Hinduism is a monotheistic religion in which God is believed to manifest Himself or Herself in several forms.1 One is supposed to worship the form that one finds most appealing without being disrespectful to other forms of worship. The religion has evolved over thousands of years with a spirit of tolerance toward different ways of spiritual fulfillment.2 This explains why Hinduism does not lend itself to conversion to or from other religions, for it holds that religions are alternate ways of worshipping the same divine principle and thus should not claim monopoly of spiritual wisdom. Hinduism believes in a continuity, on a graded scale, of religious practices, in conformity with the pace of the aspirant’s spiritual progress. It does not hold any point on the scale as having an absolute position in isolation, nor are all the practices suitable to the needs of everyone, given the variations in personal temperaments and constitutions. Hindu rituals have embedded layers of meaning, from gross to refined, viewed according to the participant’s station in spiritual life.
In India, Hinduism is called Sanatana Dharma, which means literally “the eternal religion.” There are two reasons why it is so called. First, unlike other religions, it has no propounder, and consequently its beginnings cannot be traced to a specific date in antiquity. Second, with all its subdivisions, it can be said to incorporate the spirit of the world’s diverse religions,3 and thus can be equated with the eternal Religion itself. The Sanskrit word dharma refers to both man’s nature and his religion. Thus, according to the Hindu, religion is a means toward establishing a person’s real nature, which is the fulfillment of the divinity in man—an inner harmony with the world to which he belongs. The principle of harmony itself is his God. The way to the realization of this harmony, of the one in many, varies according to the seeker’s psychological makeup and is determined to a large extent by the beliefs of the society in which he has been brought up. As Sri Ramakrishna, a Hindu mystic of the nineteenth century, would say, “As many are the views, so many are the ways.”
Victor Frankl, a guru of modern psychiatry, refers to the “profoundly personalized religion” that Hinduism is.4 “Hinduism,” observes the psychologist Gordon Allport, “recognizes that the temperament, needs and capacities of the initiate himself in large part determine his approach to religious verities,” reiterating what has already been pointed out. “Although other religions provide personal counsel for the initiate at the threshold of maturity,” Allport continues, “probably none goes to such lengths in making a close analysis of the youthful personality. . . . In this practice we have a rare instance of an institutional religion recognizing the ultimate individuality of the religious sentiment.”5
Like Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, Hinduism believes that life does not end with death. Hindus hold that everyone has a chance of being born again to undo the mistakes committed in past lives. The form of the future life is determined by the actions performed in previous lives.
The majority of Hindus follow the caste system, broadly a fourfold classification of people based originally on four types of human nature: Brahmin (spiritual-introvert, i.e., sattvik), Kshatriya (spiritual-extrovert, i.e., sattvik/rajasik), Vaishya (extrovert, guided by the constraint of inertia, i.e., rajasik/tamasik), and Shudra (guided by the principle of inertia, i.e., tamasik). Different duties in life have been assigned to each group depending on the nature of the people who constitute it, which, to a large extent, is determinedby their family environment. Teaching and priestly duties fall to the Brahmin, protection of country and maintenance of justice to the Kshatriya, agriculture and commerce to the Vaishya, and the duty of assisting others to the Shudra. We have to keep in mind that this division uses dharma—religion and righteousness—as its frame of reference; it recognizes variations in human beings and must be viewed in the setting of the universe that includes them. From the perspective of dharma, the worth of any work is measured in terms of the spiritual progress it occasions in the agent. It is, however, possible for an individual to transcend the hierarchy of social duties and become a renunciant, that is, a sannyasi or sannyasini in his or her personal spiritual quest, irrespective of birth or background, but only if one is ready for such a step. In the Hindu tradition a true renunciant has always been a guiding force for the whole society. People from all walks of life still flock in reverence to the feet of these holy people for guidance, which psychological counseling in the world of today only feebly approximates.
Untouchability has unfortunately been practiced by the Hindus for a long time. A concern for hygiene and cleanliness at a time when germicidals were nonexistent likely explains the establishment of this institution. It has been argued that the institution is not a part of Hinduism, because it goes against the spirit of universal love encouraged in the scriptures. Mahatma Gandhi tried hard to eradicate the custom, giving the name Harijans, literally “people of God,” to the so-called Untouchables. The custom is very much on the wane with the rise of public consciousness and the adoption of various legislative measures. It will take some time, however, before it is completely eradicated.
In spite of indications to the contrary in the Mahabharata, the caste system has long been understood as hereditary and typically serves as the basis for the choice of one’s partner for marriage.
Hinduism has developed over centuries of dialectical discussion and has come to encompass a broad spectrum of spirituality, ranging from theism, with its belief in a personal God, to atheism. Most Hindus worship the divine in five personal manifestations (panchopasana): (1) the sun, (2) Shiva (the static principle), (3) Shakti (the dynamic principle), (4) Vishnu (Krishna and Rama are His two important incarnations), and (5) Ganesha (the dispeller of obstacles and bestower of fulfillment). All Hindu deities reduce to these five and their associates, who in their turn are but one and the same. It is possible for a Hindu to believe in (a) a personal God with manifestations in forms worthy of worship, (b) a personal God without such manifestations, or (c) an impersonal principle. The idea, again, is to awaken divinity within oneself according to one’s inclinations and capabilities, in the pursuit of spirituality. To rule fanatic parochialism out, Hinduism has the mandatory practice of paying obeisance to all five forms before engaging in special worship of any one of them, highlighting the fact that divinity is one, though approaches to it may vary.
Although their use is not a must, icons are accepted in Hinduism. An icon serves an important purpose in man’s search for the infinite in and through the finite. The rare individual who can establish a relation with divinity directly does not need any icons. However, the less-advantaged majority, and those who have a fascination for encountering the Supreme in forms, worship it in images on the understanding that the infinite, which is without limits, can express itself in all kinds of ways.
The images of Gods and Goddesses have deep spiritual meanings. Even the concrete images, on analysis, turn out to be abstract symbols for the one divine principle. The black color of Krishna and Kali means that they are not physical beings but are beyond the perception of ordinary mortals because of their transcendental nature. The flute of Krishna stands for the inner beauty, harmony, and rhythm of the universe, and the enchanting call of the divine to be heard at the spiritual level. The Ganges on the head of Shiva represents the constant flow of divine bliss. Shiva’s trident (trishul) stands for the state of equilibrium that characterizes the primordial elements—sattva, rajas, and tamas. The crescent moon signifies the gradual awakening of divine consciousness.
According to Hinduism, divinity incarnates itself, whenever the need arises, to save humanity in distress. God is not only omnipotent but is also the lover and the subject of love, who always responds to the inner call of the devotee. He has planned creation through an ongoing process of evolution, a concept Hindus have been aware of since ancient times.
Hindus believe that divinity is present in all forms of life—human or otherwise. In an endeavor to relate to the world outside in a meaningful and harmonious way, Hindus approach all life in the same way, with love and without violence. No exception is made for animals. In fact, Hinduism’s emphasis on nonviolence is so strong that many Hindus do not eat meat. Mahatma Gandhi, the father of modern India, strove to establish the Kingdom of God (ram rajya) through his nonviolent application of Hinduism, following the dictates of the Gita, the spiritual backbone of the religion. He was one of a succession of leaders who have contributed, since ancient times, to the ongoing process by means of which Hinduism has cleansed itself of accumulated impurities of doctrine and ritual.
Scholars believe that the law of karma (present suffering or happiness is due to past actions), with its concomitant theory of the transmigration of the soul, was passed on to Buddhism and Jainism from Hinduism in ancient times. Yoga and meditation may be Hinduism’s two greatest contributions to the modern world. These techniques for attainment of mental peace have been adopted by people of many different faiths without their having to abandon their own creeds. Today, Hinduism has an important role to play in promoting mutual understanding among the people of the world based on the acceptance of differences. The well-known theologian Ninian Smart describes the essence and expectations of this ancient religion in his analysis of the future shape of world religions:
Hinduism itself then appears as the unifying force in world religion because of its all-embracingness. It contains, essentially, all faiths, and all forms of religious experience within it. It has evolved over the centuries a mode of life where different aspects of religion can live together in harmony. And with the Indian emphasis on non-violence it holds out a real hope of giving an ethical basis to inter-religious peace.6
1. Cf. Rig-veda 1.164.46, which stated about 4,000 years ago that “Truth” is one, though the wise name it differently.
2. Cf. A. L. Basham, The Wonder That Was India, 3d ed. (New York: Taplinger Publishing, 1968), 312, 347.
3. Cf. Ninian Smart, The Religious Experience of Mankind, 3d ed. (New York: Scribner, 1984), 580.
4. Viktor Frankl, The Will to Meaning (New York: World Publishing, 1969), 154.
5. Gordon Allport, The Individual and His Religion (New York: Macmillan, 1950), 11.
6. Smart, Religious Experience of Mankind, 580.
This essay was previously published as “Some Basic Features of Hinduism,” in Hinduism: A Way of Life (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1991), 23–28.