all their lives, if not for Heaven, they would not fail.
Thus,
goodness or evil is our own doing;
bad or good fortune is not our own doing.
Thus the Superior Man complies with what lies within him; that is all he can do. [10/89/12–14]
Nature is what is received from Heaven;91
destiny is what depends on the times.92
If you possess talent but do not encounter the right era for it, that is Heaven’s doing.
What made Grand Duke [Wang] strong?
What made [Prince] Bi Gan a criminal?
They both complied with their natures and acted on their intentions. One was harmed, one was benefited.
For seeking something there is a Way,
but attaining it is a matter of destiny.93
Thus, the Superior Man
can do good but cannot make certain that he will encounter good fortune;
cannot bear to do evil but cannot make certain that he will avoid misfortune.94 [10/89/14–16]
The ruler is the trunk and roots;
his officials are the branches and leaves.
A [tree’s] trunk and roots that are not beautiful
but whose branches and leaves are luxuriant—such a thing has never been heard of.95 [10/89/18]
In an age that has the Way, a man is given to the state.
In an age that does not have the Way, the state is given to a man.
When Yao ruled the world as king, his anxiety did not abate. When he conferred [his rulership] on Shun, his anxiety disappeared. Anxiously he watched over it; joyfully he gave it to a worthy. To the end he did not consider the benefit [of rulership] to be his private possession. [10/89/20–21]
The myriad things all have some use. Nothing is so small that it is useless.
If you view things from the perspective of their uselessness, precious jades are [no different from] manure. [10/89/23]
Human feelings [are such that]
when encountering harm, people struggle to obtain [only] the smallest portion;
when encountering benefit, they struggle to obtain the largest portion.
Thus,
when the flavor is the same and one craves a bigger piece of meat, it is certainly because one savors it.
when the teacher is the same and one [student] surpasses the group, it is certainly because he finds joy in the teacher.
Who has ever heard of someone setting an outstanding example in something that he neither savored nor enjoyed? [10/89/25–26]
When the time is right, the Superior Man advances and obtains [it] by means of Rightness. What good luck does he possess?
When the time is not right, he withdraws and yields [it] by means of Rightness. What bad luck does he possess?
Thus when Bo Yi starved [himself] to death at the foot of Mount Shou[yang], it was without personal regrets;
he abandoned what he considered worthless
and gained what he considered valuable. [10/89/28–29]
The sprouts of good fortune are flossy and fine,
and the birth of bad fortune is tiny and trifling.
Since the beginnings of good and bad fortune are tiny as a sprout, people overlook them. Only sages see their beginnings and know their ends.
Thus a chronicle says,
“The wine of Lu was weak and Handan was surrounded;
the lamb broth was not poured, and the state of Song was endangered.”96 [10/90/1–2]
An enlightened ruler’s rewards and punishments
are not employed on his own behalf;
they are employed for the state.
If someone suited the ruler personally but was of no benefit to the state, the ruler would not confer a reward on him.
If someone defied the ruler personally but was helpful to the state, he would not impose a punishment on him.97
Thus King Zhuang of Chu said to Gong Yong,98 “Those who have Potency receive rank and emoluments from me. Those who have achievements receive fields and residences from me. Of these two, you do not have even one. I have nothing to give you.” It can be said that he did not go beyond his principles. He rejected Gong Yong and [also] avoided encouraging him. [10/90/4–7]
The governing of Zhou was supreme.
The governing of Shang was good.
The governing of Xia was effective.
Effective governing is not necessarily good.
Good governing is not necessarily supreme.
People who have attained the utmost do not envy [participating in governing] that is effective nor are they ashamed to [take part in governing] that is good. They hold steadfastly to their Moral Potency as they tread the Way, and superior and subordinate rejoice in each other without knowing the reason why. [10/90/9–10]
Those who possessed states were numerous, but Duke Huan of Qi and Duke Wen of Jin are uniquely renowned. On Mount Tai there are seventy royal altars, but the Three Kings are uniquely [known for having followed] the Way.
The ruler does not seek things from his ministers,
and the ministers do not borrow things from their ruler.
The ruler cultivates what is near and extends [his influence] to what is far, so that later ages proclaim his greatness. Without encroaching on his neighbors, he achieves a glorious reputation, so that no one compares with him.
Thus someone might behave with Xiao Ji’s99 perfect propriety but still not be able to challenge his reputation, for certainly no one can attain what he embraced in himself. [10/90/12–14]
One whose Rightness includes a sense of appropriateness is called a Superior Man.
One whose appropriateness abandons a sense of Rightness is called a petty man.
Penetrating wisdom achieves [its goals] without exertion;
the next best kind exerts itself without becoming worn out;
the lowest kind becomes worn out without exerting itself.
Men of antiquity tasted [the food offered in sacrifice] but did not covet it.
Men of today covet [the sacrificial food] but do not care about its taste. [10/90/16–17]
When singing improves on the score, it is because the score itself is not sufficiently beautiful. [Instruments of] metal, stone, string, and bamboo bolster and accompany the music, but that still does not suffice to reach the utmost [excellence].
When people are able to revere the Way and practice Rightness, happiness and anger [are things they can] take or leave; their desires are like grass following the wind. [10/90/17–19]
In the season for picking mulberry leaves, raising silkworms’ cocoons, and plowing and planting, the Duke of Shao100 opened the jails and released the prisoners. Thus the common people all were able to resume their occupations and return to their work.
King Wen declined [a grant of] a thousand li of land, but requested instead that [Tyrant Djou] should eliminate the punishment of the roasting beam.101
Thus in carrying out their duties, sages do not lose the moment in advancing and withdrawing. This is like the saying, “In the summer you wear hemp; when you mount a chariot you hold the strap.” [10/90/21–23]
Laozi studied under Shang Rong. He got a look at Shang Rong’s tongue and understood preserving the soft.102
Liezi studied under Huzi. He saw the shadow of his walking stick and understood the principle of following behind.
Thus sages do not go ahead of things, and so they constantly control them. Things of this sort are analogous to a stack of firewood. The last [logs] are laid on top.103 [10/90/25–26]
People
love by means of Rightness,
gather together by means of cliques,
and grow strong by gathering together.
For this reason,
when Moral Potency is applied broadly, then might is effective distantly.
When Rightness is applied parsimoniously, then what is controlled militarily will be small. [10/90/28–29]
The Wu bell destroyed itself with its sound.
The wax lamp melted itself with its brightness.
The markings of tigers and leopards attract archers.
The agility of monkeys and apes invites pursuit.104
Thus,
Zilu died because of his bravery.
Chang Hong105 was captured because of his cleverness.
He could use his cleverness to be clever, but he could not use his cleverness to not be clever.
Thus,
If you traverse a pass, you cannot tread [as straight as] a marking cord.
If you come out of a forest, you cannot follow a straight path.106
When traveling at night, your vision becomes obscured, and you lead with your hands.107
Sometimes situations arise in which clarity [of vision] is not of much use.108 If a person can connect to Dark Obscurity to enter into Brilliant Brightness, that is someone with whom you can discuss the ultimate. [10/90/32–10/91/3]
To build its nest, a magpie [must] know from which way the wind arises.
To build its burrow, an otter [must] know the height of the water.
The “Bright Day” knows when it will be clear;
The “Shady Accord” knows when it will be rainy.109
But if because of this you were to say that human knowledge is inferior to that of birds and beasts, it would not be true. Thus a person who has
mastered one skill
or investigated one text
can explain one corner [of a subject] but cannot give a comprehensive response. [10/91/5–6]
Ning Qi beat time on a cow’s horn and sang, and Duke Huan raised him up with a great grant of land. Yong Menzi used crying to gain an audience with Lord Meng Chang.110 His tears flowed down so that they soaked his hat strings. Singing and crying are things that anyone can do.
You make a sound;
it enters someone’s ears;
it moves his heart—
it is something that reaches the essence.
Thus you might emulate the models of Tang [Yao] and Yu [Shun], but you will not achieve their communion with the hearts of others. [10/91/8–10]
Duke Jian of Qi111 was murdered because of his weakness;
Ziyang112 was put to death because of his fearlessness.
Both were unable to attain their Way.
Thus if you sing without following the notes, the high and low notes will all be the same.
Outside the marking cord [line]
or inside the marking cord [line],
in either case it is not straight. [10/91/12–13]
[The tyrant] Djou made ivory chopsticks, and Jizi lamented.
Lu used figurines in their burials, and Confucius sighed.113
They saw the beginning and knew the end.114
Thus
water comes out of the mountains and flows into the sea.
Grain grows in the fields and is stored in storehouses.
Sages see where things begin and know where they will end up.115 [10/91/15–16]
When waters are muddy, fish gasp for air [near the surface].116
When laws are harsh, the people rebel.117
When city walls are precipitous, they invariably crumble.
When riverbanks are steep, they invariably collapse.
Thus
Shang Yang established laws and was dismembered.
Wu Qi instituted mutilating punishments and was torn apart by chariots. [10/91/18–19]
Governing a country is like tuning a se.
If the thick strings are tightened too much,
the thin ones will break.
Thus if you yank the reins and whip [your horses] many times, you are not a thousand-li driver. [10/91/21–22]
The sound that has sound
cannot go farther than a hundred li.
The sound that has no sound
extends throughout the Four Seas.
For this reason,
when emoluments exceed merit, there is harm;
when reputation exceeds reality, there is deception.
If feelings and actions are in accord and reputation is secondary to them, the arrival of ill or good fortune will not be without reason. [10/91/22–23]
If you personally have bad dreams, you have not yet mastered proper conduct.
If a state witnesses unlucky omens, it has not yet mastered good government.
For this reason,
if at first you are rewarded with the carriage and cap [of office], you will not get anything out of it if you have no merit.
If later you are punished with the executioner’s ax, you will not suffer from it if you have no guilt.
If you are in the habit of cultivating what is proper, you will not depart from the Way. [10/91/23–25]
The Superior Man does not say,
“Small [acts of] goodness are not important enough to do” and therefore sets them
aside. Small [acts of] goodness accumulate to become great goodness.
[He also does not say],
“Small [acts of] misconduct do not do any harm” and therefore does them. Small
[acts of] misconduct accumulate to become great misconduct.
For the same reason,
a pile of feathers can sink a boat;
lots of light things can break an axle.
Thus the Superior Man observes prohibitions [even] regarding minutiae. [10/92/1–2]
A single pleasing act is not sufficient to constitute goodness. Accumulate pleasing acts and they become Moral Potency.
A single hateful act is not sufficient to constitute wrong. Accumulate hateful acts and they will become evil.
Thus
the [reputation for] goodness of the Three Dynasties [Xia, Shang, and Zhou] [reflects] the accumulated praise of a thousand years;
the [reputation for] evil of Jie and Djou [reflects] the accumulated condemnation of a thousand years. [10/92/2–4]
Heaven has four seasons;
people have four functions.
What is meant by the four functions?
For seeing and giving shape to things, nothing is clearer than the eyes.
For hearing and refining things, nothing is keener than the ears.
For holding and shutting up something, nothing is firmer than the mouth.
For containing and concealing something, nothing is deeper than the heart.
When
the eyes see the form,
the ears hear the sound,
the mouth expresses the sincerity,
and the heart communicates the essence,
the transformation of the ten thousand things will reach their limit. [10/92/6–8]
When a territory is enlarged by means of Moral Potency, the ruler will be respected for his Moral Potency. This is best.
When a territory is enlarged by means of Rightness, the ruler will be respected for his Rightness. This is next best.
When a territory is enlarged by means of might, the ruler will be respected for his might. This is inferior.
Thus
a pure ruler is a [true] king;
a ruler of mixed qualities is a hegemon.
A state that has neither will perish.118 [10/92/10–11]
[In the time of] the “two ancients,”119 a phoenix came to the palace.
During the Three Dynasties, it came to the gate.
In the Zhou,120 it came to the meadow.
As Potency became coarser, the phoenix kept itself more distant;
As Potency becomes more refined, the phoenix will approach more closely.121 [10/92/13–14]
The Superior Man is sincere in Humaneness.
When he acts, it is out of Humaneness;
when he does not act, it is also out of Humaneness.
The petty man is sincere in his own inhumaneness.
When he acts, it is out of inhumaneness;
when he does not act, it is [also] out of inhumaneness.
[Someone whose] goodness comes from the self, rather than coming from others, is
[a person] in whom Humaneness and Moral Potency flourish.
Thus,
if your feelings overcome your desires, you will flourish.
If your desires overcome your feelings, you will perish.122 [10/92/16–17]
If you want to know the Way of Heaven, examine its cycles.
If you want to know the Way of Earth, differentiate123 its plants.
If you want to know the Way of Humankind, follow its desires. [10/92/19]
Do not startle [them], do not frighten [them],
and the myriad things will set themselves in order.
Do not disturb [them], do not stir [them] up,
and the myriad things will purify themselves. [10/92/19–20]
If someone has examined just one corner of something, you cannot discuss transformations with him;
if someone has investigated only one age, it is not possible to discuss anything of significance with him.
The sun does not know the night.
The moon does not know the sunshine.
The sun and moon make light, but they cannot combine [their light] with each other. Only Heaven and Earth can embrace them [both]. When it comes to being able to encompass Heaven and Earth, it is said that only the Formless can do so. [10/92/20–22]
An arrogant and extravagant ruler has no loyal ministers.
A person with a clever mouth [says] nothing that compels belief.
A tree you can span with both hands does not have branches that will hold [your weight].
A ditch eight feet wide does not contain fish that can swallow a boat.
If the trunk is shallow[ly rooted], the branches will become stunted.
If the root is damaged, the branches will wither away. [10/92/24–25]
Good fortune is born of non-action;
bad fortune is born of many desires.
Harm stems from not preparing;
weeds stem from not hoeing.
Sages do good as if afraid they will not attain it; they prepare against disaster as if afraid they cannot avoid it. [10/92/25–26]
To cover yourself with dust and want it not to get in your eyes;
to wade in water and want it not to get you wet—
these things cannot be done.
Thus,
those who know themselves do not resent others;
those who know their destiny do not resent Heaven.124
Good fortune springs from oneself;
bad fortune is born from oneself. [10/92/28–29]
The sage does not seek praise, nor does he avoid condemnation. He corrects his person and acts with rectitude, and the various evils dissipate of their own accord.
Now were he to
abandon rectitude and follow the crooked,
turn his back on truth and follow the crowd,
this would be to consort with the vulgar and to internalize acting without standards. Thus the sage reverts to himself and does not take [the lead from others]. [10/93/1–2]
The Way that [is written down in] chapters and sections, with shape and boundaries, is not the utmost [Way].
You can taste it, but it has no flavor;
you can observe it, but it has no form.
It cannot be transmitted to others. [10/93/4]
The daji bush expels water,
while the tingli plant heals boils,125
but if you use them without measuring [the dose], they will make you ill instead.
Many things seem to be of the same sort but are not; only sages know their subtleties. [10/93/6–7]
A good charioteer does not neglect his horses.
A good archer does not neglect his bow.
A good superior does not neglect his subordinates.
If he can love genuinely and benefit the people, the world will follow him. If a father can neither love nor benefit [his children], then even his own sons will rebel against him. [10/93/9–10]
In the world,
something is most highly honored, and it is not power and position;
something is most highly valued, and it is not gold and jade;
something has the most longevity, and it is not a [lifetime of] a thousand years.
To return your heart to its original nature is most highly honored;
to discipline your feelings to know what is sufficient is most highly valued;
to understand the apportionment of life and death is the greatest longevity. [10/93/12–13]
Someone whose words are not always true and whose actions are not always appropriate is a petty person.
Someone who has examined into one matter and has mastered one skill is a middle type of person.
Gaining or losing [the realm] but always having it, skilled and capable but using those [attributes] in a measured way, that is a sage. [10/93/15–16]
Translated by Sarah A. Queen and John S. Major
1. This claim is paralleled in 2.2, where it argues similarly: “In the use of their mind, sages lean on their natures and rely on their spirits. They [nature and spirit] sustain each other, and [so sages] attain their ends and beginnings. Thus when they sleep, they do not dream, and when they awaken, they are not sad.”
2. Similarly, “When affairs arise, the sage regulates them; when things appear, the sage responds to them” (14.43).
3. For a similar body/state analogy, see GZ 13.2/98/16.
4. This statement attributed to the Yellow Emperor also appears in 20.17 and LSCQ 13/2.2, for which see Knoblock and Riegel 2000, 284.
5. Changes, hexagram 13, Tong ren 
, “The Same as Others.”
6. Similarly, “Humaneness is the application of kindness” (11.8).
7. Similarly, “Rightness comes from what is appropriate for the people. What is appropriate for the people accords with the human heart. This is the sine qua non of government” (9.23).
8. Laozi 18 and 38. This point also informs 8.3 and introduces chap. 11 (11.1).
9. Reading huai 
as huai 
, as in the Wenzi. See Lau, HNZ, 82n.2B.
10. For other instances of this contrast, see 10.33 and 10.67.
11. Changes, hexagram 3, Tun 
, “Gathering Support.”
12. Compare Laozi 77: “Heaven’s Way . . . subtracts from the have-mores, and supplies those in want” (Moss Roberts, trans., Dao De Jing: The Book of the Way [Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001], 181).
13. The reference is to Odes 243 (no. 9 of the “Da ya” section), but only the first two lines of the stanza are quoted here. The four lines that follow here, “The careful exercise of Potency is great,” and so on, continue the sense of the Shijing ode but are not part of it, at least in the received version. Also note that in the second line, the Shijing verse has shun de 
, rather than shen de 
, as it is here. We follow the unanimous view of commentators in taking shen as a loanword for shun and retaining the meaning of “follow.” See Zhang Shuangdi 1997, 1:1037.
14. This echoes themes in Mozi 49 (yield to the worthy and give to the poor) and 39 (remonstrance).
15. A sheng is a small measure of dry volume (pint), while a dan is a large measure of weight (120 catties [jin 
]).
16. Grand dictionnaire Ricci de la langue chinoise, 7 vols. (Paris: Institut Ricci, 2001), 3:1212, defines li 
as Nyctereutes procyonoides, commonly known as the raccoon dog and also widely known by its Japanese name, tanuki. It has “the appearance of a small fox-like canid with fur markings similar to those of a raccoon.” For further discussion, see chap. 1, n. 33.
17. For the parallel passage in the reconstructed Zisizi, see Donald Harper, “Huai Nan Tzu chapter 10: Translation and Prolegomena” (master’s thesis, University of California, 1978), app. 1, A; and Csikszentmihalyi 2004, app. 1, no. 31.
18. If cocoons are kept in the sunshine, the overheated pupae thrash around inside them until they eventually die.
19. Changes, hexagram 3, Tun 
, “Gathering Support,” line 6.
20. Both tianxiong 
, “heavenly male bird,” and wuhui 
, “crow’s beak,” are kinds of Aconitum, also known as xitu, jitu, or wutou. See chap. 9, n. 54.
21. Following the emendations suggested by Lau, HNZ, 83n.10.
22. For other references to sincerity, see 10.22, 10.25, 10.56, 10.57, 10.72, 10.103, and 10.116. Section 20.7 similarly maintains: “Thus when the sage nurtures his heart, nothing is better than sincerity. With utmost sincerity, he can move and transform [others].” See also Zhongyong (Liji 32.20/145/27, 32.21/145/32, 32.22/146/1–2, 32.23/146/6, 32.30/147/14). For the physiological basis of sincerity, see the discussions of quintessential sincerity (jingcheng 
) in 6.1, 20.3, 20.9, and 20.17.
23. For the notion of the inner heart (zhong xin), see GZ 16.1/116/21. There the Guanzi explains: “Within the heart there is yet another heart.” For the inner versus the outer heart, see also Guodian and Mawangdui Wuxingpian.
24. For further reiterations of this notion of self-reflective moral autonomy (seeking in oneself ), see 10.31, 10.40, 10.42, 10.49, 10.58, 10.66, and 10.113.
25. For additional references to the workings of the essence or Quintessential qi (jing 
), see 10.18, 10.24, 10.94, and 10.103. Other chapters of the Huainanzi —for example, chaps. 6–8—discuss in great detail the working of the essence. For an important earlier discussion, see GZ 16.1/115/17–16.1/117/25.
26. 
, not 
—that is, not Tang, the supposed founder of the Shang dynasty, but a cognomen of the sage-emperor Yao.
27. 
, not 
—that is, not Yu the flood tamer and founder of the Xia dynasty, but a cognomen for the sage-emperor Shun.
28. Earl Mu of Zhonghang (also known as Xun Wu) was a minister in the state of Jin. See Zuozhuan, Duke Zhao, year 15; and 18.12. For the parallel passage in the reconstructed Zisizi, see Harper, “Huai Nan Tzu chapter 10,” app. 1, B; and Csikszentmihalyi 2004, app. 1, no. 33.
29. By being cared for in old age.
30. Which people naturally act to put out without thought of rewards.
31. That is, one greets them joyfully and sees them off sadly.
32. Gui 
and zhang 
tablets: jade tablets that conferred the right to speak or perform certain duties at court.
33. See Analects 6.18.
34. For the parallel passage in the reconstructed Zisizi, see Harper, “Huai Nan Tzu chapter 10,” app. 1, C; and Csikszentmihalyi 2004, app. 1, no. 12.
35. For the parallel passage in the reconstructed Zisizi, see Harper, “Huai Nan Tzu chapter 10,” app. 1, D; and Csikszentmihalyi 2004, app. 1, no. 29.
36. For the parallel passage in the reconstructed Zisizi, see Harper, “Huai Nan Tzu chapter 10,” app. 1, E; and Csikszentmihalyi 2004, app. 1, no. 4.
37. Changes, hexagram 1, Qian 
, line 6.
38. These two lines contain graphic puns: between yan 
, “words,” and xin 
, “trustworthiness,” and between zhong 
, “internalize,” and zhong 
, “loyalty.”
39. Section 11.11 attributes these actions to Shun: “Thus in the time of Shun, the Youmiao did not pay tribute. At this, Shun cultivated [good] governance and ceased military [operations]. Thus he grasped the shield and battle-ax and danced with them.” See also HFZ 49/146/11–12.
40. For this notion of “anxious concern” (youxun 
), see also 10.72 and 10.79.
41. Odes 38. This seems to refer to an aristocratic warrior performing a war dance; the reference to “reins” is probably a reference to actual chariot reins, only much later taken by commentators to refer to the “reins of government.” The overt reference is to physical prowess and personal poise.
42. Changes, hexagram 2, Kun 
, line 3.
43. This quality of being mindful, cautious, or circumspect of oneself when alone (shen qi du 
) is found in a number of early texts, such as Zhongyong, Mawangdui Wuxingpian, Guodian Wuxingpian, Xunzi, and Liji.
44. This quotation does not appear in the received Confucian canon.
45. Odes 191, stanza 4.
46. A parallel saying is reiterated in 11.19, where it is attributed to Zengzi.
47. Xi Fuji 
was a minister of Cao during the Spring and Autumn period. He sent a plate of food containing a jade disk to the ducal scion Chong’er during his wanderings in exile. Chong’er later went on to become Duke Wen of Jin and hegemon. See Zuozhuan, Xi 23.
48. Ling Zhe 
was a knight of Jin who served in the palace guard of Duke Ling. He had been saved from starvation by Zhao Xuanmeng and later aided Zhao’s escape from an ambush that the duke had laid for him. See Zuozhuan, Xuan 2.
49. Zhao Xuanmeng 
(also known as Zhao Dun 
and Viscount Xuan 
of Zhao) was a minister of Jin during the late seventh century B.C.E. He consolidated control over the Jin court and presided over a period of peace and stability. In 607 B.C.E., he fell out of favor with Duke Ling (r. 620– 607 B.C.E.) and was forced into exile.
50. This paraphrases a line from the Xu gua 
(The Order of the Hexagrams), ninth of the “Ten Wings” (appended commentaries) of the Changes. The line refers to hexagrams 23, Bo 
, “Stripping Away,” and 24, Fu 
, “Returning.” The logic of the statement is as follows: Bo is one yang line above five yin lines; Fu is five yin lines above one yang line. Ascending the lines of the Bo hexagram, there is still one yang line left in the end, and a yang line is the first one encountered in the next hexagram, Fu.
51. Odes 235. The reference is to Zhou King Wen, who attained the “new mandate” (ming 
) that brought the Zhou dynasty to power.
52. For the parallel passage in the reconstructed Zisizi, see Harper, “Huai Nan Tzu chapter 10,” app. 1, F.
53. Reading ren 
in place of wen 
, as in the Wenzi. See Lau, HNZ, 86n.4.
54. For the parallel passage in the reconstructed Zisizi, see Csikszentmihalyi 2004, app. 1, no. 24.
55. Zichan 
(d. 522 B.C.E.), a scion of the ducal house of Zheng, served as that state’s prime minister from 554 B.C.E. He reformed the agricultural, judicial, and fiscal systems of his state and helped preserve it from the encroachments of powerful neighbors.
56. For the parallel passage in the reconstructed Zisizi, see Harper, “Huai Nan Tzu chapter 10,” app. 1, G; and Csikszentmihalyi 2004, app. 1, no. 32.
57. Compare Laozi 70.
58. For the parallel passage in the reconstructed Zisizi, see Harper, “Huai Nan Tzu chapter 10,” app. 1, H; and Csikszentmihalyi 2004, app. 1, no. 32, with reference to app. 1, no. 13.
59. That is, between the boy and the (feminine) orchid, and between the stepparent and the stepchild.
60. Hong Yan 
was a knight in the service of Duke Yi of Wey (r. 668–660 B.C.E.). The duke was killed and eaten by the Di people, leaving only his liver. Hong Yan killed himself, cutting himself open and putting the duke’s liver inside himself so that his own body would serve as his lord’s corpse. On hearing of this sacrifice, Duke Huan of Qi reestablished the state of Wey. See Lüshi chunqiu 11.4.
61. Prince Lü 
(d. 479 B.C.E.) was a scion of the royal house of Chu. When Duke Bo rebelled, he attempted to force Prince Lü to take the throne. The prince refused and was killed. See Zuozhuan, Ai 16.
62. For the parallel passage in the reconstructed Zisizi, see Harper, “Huai Nan Tzu chapter 10,” app. 1, I.
63. Zuo zhuan, Xi 2. The story of the jade disk of Chuiji, the Duke of Jin, and the rulers of Yu and Guo is also found in 7.16 (see chap. 7, n. 58), 11.7, 17.57, and 18.5.
64. Bo Yi 
was the legendary son of the lord of Guzhu who was so offended by the overthrow of the Shang by the Zhou that he and his brother Shu Qi 
starved themselves to death rather than suffer the shame of eating the grain of a usurper. Their joint biography is found in Shiji 61.
65. Stringed instruments have long and short strings, and metal bells, chimestones, and the keys of bamboo xylophones come in sets, from very large to very small.
66. See 16.4.
67. King Fuchai of Wu 
(r. 495–473 B.C.E.) initially led Wu to great triumph over King Goujian of Yue, but his later negligence led to his state’s destruction by Yue and his own suicide. See 12.23
68. The “Yi music” refers to the Yi “tribe,” an important ethnic group in the state of Wu.
69. Compare 19.3: “An ardent feeling internally is manifested as a response externally. The cause [of the response] lies in the feeling itself.”
70. For the parallel passage in the reconstructed Zisizi, see Harper, “Huai Nan Tzu chapter 10,” app. 1, J; and Csikszentmihalyi 2004, app. 1, no. 30.
71. Shu Ziyang 
, otherwise unknown.
72. According to Xu Shen, Physician Luo 
was a physician of Yue. See Zhang Shuangdi 1997, 1:1069n.29.
73. The implication is that in spring the power of yin is waning. It is the season for girls to marry and move to their husbands’ households, so they grieve for having to leave their own families. In autumn the power of yang is waning. It is the season for warfare, when many warriors will be killed on the battlefield.
74. Marquis Chong 
and Wulai 
were ministers of King Djou, the tyrannical last ruler of the Shang, who encouraged the king’s bad tendencies.
75. According to Xu Shen, Donghu Jizi 
was a ruler of antiquity. See Zhang Shuangdi 1997, 1:1072n.42.
76. For a more detailed description of Donghu Jizi in the reconstructed Zisizi, see Harper, “Huai Nan Tzu chapter 10,” app. 1, K; and Csikszentmihalyi 2004, app. 1, no. 34.
77. That is, the ruler.
78. This line from the Documents is also quoted (with a slight variation in wording) in 9.18.
79. This passage is a pun between two sets of words that are homophones and synonyms. Zuo 
, “left,” puns on zuo 
, “to assist”; and you 
, “right,” puns on you 
, “to help.” Thus “I am on your left” is a pun for “I will assist you,” and “I am on your right” is a pun for “I will help you.”
80. That is, no depravity on Zichan’s part. His drafting of a law code was not undertaken with bad intentions.
81. They accepted only after the third offer.
82. That is, the principle that the mandate should be bestowed on a meritorious successor.
83. Odes 240, stanza 2. The reference to King Wu, second founder of the Zhou dynasty, seems to have been emended in this passage to refer instead to Yao and Shun. For the story of how Yao tested Shun, first by marrying him to two of his daughters and then by giving him nine of his sons to care for, see 20.11 and Shiji 1, “The Basic Annals of the Five Thearchs.”
84. The point here is that two people said the same thing to each other, but for different reasons.
85. The point would seem to be that both ditching and damming are valid ways of managing water resources, but you must choose one or the other, lest one person’s ditch interfere with another person’s dam.
86. That is, copper; the reference is to the casting of bronze.
87. Duke Wen of Jin 
(also known as Chong’er 
[r. 636–628 B.C.E.]) was a storied ruler who, despite a crippling physical deformity and despite being forced to live in exile in early life, rose to become one of the most powerful leaders of the state of Jin and the second Zhou vassal lord to assume the title of hegemon. He figures in many early texts.
88. Baili Xi 
was a worthy of Yu who was ransomed out of captivity by Duke Mu of Qin and raised to be his prime minister.
89. Duke Mu of Qin 
(r. 659–621 B.C.E.) was a powerful ruler who purportedly became one of the “five hegemons” of the Zhou era.
90. Marquis Wu of Wey 
(r. 812–758 B.C.E.) was a vassal who led forces in defense of the Zhou when they were forced from their capital in 771 B.C.E.
91. Compare Xunzi 22 (XZ 22/111/14); a similar phrase also appears in Zhongyong (Liji 32/242/21).
92. A similar phrase is found in Xunzi 28 (XZ 28/141/6).
93. See MZ 13.3/67/221–22.
94. These two lines are also a reference to Mencius. See MZ 13.3/67/21–22.
95. For the parallel passage in the reconstructed Zisizi, see Harper, “Huai Nan Tzu chapter 10,” app. 1, L; and Csikszentmihalyi 2004, app. 1, no. 13.
96. Both of these are incidents of the minor failure of diplomatic etiquette leading to important military confrontation. The second line is an allusion to the Song general Hua Yuan’s failure to distribute lamb meat to his charioteer before an important battle. The incident is recorded in Zuozhuan, Duke Xuan 2.
97. He would not allow personal pique to interfere with the larger interests of his state.
98. According to Xu Shen, Gong Yong 
was an official of Chu. See Zhang Shuangdi 1997, 1:1085n.16.
99. Xiao Ji 
(Ji the Filial), the son of King Wuding of the Shang dynasty, was renowned for his filial piety. He fell victim to his stepmother’s slander and died in exile.
100. The Duke of Shao 
, a loyal official who served as grand protector to King Wu of Zhou, was enfeoffed at Shao.
101. A cruel punishment attributed to the tyrant Djou, last ruler of the Shang dynasty. A person was forced to walk to his death across a red-hot metal beam. It is also mentioned in 2.14, 11.1, 12.35, 15.2, and 21.4.
102. The point is that the soft (the tongue) outlasts the hard (the teeth); this is presented as the inspiration for Laozi’s emphasis on water and other “soft” metaphors.
103. For the notion that the sage follows behind, see 1.11 and 14.56; and Laozi 66.
104. This saying paraphrases Zhuangzi, chap. 7 (ZZ 7/20/20), where it is attributed to Laozi. It does not, however, appear in the received version of the Daodejing. This saying also appears in 14.4 and 17.84.
105. Chang Hong 
(d. 492 B.C.E.) was an officer of the state of Liu famed for his skill in astronomy, calendrics, and divination. There was once a text in his name, now lost.
106. This saying also appears in 17.70.
107. A variant of this saying occurs in 17.133.
108. The implication is that when it is dark, there may still be an inner clarity that is not impaired by the darkness because it goes beyond mere visual acuity.
109. Commentators gloss the names “Bright Day” (hui ri 
) and “Shady Accord” (yin xie 
) as poetic names for the male and female of a species of falcon.
110. See 6.1.
111. Duke Jian of Qi 
(r. 484–481 B.C.E.) was overthrown by his prime minister, Tian Chang, marking the ascendancy of the Tian clan over the Qi court.
112. Ziyang 
(d. 398 B.C.E.) was a prime minister of Zheng who led that state in resisting the aggression of Chu. The ruler of Zheng killed him in an attempt to appease the king of Chu.
113. See also MZ 1.4/2/22–23.
114. This saying is repeated in 16.102, with slightly different wording. This anecdote also appears in Hanfeizi, chaps. 21 and 22. See HFZ 21/44/5 and 22/49/21.
115. For this quality of the sage, see also 9.7, 9.30, 13.13, 14.65, and 20.35.
116. This proverbial phrase also appears in 9.4, 16.59, and 20.2. See also HSWZ 1.23/5/13 and SY 7.4/47/23.
117. See also 9.26.
118. This saying appears in Xunzi, chaps. 11, 16, and 26.
119. That is, the two mythical sage-kings Fuxi and the Divine Farmer.
120. The “Three Dynasties” are Xia, Shang, and [Western] Zhou; “Zhou” in this line apparently refers to the (decadent) Eastern Zhou.
121. This is possibly a reference to (though not a direct quotation from) Odes 252, verses 7–9.
122. The interplay of feelings and desires is an important theme in Mencius.
123. Wu 
; lacking an English verb “to thing,” one might translate this in extenso as “differentiate and gain concrete knowledge of.”
124. See also MZ 4.13/24/21–26 and 13.1–13.2/67/15–19; the phrase also appears in XZ 4/13/19–20.
125. Daji 
and tingli 
, not securely identifiable but evidently medicinal plants.