ACETIC ACID Sour organic acid found in vinegar formed by bacterial and fungal fermentation of sugars.
ACIDITY See pH.
ACTIN Protein molecules and fibers made from them that form the structures within the cells, on the surface of cells, and in the body—for example, in muscles. Individual actin molecules can polymerize into microfilaments, which are only 7 nanometers in width but up to several micrometers in length.
ACTIVITY OF WATER Expression that describes the extent to which the water molecules are accessible, for example, in a raw ingredient. If the water molecules have already formed tight bonds with other molecules, their activity is lower. A food product such as dried fish can easily have a water content of 20 percent but the water activity is still low. As a result it is fully preserved and microorganisms will not be able to thrive on it.
ADAPTATION Becoming accustomed to a quality of a substance—for example, to a taste or an odor—so that after a time one is less aware of it or sensitive to it.
ADDITIVE Substance that is added to foods to improve their taste, color, keeping qualities, texture, or nutritional value. Gelling agents and emulsifiers are examples of additives that have an effect on mouthfeel. For historical reasons, some substances—for example, table salt, baking powder, and vinegar—are not generally regarded as additives.
ADHESIVENESS In sensory terms, the extent to which a food item adheres to a surface—for example, in the oral cavity.
ADRIÀ, FERRAN Spanish chef, known as the owner of the now-closed Restaurant El Bulli and for his contributions to molecular gastronomy.
ADZUKI (Azuki) Small green or red beans (Phaseolus angularis). The red ones are sweet and used in the form of a paste in Japanese cakes, confections, and desserts.
AGAR (Agar-agar) Complex polysaccharide extracted from red algae that is composed of agarose and agaropectin. Used as a thickener, stabilizer, and gelling agent and to form heat-tolerant hydrogels.
AGAROPECTIN Polysaccharide that together with agarose forms agar. Like agarose, agaropectin is made up of galactose groups but has a greater sulfate content.
AGAROSE Polysaccharide that together with agaropectin forms agar. Made up of galactose groups.
AGGREGATION Clumping together—for example, of particles in solution or micelles in milk during cheese making.
ALBUMIN Protein in egg white.
ALGINATE Polysaccharide found in brown algae. The different types of alginates are made up of long, linear molecules that are composed of two different monosaccharide groups, β-d-mannuronic acid (M) and α-l-guluronic acid (G). These acid groups can combine linearly as, for example, -M-M-M-M-M-, -G-G-G-G-G-, or -M-G-M-G-M-G. Alginate is the basic form of these substances and the related ammonium and sulfate salts—for example, sodium alginate—are water soluble. Alginates from different species of algae have varying levels of M and G acids. The length of the chains varies and the shortest typically are made up of 500 monosaccharide groups. Alginates form gels in the presence of Ca++ (or other divalent ions, including Mg++ and Ba++) at temperatures that are much lower than those for the formation of gels with pectin. The melting point of alginates is slightly higher than the boiling point of water. Alginates are used as thickeners and stabilizers on account of their ability to bind large volumes of water. They are resistant to acid, which gives them an advantage over other stabilizers. They are useful primarily because of their water solubility, especially in the form of sodium alginate, which in solution takes on an ion form known as a polyelectrolyte. Calcium alginate is not water soluble. When treated with acids, alginates are converted to alginic acid.
ALGINIC ACID Mixture of alginates in the form of an acid. Not water soluble.
ALKALINE Property of ionic salts, including from alkaline metals—for example, NaOH and KOH. The term is often used as a synonym for basic. Chalk (CaCO3) is also said to be alkaline.
ALUM Water-soluble potassium aluminum sulfate (KAl(SO4)2), which has a sweet and sour, slightly astringent taste. Used for pickling, preserving, and marinating foodstuffs.
AMINO ACID Small organic molecule containing the amino group (-NH2). Amino acids are the fundamental building blocks of proteins. Examples are glycine, glutamic acid, alanine, proline, and arginine. Nature makes use of twenty distinct amino acids to synthesize proteins, which are chains of amino acids bound together by so-called peptide bonds. Short chains are called polypeptides and long chains proteins. Of the twenty natural amino acids, nine are labeled essential as they cannot be synthesized in the body and must be ingested from the food. These are: valine, leucine, lysine, histidine, isoleucine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, and tryptophan. In foods, amino acids are especially found bound to proteins but to a certain extent also as free amino acids that can have an effect on taste—for example, glutamic acid, which is the basis for umami. Histidine has a bitter taste.
AMORPHOUS MATERIAL Solid that lacks crystal structure. Glasses, such as caramel and crisp bread crusts, are amorphous materials.
AMPHIPHILE Substance or molecule that has mixed feelings toward water. The term is typically used to characterize molecules, such as fats and proteins that are made up of two parts, one of which is attracted to water and the other that avoids it.
AMYLASE Enzyme that can degrade starch to form sugars. Found in saliva and secreted in the pancreas.
AMYLOPECTIN Polysaccharide made up of a branched network of glucose molecules. Together with amylose is the most important component of starch.
ANTIFREEZE Substance that can depress the freezing point of a liquid. In a culinary context, salt, sugar, proteins, and polysaccharides all have this effect.
ANTIOXIDANT Substance that can prevent oxidation. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C), vitamin E, and green chlorophyll are important antioxidants in foods. The carotenoids for example, carotene, often function as antioxidants.
APICIUS, MARCUS GAVIUS Legendary Roman gourmet from the first century B.C.E., to whom the comprehensive ancient cookbook De re coquinaria libri decem is attributed. The recipes may not have been compiled until some four hundred years later.
AROMA Smell or odor attributed to airborne molecules that can be sensed in the nose as olfactory substances.
ASPARTAME Artificial sweetener that is not composed of sugars but is a dipeptide made up of two amino acids: asparginic acid and phenylalanine. It is 150–200 times sweeter than ordinary sugar (sucrose).
ASPIC Gel derived from meat juice that sets with the help of the gelatin formed from the breakdown of the connective tissue in cooked meat and bones from beef, pork, lamb, poultry, and fish.
ASTRINGENCY Taste impression due to chemical reactions that lead to a mechanical sensory experience—that is, a type of mouthfeel that may be connected to the taste cells in the mouth. Known from the taste of tannic acid in tea or wine, which reacts with proteins containing proline in mucous and saliva. Leads to a biting, dry, rubbing feeling. Astringency can be experienced as either pleasant or unpleasant, depending on the context.
BAKING POWDER Mixture of substances that give off carbon dioxide when heated. Ordinary baking powder is composed of sodium hydrogen carbonate and an acid—for example, potassium bitartrate (cream of tartar). When the baking powder comes in contact with water, carbon dioxide is released and it acts as a leavening agent.
BASIC TASTE Taste that cannot be produced by combining other basic tastes. The five basic ones are sour, sweet, salty, bitter, and umami. Some researchers think that fatty is also a basic taste.
BÉARNAISE SAUCE Classic French variation of hollandaise sauce, seasoned with spices and herbs, often tarragon and chervil. Typically served with beef dishes.
BÉCHAMEL SAUCE Classic French sauce made from a white roux to which milk, cream, or bouillon is added.
BINCHŌTAN GRILL Special wood-fired grill originating in Japan. Binchōtan is a special kind of charcoal that not gets very warm, only about 1,400°F (760°C), but the grill is very effective because it gives off intense infrared radiation. The result is that the meat roasts quickly and uniformly, with a crisp exterior and a juicy interior. It is fired with very hard charcoals, binchōtan, that are packed tightly in the grill. The flow of oxygen to the flame pit is slow and controlled by a damper on the side of the grill.
BINDING Sensory-psychological expression for the linking together of different sensory impressions by the brain and the way in which this depends on earlier experiences and consequent memories of them.
BISCUIT From the Old French for “twice cooked,” originally a simple, very dry rusk made from flour, water, and salt, used as a staple provision for long sea voyages.
BORDELAISE SAUCE Classic French sauce based on hollandaise sauce. Made with red wine, shallots, meat glace, and sometimes butter and beef marrow.
BOTTOM-UP Physics principle that describes how materials are built up from small entities—for example, molecules that spontaneously combine themselves to construct larger, hierarchical structures.
BOUILLABAISSE Provençal fish soup based on a thickened fish stock. The stock is made by cooking different types of fish and shellfish with different textures together with onions, tomatoes, garlic, and herbs in a large quantity of olive oil and with the addition of white wine. The gelatin in the fish bones helps to thicken the soup, which is finally boiled so vigorously that the oil splits into droplets that are emulsified and made creamier with the help of the proteins and the gelatin that have diffused out into the stock.
BOUILLON Stock—made from fish, meat, bones, or vegetables—that has been strained to make a clear liquid. A bouillon based on bones and meat is also known as a glace. A bouillon that has been clarified—for example, by using egg white—is called a consommé. The term “stock” is also used with regard to a bouillon that has been reduced and that often is seasoned with herbs and spices. The texture of all these soup bases resembles that of water, unless a sufficient quantity of gelatin has been released to thicken them somewhat.
BRILLAT-SAVARIN, JEAN ANTHELME (1755–1826) French jurist and politician who published a magnum opus, The Physiology of Taste, in 1825. It has been continuously in print since that time and has conferred on Brillat-Savarin the status of the “father of gastronomy.”
BROMELAIN Enzyme found in pineapple. Can break down proteins—for example, in collagen and gelatin—and is, therefore, well suited for use in aging meat.
BRUNOISE Mixture of finely chopped vegetables used in stuffings, sauces, and soups.
CAFFEINE Bitter-tasting organic substance found, for example, in coffee and tea.
CALCIFICATION Formation of a hard calcium carbonate (chalk) shell on the outside of a foodstuff—for example, a pretzel. The chalk shell is formed by exposing the surface of the food to a basic solution of lye (sodium hydroxide) that can combine with the carbon dioxide in the air to make chalk.
CALCIUM CARBONATE Chalk (CaCO3).
CALCIUM CHLORIDE Calcium salt (CaCl2) of hydrochloric acid. Among its uses are to act as a firming agent in tofu and canned vegetables and as an electrolyte in sports drinks.
CALCIUM CITRATE Calcium salt of citric acid.
CALCIUM GLUCONATE Calcium salt of gluconic acid, an acid that is formed when the body burns glucose.
CALCIUM LACTATE Calcium salt of lactic acid.
CANTUCCINI Another name in Italian for biscotti. Usually made with almonds.
CAPSAICIN Organic substance that is responsible for the strong, burning taste in chile peppers.
CARAMEL Mixture of different breakdown products of sugar that disaggregates when heated. The easiest way to make caramel is first to dissolve sugar in water and then to reduce the liquid over heat.
CARBOHYDRATES Saccharides, or sugars, constitute a large group of organic compounds primarily made up of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon. The simple saccharides—that is, the monosaccharides and disaccharides—are sweet and include the common sugars such as glucose, fructose, galactose, sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Starch, cellulose, and glycogen are well-known plant polysaccharides. Seaweeds contain polysaccharides, such as agar, alginate, and carrageenan. Carbohydrates are formed in plants and seaweeds by photosynthesis, a process in which carbon dioxide and water combine, releasing oxygen.
CARBON DIOXIDE Type of gas composed of CO2 molecules. When dissolved in water, it can form carbonic acid.
CARBONIC ACID Various forms of carbon dioxide dissolved in water.
CARÊME, MARIE-ANTOINE (1784–1833) French chef and writer who was the main exponent of haute cuisine.
CAROTENE Reddish orange pigment found in carrots and other foods. Acts as an antioxidant.
CARRAGEENAN Polysaccharide found in red algae, composed of the monosaccharide galactose in compounds containing varying quantities of sulfate. Carrageenans are long, flexible chains with about 25,000 galactose molecules. Their gelation properties are dependent on the variety and their behavior is affected by the surrounding conditions of pH, ion content, and temperature. Carrageenans are so-called electrolytes, able to form gels in the presence of K+ and Ca++ ions. Some can curl into helical structures that are able to link loosely together to form a network. For technical end uses there are three important carrageenans: κ-carrageenan, which forms strong, stiff gels; ι-carrageenan, which forms softer gels; λ-carrageenan, which is well suited for emulsifying proteins. Only λ-carrageenan is soluble in cold water.
CASEIN Protein found in milk.
CASSAVA Starch extracted from manioc (Manihot esculenta). Used to create tapioca.
CELL MEMBRANE Thin membrane made up of fats (lipids), proteins, and carbohydrates that surrounds each cell.
CELLULOSE Polysaccharide, made up of cross-linked linear chains of glucose. Unlike the glucose chains in starch, they are bound tightly in such a way that the cellulose does not absorb water and it is not digestible in the human stomach and intestines.
CEVICHE Raw fish that has been marinated in citrus juice, which makes the fish muscle firmer.
CHEMESTHESIS Describes the sensitivity of the skin and mucous membranes to chemically induced reactions that cause irritation or pain and that may damage cells and tissues. In the mouth this is registered as a sharp taste when we eat chile peppers, which contain capsaicin, black peppercorns, which contain piperine, or horseradish and mustard, which contain isothiocyanate. As the endings of the trigeminal nerves (the fifth paired cranial nerves) are the ones affected, chemesthesis is sometimes referred to as the trigeminal sense. Sensations of temperature are related to chemesthesis.
CHEVREUL, MICHEL EUGÈNE (1786–1889) French chemist who worked with animal fats. In 1813, he discovered a saturated fatty acid, margaric acid, later found to be simply a mixture of palmitic acid and stearic acid. It is the origin of the word “margarine.”
CHOLESTEROL Fat found in abundance in the cell membranes of all animals. Precursor for the biosynthesis of steroid hormones, vitamin D, and bile salts.
CHYMOSIN Enzyme in rennet that helps to coagulate milk to form cheese curds.
CITRIC ACID Weak organic acid derived from citrus fruit.
COAGULANT Agent that can cause substances in a solution to clump together or that is used to help form a gel.
COAGULATION Process in the course of which something clumps together—for example, blood proteins to form a clot or milk proteins to form curds.
COATING Expression for a mouthfeel that is associated with food that spreads out in the mouth and fills the oral cavity. Often used when describing fatty or oily foods, cream, plant oils, animals fats, butter, margarine, cocoa butter, cacao butter, and rich, creamy cheeses. The most intense version of a coating mouthfeel is experienced if the melting point of the fats is just under the temperature in the mouth. Emulsions are often characterized as coating.
COCOA BUTTER Fat produced from the fermented beans in the pods of the cacao fruit tree.
COHESION Physical expression for the cohesive force in a material and the consequent degree to which a material can be deformed before it reaches the breaking point. In sensory terms, it refers to the cohesive force of a food, meaning how much it must be compressed before it breaks apart.
COLLAGEN Protein network that forms connective tissues and thereby gives structure to all animal tissues. It is found mostly in the skin and bones of animals and makes up 25–35 percent of the total amount of protein in mammals. It can be broken down to water-soluble gelatin by long-term heating at more than 158°F (70°C), a temperature at which the cross-links in the tropocollagen break down.
COLLOIDS Particles that are so small that they can remain in suspension in a liquid—for example, fat particles in homogenized milk.
COMPLEX FLUID Fluid that is structured on a scale that lies somewhere between the size of the individual molecules and the size of something that can be seen with the naked eye. Many polymeric liquids are complex fluids. See also soft matter.
CONFIT Food that is salted and cooked in fat or oil to preserve it. Examples include goose and duck confit.
CONGRUENCY Word describing a relationship in which the parties are in harmony or complement one another. Often used to characterize different tastes that complement one another or create different sensory impressions that are harmonious.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE Hierarchically constructed network of collagen fibers. Each collagen fiber consists of a large number of fibrils, which are each made up of pairs of three long protein molecules (tropocollagen) that are wound around one another in a helix. The individual protein molecules can be bound to varying degrees to one another with chemical bonds (cross-binding). The strength of the fibril increases with the number of bonds, making the connective tissue stronger. Strong muscles and muscles in older animals have more cross-binding in their connective tissues. Collagen is much weaker in fish than in terrestrial animals, but can be very strong in cephalopods.
CONSOMMÉ Bouillon that is clear or has been clarified—for example, by using egg white.
CONVECTION Movement in a liquid or a gas by diffusion. Can be caused by temperature differences.
CORTEX Cerebral cortex.
CRANIAL NERVES Twelve pairs of special nerves that emerge directly from the brain or from the brainstem. They are either sensory, conveying signals of sensory impressions to the brain, or motor, sending signals from the brain to muscles and organs. The sensory nerves are the olfactory nerve, optic nerve, trigeminal nerve that relates to mouthfeel, three nerves that register taste impressions, and the vagus nerve that links parts of the stomach to the brain.
CREAMY Textural property that, among other characteristics, combines viscosity with the way the food slides in the mouth and rubs against the mucous membranes. For this reason it is sometimes also described as even, smooth, and velvety, but not fatty.
CRÈME ANGLAISE Cake cream made by mixing cooled, scalded milk and cream with egg yolk and sugar. The mixture is then warmed to thicken it until it has the desired consistency.
CRÈME BRÛLÉE Crème anglaise that is stiffened to make a cake cream or a pudding. Covered with a layer of sugar that is heated to form a caramel “lid.”
CRÈME FRAÎCHE Soured cream.
CRISPNESS Somewhat imprecise word for texture that is used to characterize both thin yet hard foods, such as chips, bread crusts, and roasted seeds, and porous foods, such as meringue. “Crispy,” “crunchy,” and “crackly” are often used arbitrarily for both dry and fragile foods. Crispness is associated with the high-frequency sound generated when the teeth pierce the crust, before it has been deformed.
CROSS-BINDING Formation of crosswise chemical bonds between long-chained polymers—for example, proteins or carbohydrates. Cross-binding of fibers and polymers is one way to make soft materials more robust and tough. Both collagen in the skin and muscles and cellulose in the cell walls of plants are strongly cross-bound, which is why these tissues can be stiff and tough.
CRÜSLI Product similar to muesli.
CRYSTAL Solid substance in which the molecules have an ordered structure in relation to one another.
CULINARY TRANSFORMATION Physical, chemical, or physico-chemical process that transforms raw ingredients into high-quality food. The culinary arts can be seen as a set of culinary transformations.
CYANIDE Substance (CN−) that is poisonous and found, for example, in cassava and bitter almonds.
DAIFUKU Small round Japanese rice cake made with mochi stuffed with red adzuki bean paste.
DAIKON Japanese name for a large, long white radish.
DAL Indian dish of simmered beans, lentils, peas, or chickpeas.
DASHI From the Japanese for “cooked extract,” stock made with seaweed (konbu) and bonito fish flakes (katsuobushi). It is the quintessential source of umami taste.
DEHYDRATING Removing water from a biological substance.
DEMI-GLACE Sauce espagnole with Madeira that has been reduced.
DENATURING Word that can be used to describe the breakdown or alteration of the natural and functional form of proteins—for example, by heating them.
DERMIS Layer of skin containing collagen found just under the top layer (epidermis).
DIETARY FIBER Carbohydrates that cannot be broken down by the enzymes in the body. The distinction is made between fiber that is water soluble and that which is not. The gelling agents agar, alginate, and carrageenan are soluble dietary fibers, whereas cellulose is insoluble.
DIFFUSION Random movement (Brownian motion) of molecules or small particles.
DIGLYCERIDE Fat composed of a glycerol molecule bound to two fats.
DISACCHARIDE Sugar (carbohydrate) made up of two sugars—for example, sucrose (fructose + glucose, household sugar), maltose (glucose + galactose, malt sugar), and lactose (glucose + galactose, milk sugar).
DISPERSAL Embedding or dissolving small particles or drops of one substance in another that is in a different state—for example, solids in a liquid.
DYERBERG, JØRN Danish physician and researcher who carried out fundamental work on the effects of unsaturated fats on health.
ELASTICITY Property of a substance both to be deformed when an external force is applied to it and to return to its original form when it is no longer subjected to the force. The extent to which it can be deformed is proportional to the strength of the external force.
EMULSIFIER Substance that depresses the surface tension between oil and water, thereby facilitating the formation of an emulsion. Amphiphilic substances, such as lipids, are emulsifiers.
EMULSION Mixture of water with oil-like substances—for example, fats—that are sparingly soluble in water usually made with the help of an emulsifier. Mayonnaise and ice cream are examples of emulsions.
ENZYME Protein that acts as a catalyst in a chemical or biochemical reaction. Amylase, which breaks down starch, and chymosin, used in cheese making, are enzymes.
ERYTHRITOL Sugar alcohol that can be used as a sweetener, but that has 95 percent fewer calories than sucrose. Creates a sensation of coolness on the tongue when it dissolves in the mouth.
ESCOFFIER, AUGUSTE (1846–1935) French chef and author who updated and simplified the techniques and recipes of traditional French culinary culture.
ETHYL ACETATE Organic substance with a fruity smell.
EXTRUSION Forcing a mixture (the extrudate), which typically contains water and starch, through a perforated plate or similar die, while at the same time heating it to evaporate water and turn it into a pliable mass. It is then dried so that it hardens and can take on a state called a glass, which greatly improves its shelf-life. Often used for making snacks and pasta.
FASCICLE Bundle consisting of from ten to one hundred muscle fibers encased in connective tissue.
FATTY ACIDS Substances consisting of a long chain of carbon atoms with a carboxyl acid group. Adjacent atoms in the chain are chemically bound to one another with either single or double bonds. The greater the number of double bonds the more unsaturated the fatty acid and the lower its melting point. If only single bonds are present, the fatty acid is fully saturated. Monounsaturated fatty acids have single bonds—for example, the oleic acid from olive oil. Polyunsaturated fatty acids have more than one double bond—for example, two double bonds in linoleic acid from soybeans, three double bonds in α-linolenic acid from flaxseeds, and six double bonds in docosahexaeonic acid from fish oil.
FERMENTATION Biochemical process in which microorganisms (yeast or bacteria) or enzymes convert organic material. An example is the action of yeast to convert sugars in grape juice to alcohol or vinegar.
FIBRIL Collection of fibers—for example, collagen in connective tissue.
FIRMNESS Ability of a substance to resist being deformed.
FLAVOR Word used as a collective term for all the sensory impressions derived from a food, including taste and odor, thereby incorporating the aroma substances in the food, as well as its mouthfeel and chemesthesis.
FLOCCULATION Clumping together or aggregation of fine particles.
FOAM Dispersion of bubbles of a gas in a liquid.
FOIE GRAS Fat liver from ducks and geese.
FOLDING Word sometimes used to describe the way in which protein molecules curl up and take on a certain structure. When proteins are denatured—for example, in a cooked egg—their folding pattern is changed.
FONDANT Special glaze similar in consistency to fudge. Used as icing on cakes and as the fill in confections. Fondant is made by cooking sugar or syrup that is then worked mechanically, possibly with the addition of glucose, until it has a texture resembling that of clay.
FREEZE DRYING Dehydration process. The ambient temperature and pressure is adjusted to be so low that the water in the substance sublimates—that is, changes directly from an ice to a gas phase. The resulting freeze-dried material can then be crushed or ground into a powder.
FRUCTOSE Fruit sugar, monosaccharide.
FRUIT LEATHER Tough, plastic fruit paste that has been reduced with a large quantity of sugar.
FUDGE Caramel to which milk, fats, and often cacao or chocolate have been added. In contrast to a fondant, fudge also incorporates fat droplets.
FUNORI Delicate branched Japanese seaweed.
FURAN Aromatic organic compound formed when substances are caramelized. Has a nutty taste.
GALACTOSE Milk sugar, monosaccharide.
GANACHE Chocolate solid used for cakes and confections made from chocolate and cream.
GASTRIQUE Thick, sweet and sour liquid made with caramelized sugar and vinegar.
GASTROPHYSICS Scientific study of food, its raw materials, the effects of processing food and quantitative aspects of the physical basis for food quality, flavor, and absorption into the human body.
GEFILTE FISH Classic Jewish dish of a minced fish forcemeat that was stuffed into the fish skin and cooked. Now usually prepared from ground, deboned fish that is formed into patties or balls and poached in a seasoned stock and served cold.
GEL Technical term for a network of molecules that contain a large quantity of water (hydrogel) but is still somewhat firm like a solid. Gels are formed by gelation processes—for example, when an egg white is heated or when gelatin cools. In the context of food, a gel may also be called a jelly.
GELATIN Protein found in the form of collagen in connective tissue that is released when collagen is heated, dissolving the stiff collagen fibers. In contrast to collagen, gelatin is soluble in water. When gelatin is cooled, the stiff fiber structure of collagen is not reformed. Instead a water-retaining gel is created. This process is called gelation.
GELLAN GUM Sour polysaccharide isolated from the bacterial culture of Pseudomonus elodea.
GELLING AGENT Substance that can form a gel—for example, agar, alginate, carrageenan, gelatin, pectin, starch, and gums.
GHEE Traditional Indian version of clarified butter. It has a grainy structure made up of fat crystals and is often brown in color, due to caramelization of milk sugars from the milk that is mixed into the butter as it is heated.
GLACE Meat juice that has been reduced slowly. Contains concentrated taste substances and can be used as a taste additive in gravies.
GLASS Technical term for an amorphous solid or an extremely viscous liquid. Bread crusts, hard candies, dried pasta products, and many frozen foods are actually glasses.
GLAZE Coating made from powder sugar and water and, sometimes, an egg white. As implied by the name, it can be a glass and it is almost always the sugar that stabilizes the glass phase when the water evaporates—for example, when it is heated. A fondant is a special case of a glaze.
GLUCOSE Grape sugar (dextrose), a monosaccharide.
GLUTAMATE Salt of the amino acid glutamic acid—for example, in the form of monosodium glutamate (MSG). In water, glutamate splits into sodium ions and glutamate ions. The latter are the source of umami.
GLUTAMINE Amino acid.
GLUTAMIC ACID Amino acid with an insipid and slightly sour taste. The salts of glutamic acid are called glutamates—for example, monosodium glutamate (MSG), which in ionic form contributes umami taste.
GLUTATHIONE Tripeptide found, for example, in liver, scallops, fish sauces, garlic, onions, and yeast extract. Contributes a kokumi sensation.
GLYCEROL Sugar alcohol, also called glycerin, found in many fats—for example, phospholipids.
GLYCOGEN Branched polysaccharide molecule made up of glucose units. Glycogen is the energy depot in the liver and in the white muscles of fish and shellfish.
GLYCOPROTEIN Protein that is bound to a carbohydrate.
GOURMAND Person who loves good food and drink, but who often does so to excess.
G-PROTEIN-COUPLED RECEPTOR Trans-membrane protein with seven trans-membrane segments and a large outer part that turns outward and away from the cell membrane. It is this part on a taste receptor that can capture and identify taste molecules.
GRANITA Sherbet prepared with a light sugar syrup, possibly with a little alcohol. Its texture is not uniform as it has small ice crystals that crunch between the teeth.
GRAPE SUGAR See glucose.
GUAR GUM Gum extracted from the legume guar. It is a branched polysaccharide that dissolves easily in cold water and can be used as a thickener.
GUM ARABIC Gum obtained from the sap of acacia trees.
GUMS Substances that have great capacity for binding water but that can form gels only in exceptional circumstances. They are especially well suited for stabilizing foods by forming very viscous liquids. Gums have very different characteristics and are obtained from a variety of sources: some come from plants (e.g., locust bean gum, guar gum, and gum arabic); others are the products of bacterial action (e.g., xanthan gum and gellan gum); still others are extracted by chemical processes from plants (e.g., methyl cellulose).
HAPTAESTHESIS Sensory impressions based on touch. Used most often to refer to the feel of raw ingredients and the surface structure of foods.
HARDNESS Word for the mouthfeel characterized by the resistance of a food to being deformed by the actions of tongue, teeth, and palate.
HEMAGGLUTININ Poisonous substance found, for example, in raw kidney beans. It causes red blood cells to clump together.
HEMICELLULOSE Water-soluble polysaccharide that binds the cells in plants.
HEMOGLOBIN Reddish protein containing iron that can bind to oxygen and is the means by which blood transports oxygen in the body.
HOGOTAE Japanese expression for the resistance of the food to the teeth.
HOLLANDAISE SAUCE Classic French sauce made of melted butter emulsified in bouillon with the help of egg yolks.
HOMUNCULUS From the Latin for “small man,” used to characterize an illustration of the sensory parts on the body on one side and the places and extent of the areas where these are registered in the brain.
HYDRATION Addition of water to a substance. The opposite process is dehydration. Hydration of a dehydrated substance is called rehydration.
HYDROGEL A somewhat solid substance, a gel, in which a large quantity of water is bound. Hydrogels, also known as hydrocolloids, are very stable and viscous, characteristics that have many applications—for example, for stabilizing liquid foods. Hydrogels based on extracts from seaweeds are in widespread use in the food industry, where they are used in meat, fish, and dairy products and in baked goods. Alginates from brown algae and agar and carrageenan from red algae readily form hydrogels.
HYDROGENATION Process used to make fats solid by removing the double bonds in unsaturated fats either entirely or partially—for example, when making margarine from unsaturated plant oils.
HYDROLYSIS Chemical process by which a molecule is cleaved into smaller entities while absorbing water—for example, hydrolysis of vegetable or animal protein that is split into amino acids. Hydrolysis can be mediated by enzymes—for example, amylase hydrolyzes starch and pectinase hydrolyzes pectin.
HYDROPHILE From the Latin for “lover of water,” an expression typically used about a substance or a molecule that is soluble in water, but not in oil.
HYDROPHOBE From the Latin for “afraid of water,” an expression typically used about a substance or a molecule that is soluble in oil, but not in water.
IKIJIME Japanese technique for killing fish, which is considered to enhance the taste while reducing to a minimum the damage done to the flesh and color of the fish muscles. The 350-year-old technique ensures that rigor mortis is delayed. The fish is not stressed at the time of death, which releases more of the substances, especially inosinate, that are a source of umami.
INOSINATE Inosine monophosphate, nucleotide found in meat and fish, among other foods. Contributes umami taste.
INSULA Insular cortex, part of the brain that, together with the operculum, is its taste center. It is considered to be involved with consciousness and emotions.
INTERFACIAL TENSION Term normally used to characterize the force that seeks to minimize, to the greatest extent possible, the surface between two entities that cannot be merged—for example, oil and water. Interfacial tension between oil and water can be lessened and miscibility enhanced by adding a substance that is active at the interface—for example, soap or other amphiphilic substance, such as a lipid or a suitable protein. Surface tension is the interfacial tension between a surface and open space, usually air. This is the force that makes it possible to pour a meniscus on a glass of water.
INVERTED SUGAR Particular form of sucrose that is a disaccharide where the two sugars, glucose and fructose, are separated from each other. As a result, inverted sugar tastes sweeter than sucrose because fructose is itself sweeter than sucrose and at the same time the glucose prevents the sugar from crystallizing when used to make such products as ice cream.
ION CHANNEL Membrane protein that allows the passage of ions. The taste receptors for sour and salty are ion channels.
ISOTHIOCYANATE Substance containing the chemical group S=C=N−. Emits an unpleasant odor—for example, when mustard seeds, cabbage, horseradish, and wasabi are crushed. Causes irritation.
JUICY Adjective traditionally associated with the extent to which juice can be extracted from a fruit is when pressed, with regard to the rate of flow, the total amount, and the way in which it stimulates saliva production. Also used to describe the degree to which a prepared meat will yield meat juice and liquid fats.
KAMABOKO Japanese fish cakes made the same way as
surimi.
KANTEN Japanese word for agar.
KATSUOBUSHI Japanese word for a hard fillet of katsuo (bonito) that has been subjected to a comprehensive process of cooking, drying, salting, smoking, and fermenting. Contains large quantities of inosinate that contribute synergy to umami. Used in the preparation of Japanese dashi.
KAZUNOKO Japanese word for herring roe. Kazunoko-konbu is herring roe that has been deposited on the blades of the seaweed konbu.
KEFIR Milk fermented with a culture of yeast and lactic acid bacteria.
KIMCHI Korean name for pickled, fermented vegetables—for example, cabbage.
KINESTHESIA Ability to sense the position and movements of the body and parts of the body. It is linked to mouthfeel through the motions of the tongue as it explores and identifies the size, shape, and texture of a food while chewing on it.
KOJI Japanese word for a fermentation medium made from a solid mass of cooked rice, soybeans and roasted, crushed wheat, seeded with spores from the fungi Aspergillus oryzae and Aspergillus sojae. Used in the production of soy sauce, miso, and sake.
KOKUMI Japanese word that describes the continuity—that is, the long-lasting taste impression—and mouthfeel of food. There may be some overlap between the taste experience of kokumi and umami.
KONBU Large brown alga (Saccharina japonica), an important ingredient in dashi. Konbu contains large quantities of glutamate and is a source of umami. Oboro konbu and tororo konbu are konbu that has been marinated in rice vinegar, then partially dried, and made into extremely fine shavings.
LACTIC ACID Simple organic acid formed by the action of lactic acid bacteria. Also produced in the muscles when glycogen is used up in the presence of oxygen.
LACTOSE Milk sugar, disaccharide made up of glucose and galactose.
LECITHIN One of a number of phospholipids. Fat found in cell membranes and that can be sourced from animals or plants—for example, egg yolks and soybeans. Acts as an emulsifier that can bind oil and water in emulsions such as mayonnaise.
LÉVI-STRAUSS, CLAUDE (1908–2009) French anthropologist who described a concept called the culinary triangle, which characterized food as being in one of three stages—raw, cooked, or rotten. It can be changed from the raw state by being either cooked to make it edible or turned into something rotten and inedible by microbial action.
LIGNIN Large, complex macromolecule that makes up the woody parts of plants.
LIMBIC SYSTEM Area of the brain that controls memory, feelings, and instinctive reactions.
LINOLEIC ACID Polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid with eighteen carbon atoms and two double bonds. Precursor for the formation of super-unsaturated fatty acids of the omega-6 family—for example, arachidonic acid.
LINOLENIC ACID Polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acid with eighteen carbon atoms and three double bonds. Precursor for the formation of super-unsaturated fatty acids of the omega-3 family—for example, DHA (docosahexaeonic acid) and EPA (eicosapentaeonic acid).
LIPID Fat composed of a water-soluble part and an oil-soluble part that is normally a fatty acid. Biological membranes are composed of lipids—for example, phospholipids.
LIPID MEMBRANE Double layer of lipid molecules with water on both sides.
LIPOPROTEIN Complex of fats (lipids) and proteins.
LIQUID CRYSTAL Substance with properties of both a crystal and a liquid, found in a mesophase between the normal phases of the two. Many fats form liquid crystals—for example, inside the cell walls or in the cocoa butter in chocolate.
LOCUST BEAN GUM POWDER Substance derived from the seeds of the acacia tree. Contains branched polysaccharides that are soluble in both cold and warm water. Used as a thickener.
MACROMOLECULE Large molecule—for example, a protein or a carbohydrate. Most biological macromolecules are polymers. Macromolecular assemblies consist of large molecules that are either closely or loosely bound to one another, for example, in the form of lipid membranes.
MAGNESIUM CHLORIDE MgCl2, acts, for example, as a coagulant in the production of tofu from soy milk or in spherification processes using alginate.
MAILLARD REACTIONS Class of chemical reactions that are typically associated with browning that does not involve enzymes—for example, roasting, baking, and grilling. In the course of the multistep reaction, carbohydrates combine with amino acids from proteins, leading to a series of loosely defined, brown, aromatic colorants called melanoids. These substances give rise to a broad spectrum of taste and odor impressions, ranging from the flowery and leaflike to meaty and earthy.
MAKI-ZUSHI Sushi roll that has a sheet of
nori on either the outside or the inside.
MALTODEXTRIN Polysaccharide that can be produced by the hydrolysis of starch—for example, from cassava. It is nearly tasteless, with only a trace of sweetness and is generally available as a fine powder that can float. Can function as a thickener and prevent the formation of ice crystals in ice cream and sorbet.
MALTOL Organic substance with a caramel taste used as a taste enhancer.
MALTOSE Malt sugar, disaccharide consisting of two glucose molecules.
MARGARIC ACID Saturated fat that is an intermediary between palmitic acid and stearic acid.
MARGARINE From the French márgaron, which refers to the tendency of beef tallow to form pearl-like beads in water at room temperature. Margarine, a water-in-oil emulsion, was invented by a French chemist, Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès, in 1869. The original product was a blend of beef tallow, skim milk, and water, but plant oils soon started to replace more expensive animal fat. The quality of these initial versions was poor and inconsistent. It was only when appropriate emulsification systems were put in place that it became possible to produce margarine with a good mouthfeel and that was suitable for the preparation of food. Currently margarine is composed of 20 percent water and 80 percent oils/fats; the latter are overwhelmingly unsaturated vegetable oils to which are added a little emulsifier in the form of lecithin, proteins from natural sources—for example, milk—or a commercial emulsifier. The fat content of some margarine can be as little as 40 percent, with the remainder being water, which means that this type of margarine shrinks when heated and is not suitable for frying. However, it is very well suited for making baked goods that are to be airy and crisp.
MARINATE Preserve raw ingredients by immersing them in a brine, a vinegar solution, sugar, oil, alcohol, lemon juice, spices, and so on. The process changes the texture and taste of the food and can increase its keeping qualities.
MARSHMALLOW Elastic foam that contains a large quantity of air bubbles that are whipped into a viscous gelatin solution together with sugar or syrup and, sometimes, egg whites. The gelatin helps to stabilize the air bubbles and is responsible for the marshmallow’s elastic texture.
MAYONNAISE Oil-in-water emulsion made with oil and wine vinegar and emulsified with the help of lecithin from egg yolks.
MEAT GLUE See transglutaminase.
MÈGE-MOURIÈS, HIPPOLYTE (1817–1880) French chemist who invented margarine in 1869.
MERINGUE Foam in which the liquid phase between the air bubbles has been made stiff. Made by beating sugar into egg whites, which are mostly water, and then heating the mixture to evaporate the water and make the foam even stiffer.
MESOPHASE Intermediate phase between that of a liquid and that of a solid/crystal, for example, a liquid crystal or a glass.
METHOXYL Part of the organic molecule containing methyl ester.
METHYL CELLULOSE Gelling agent produced from cellulose by a chemical process. Used both as a thickener and as a stabilizer.
MICELLE Small particle that is an aggregation of amphiphilic molecules (lipids and proteins) in water—for example, casein micelles in milk.
MILK SUGAR See lactose.
MILLE FEUILLE From the French for “a thousand layers,” classical French flaky, laminated pastry.
MIRIN Sweet rice wine with an alcohol content of about 14 percent.
MISO Japanese fermented soybean paste.
MOCHI Soft Japanese rice cake made from steamed white rice that is pounded into an elastic paste.
Senbei are baked or charcoal-grilled
mochi.
MONOGLYCERIDE Fat consisting of a glycerol molecule bound to a fatty acid.
MONOSACCHARIDE Simple sugar (carbohydrate) made up of a single entity—for example, glucose, fructose, or galactose.
MONOSODIUM GLUTAMATE (MSG) Sodium salt of the amino acid glutamic acid. Contributes umami taste and is also called “the third spice,” with salt and pepper being the other two.
MOUTHFEEL See texture.
MSG See monosodium glutamate.
MUCUS Layer of proteins on the skin and in the mucous membranes.
MULTIMODAL PERCEPTION Parallel perception of several sensory impressions in the brain (multisensory integration)—for example, the integrated impression made by a food with regard to taste, aroma, mouthfeel, appearance, and so on.
MYOGLOBIN Red protein found in the muscles that contains iron and transports oxygen from the blood out into the muscle fibers.
MYOSIN Protein that acts as a molecular motor in the muscle tissue where it slides along an actin fiber.
NATTŌ Stringy, viscous, sticky foodstuff made from fermented soybean and that has a very strong taste and a pungent odor. Traditionally eaten in Japan as a breakfast food with warm, cooked rice and a raw egg.
NEOPHOBIA Fear of trying anything new—for example, a food that one has never eaten.
NEUROGASTRONOMY Word coined by an American neurobiologist, Gordon Shepherd, and described in his book Neurogastronomy. The term refers to the neurological science that is the basis for an understanding of how the perception of food is registered and processed in the brain.
NIGARI Sea salt with a preponderance of potassium chloride (MgCl
2) that is traditionally used in Japan as a coagulant for the production of tofu.
NITROUS OXIDE N2O, commonly known as laughing gas. It is a tasteless gas that is well suited for making foam using a siphon bottle.
NOCICEPTOR Particular type of TRP channel that is stimulated at the tips of the sensory nerves by mechanical and chemical effects or extreme temperature conditions.
NONPOLAR Property of a substance that is not able to attach to electrically charged ends of molecules. In contrast to polar substances, they are unable to form hydrogen bonds—for example, with water. Oils and fats are nonpolar substances and therefore are largely immiscible in water.
NORI Paper-thin sheets made from the blades of the red alga Porphyra that have been dried and possibly toasted. Used to prepare maki-zushi, among other culinary uses.
NOTE In the context of gastronomy refers to the elementary sensory impression of an aroma or a taste.
NOTE-BY-NOTE CUISINE Expression coined by a French chemist, Hervé This. The concept refers to a type of cuisine in which food is prepared without any natural ingredients—neither meat, fish, plants, fruits, fungi, or algae nor complex extracts from any of them. Instead, food and whole meals are concocted from pure compounds or mixtures of pure compounds.
NOUGAT Airy meringue containing nuts that is made firm and tough by beating very warm syrup into it.
NUCLEIC ACID Nucleotide chain (polynucleotide). Nucleic acid is the building block of DNA and the genome.
NUCLEOTIDE Chemical group that forms part of nucleic acid. The umami taste substances inosinate and guanylate are nucleotides.
NUKA-ZUKE Tsukemono made by preserving vegetables in rice bran (
nuka).
OIL Water-insoluble chemical compound containing carbon; examples include fatty acids, triglycerides, and lipids.
OLFACTION Sense of smell. Receptors localized in the nasal cavity send signals to the olfactory bulb in the brain. Pleasant smells are often called aromas.
OLFACTORY BULB Part of the olfactory center in the frontal lobes of the brain.
OPERCULUM Part of the brain that, together with the insula, is the locus for registering taste impressions in the brain.
ORBITOFRONTAL CORTEX Region in the frontal lobes in the brain that is the locus for registering olfactory impressions.
ORTHONASAL Describes the perception of odor substances that enter the nose from the external environment.
OSMOSIS Phenomenon that occurs across a barrier—for example, a cell membrane that is water-permeable but does not allow the passage of other and larger molecules, such as salts, amino acids, or sugars. The resultant imbalance is adjusted by having some of the water seep over to the side of the larger molecules. This osmotic effect corresponds to a form of pressure (osmotic pressure) that is created across the membrane. Osmosis is an essential element of a plant’s ability to draw water out of the earth into its roots and up through the trunks and stems.
OXIDATION Combining with oxygen—for example, when unsaturated fats are exposed to oxygen they can become rancid.
PACOJET Kitchen appliance that consists of a rapidly rotating, extremely sharp blade that literally shaves a frozen block of a food—for example, ice—into tiny pieces that are about 5 micrometers in size, which is under the threshold where the mouth can detect the individual particles.
PALMIN Vegetable-based cooking fat that has a high proportion of saturated fats, especially coconut oil.
PALMITIC ACID Saturated fat with sixteen carbon atoms.
PANKO From the Japanese pan for “bread” and ko for “small pieces,” dried, Japanese bread crumbs. They are very light and porous, and therefore, absorb only a little oil when used for deep-frying, resulting in a crust that is more crisp and less greasy. This type of bread crumb was invented during World War II when it was necessary to conserve energy by baking bread without heating it. The solution was to pass an electric current through the dough.
PAPAIN Enzyme in papaya, which can break down proteins, for example, in gelatin. As gelatin is part of the connective tissue in meat, papain is well suited for tenderizing meat.
PASTEURIZATION Process invented by a French biologist, Louis Pasteur (1822–1895), and named after him. It entails heating, for example, a liquid to a temperature that kills harmful germs, followed by cooling it quickly, but does not significantly alter the chemical makeup of the liquid. This improves the keeping qualities of the foodstuff.
PECTIN Plant polysaccharide that is used as a thickener in jams, jellies, and marmalades. Found in unripe fruit—for example, apples—as propectin. As the apples ripen, the propectin is hydrolyzed by enzymatic action to form the water-soluble pectin.
PECTINASE Enzyme that can break down pectin.
PEPTIDE Chemical compound composed of amino acids held together in a chain by peptide bonds. Long peptides are called polypeptides or proteins. Peptides with two or three amino acids are called, respectively, dipeptides and tripeptides.
PERCEPTION Sensing and interpretation of sensory impressions.
PESTO From the Italian pestare for “to pound” or “to crush,” a purée or sauce that is an emulsion containing oil.
pH Measure of the relative degree of acidity on a scale of 0–14. A pH value of less than 7 indicates an acidic environment, one of 7 is neutral, and one of more than 7 indicates a basic or alkaline environment.
PHASE State of a substance, most commonly solid, liquid, or gas. Glasses and emulsions are more complex phases.
PHOSPHOLIPID Lipid with a phosphate polar head. It is a major component of cell membranes and biological tissues. Phospholipids—for example, from eggs—can function as emulsifiers.
PHYTOHEMAGGLUTININ Toxic substance in plants found—for example, in raw kidney beans.
PIPERINE Organic substance that is responsible for the strong taste in black pepper.
PLASTIC Word for the ability of materials to change shape in response to external pressure, without returning to their original shape when the pressure is removed.
PLASTICIZATION Process that makes substances and mixtures of substances more plastic and easier to deform—for example, in connection with the production of hard candies.
POLARITY Property of a molecule that has electrically charged ends. In contrast to nonpolar molecules, polar ones can form hydrogen bonds—for example, with water—and are, therefore, water soluble.
POLYMER Larger, chained or branched molecules that are composed of many identical or disparate entities (monomers). For example, proteins are polymers, so-called polyamides, made up of amino acids, and polysaccharides are polymers made up of many sugar groups. Polymers can be created via a process of polymerization, where the individual monomers are bound together in a chemical reaction.
POLYSACCHARIDE Sugar consisting of many entities. Polysaccharides function as the energy depots in the cells and as structural elements both in cell walls and in stems and leaves. As opposed to the simple polysaccharides used by plants to store energy—for example, in the form of glycogen and starch—the polysaccharides used by algae as structural elements are more complex and heterogeneous. On the one hand, plants make use of a class of polysaccharides, called pectins, that can be used as thickeners. Algae, on the other hand, make use of polysaccharides that are distinctly their own: alginate, carrageenan, and agar. They compose what are known as soluble dietary fibers, which can absorb water in the stomach and intestines and form gels. Insoluble dietary fibers are also polysaccharides—for example, cellulose. See also carbohydrates.
PONZU Japanese marinade containing soy sauce, dashi, yuzu juice, and possibly a little sake.
PROLINE Amino acid with a sweetish taste.
PROPRIOCEPTOR From the Latin for “to grasp oneself,” a particular receptor found in muscles, joints, and the inner ear, that detects position and patterns of movement. For example, the nerves that are sensitive to movement in the tongue make use of proprioceptors when they examine the food.
PROTEASE Enzyme that can break down proteins.
PROTEIN Polypeptide; that is, a long chain of amino acids held together by peptide bonds. The receptors in the cells that receive signals and identify them—for example, taste and smell—are proteins. Enzymes are a particular class of proteins that act as catalysts for chemical reactions under controlled circumstances. Proteins lose their functionality (denature) and undergo changes to their physical characteristics when they are heated, exposed to salt or acid when cooked, salted, or marinated, or subjected to the action of enzymes when fermented. Smaller peptides and free amino acids—for example, glutamic acid—are formed when proteins are broken down.
PYROLYSIS Chemical breakdown of materials and substances at elevated temperatures in the absence of oxygen.
QUININE Alkaloid, bitter-tasting substance that is extracted from the bark of the cinchona tree.
RANCIDIFICATION Oxidation and enzymatic breakdown of fats, causing an unpleasant odor and taste. Unsaturated fats are especially prone to becoming rancid.
RECEPTOR Protein molecule that has a particular ability to recognize and bind a particular substance—for example, an odor or a taste molecule. Receptors are found in all membranes, especially those of the nerve cells.
RECRYSTALLIZATION Transformation of a substance from one crystal phase to another.
REDUCTION Use of heat to reduce a quantity of liquid—for example, a sauce—to intensify its taste.
REHYDRATION See hydration.
REMONCE Danish pastry filling or topping made from butter, sugar, vanilla, and possibly marzipan.
RÉMOULADE Type of mayonnaise with a variety of finely chopped herbs and sour pickles.
RENNET Liquid containing proteases—that is, enzymes—which can break down the milk protein, casein, into smaller peptides and free amino acids. As it causes milk to coagulate, it is used in cheese making.
RETROGRADATION Crystallization of the starch in a structure that is markedly different from the compact structure of the original grains of starch. Can be observed, for example, in frozen goods that contain starch and in bread that has gone stale.
RETRONASAL Term used to describe the perception of odor or aroma substances that are released in the mouth and make their way up into the nose.
RHEOLOGY Study of the flow properties of liquids.
ROUILLE Sauce that can be thickened with bread crumbs or the crusts of old bread. It is made by mixing olive oil with chile pepper or cayenne, crushed garlic, and saffron, to which the bread crumbs are added and made soft. Often served with fish and shellfish bouillabaisse both to add taste and to thicken the soup.
SACCHARIDE Sugar (carbohydrate) that can be made up of one or more sugar groups—for example, monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
SALEP DONDURMA Especially tough and chewy ice cream of Turkish origin.
SAUCE ESPAGNOLE Classical French sauce made from a brown roux. Used mostly to add color to other gravies. Turns into a demi-glace with the addition of Madeira.
SCHOU, EINAR VIGGO (1836–1925) Danish industrialist and inventor. In 1919, he took out the first patent for an emulsifier; among its uses was in the production of margarine.
SEITAN Mass of concentrated gluten.
SELF-ORGANIZING Spontaneous process in which smaller entities (e.g., molecules and atoms) join up to form larger structures (e.g., a micelle or a membrane).
SEMOLINA Coarse ground yellow wheat meal.
SENBEI Baked or charcoal-grilled Japanese rice cakes (mochi).
SENSORY SCIENCE Science related to sensory perception, especially flavor (taste, smell, texture, mouthfeel and chemesthesis).
SHEAR-THINNING Circumstance under which a complex liquid can flow more freely when shearing forces are applied to the direction of its flow.
SHEPHERD, GORDON M. American neurobiologist who has defined a new branch of science known as neurogastronomy.
SHISO Japanese leaf mint (Perilla frutecens) that comes in a green, a red, and a green/red variety.
SMOKE POINT Temperature at which oil begins to give off smoke, a sign that the fats in the oil have begun to break down.
SODA Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3).
SODIUM ALGINATE Water-soluble sodium salt of alginic acid.
SODIUM CARBONATE Soda (Na2CO3).
SODIUM CHLORIDE Table salt (NaCl).
SODIUM CITRATE Sodium salt of citric acid.
SODIUM HYDROXIDE Lye, caustic soda (NaOH).
SOFT MATERIALS Flexible, bendable, and deformable materials that have the characteristics of both liquids and solids. They are something in between and are often called structured or complex fluids or macromolecular materials. Biological systems, including raw ingredients and food, are for the most part soft materials.
SOFTNESS Expression for the mouthfeel characterized by the ease with which food is deformed by the actions of tongue, teeth, and palate.
SOL Dispersion of solid particles in a liquid. See also suspension.
SOMATOSENSORY SYSTEM From the Greek somato, or “body,” part of the sensory system, where the skin functions as a sensory organ. It involves the conscious perception of temperature, pain, touch, pressure, position, movement, and vibration. Mouthfeel is part of the somato-sensory system
SORBITOL Sugar alcohol that has two-thirds as many calories as sugar and is 60 percent as sweet. Chemically, sorbitol is an isomer of mannitol.
SOUS VIDE From the French for “under vacuum,” term that describes a technique for cooking foods at low temperatures in a tightly sealed plastic pouch.
SPRAY DRYING Dehydration technique. A liquid is blown into a warm air mass, possibly under reduced pressure, causing the water to evaporate and the dried particles to fall like powder snow. The individual particles in the powder are typically 100–300 micrometers in size. This process is often used to produce commercial emulsifiers.
SPRINGINESS Physical expression for the speed with which a material that has been deformed returns to its original shape when the force is removed. In sensory terms, springiness refers to how quickly the food returns to its original shape after pressure—for example, from the tongue—has stopped.
STABILIZER Substance that can stabilize an emulsion, a gel, or a suspension.
STARCH Mixture of the polysaccharides amylose and amylopectin.
STEARIC ACID Saturated fat with eighteen carbon atoms.
STENDER, STEEN Danish physician and researcher who was involved in the discovery of the health hazards posed by transfats.
STICKY Physical expression for how well one material adheres to another or, conversely, how easy it is to pull a material away from the one to which it is adhering. In terms of sensory perception it refers to how easy it is to make the food slide when it sticks to the tongue, cheeks, and especially the palate.
STOCK Bouillon that has been reduced, often seasoned with herbs and spices. A pale stock is made from white meat and vegetables. A dark stock is based on bones, meat, and herbs that have been browned.
STRUCTURED LIQUID See complex fluid.
SUBLIMATION Direct transition from a solid phase to a gas phase.
SUCCULENCE Juiciness. Used especially to describe mostly plant-based foods.
SUCROSE Household sugar, disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose.
SUGAR See inverted sugar; lactose; maltodextrin; maltose; saccharide; sucrose.
SUGAR ALCOHOL Produced by the reduction of the carbonyl groups in a sugar. Glycerol, mannitol, sorbitol, xylitol, and erythritol are sugar alcohols and can be used as sweeteners.
SURFACE TENSION See interfacial tension.
SURIMI Japanese expression that means “minced meat.” Name used, for example, for imitation crab and shrimp meat. Normally made from lean fish and made up of 75 percent water, 15 percent protein, 6.8 percent carbohydrates, and 0.9 percent fats, of which 0.03 percent is cholesterol.
SUSPENSION Dispersion of solid particles in a liquid. If the particles are sufficiently small, typically no more than one micrometer in size, they can remain suspended in the liquid, even though their density is different from that of the liquid. These types of suspensions are also called colloidal solutions.
SYNERESIS Process whereby liquid leaks out of a gel and sits on top of it—for example, from a yogurt or a sauce.
SYNESTHESIA From the Greek for “sensory confusion,” confusion of different sensory impressions so that one type of sensory impression (e.g., the visual perception of the color red) can induce another (imaginary) sensory impression (e.g., a sweet taste).
SZCZESNIAK, ALINA SURMACKA Polish-born American food scientist who has undertaken pioneering research on the texture of food.
TACTILE SENSE Sense of feel that is stimulated by physical effects, such as pressure, touch, stretching and vibrations, pain, and temperature.
TAHINI Thick paste made from ground roasted sesame seeds.
TANNIN Umbrella term for polyphenols, the bitter taste substances found in some red wines, black tea, and smoked products.
TAPIOCA Starch granules made from cassava.
TASTE BUDS Collections of 50 to 150 taste cells closely packed into a structure that resembles the individual cloves of a bulb of garlic and that are located on some of the papillae of the tongue. At the top of the taste buds, the taste cells have small sacs (microvilli) that are grouped much like the opening of a pore. The taste substances must pass through these sacs to be identified by the taste receptors in the membranes of the taste cells.
TASTE CELLS Special nerve cells that can identify the five basic taste substances.
TASTE CENTER Anterior insula of the frontal operculum in the brain.
TASTE THRESHOLD Concentration of a taste substance below which it is not possible to detect the substance.
TEMPEH Fermented soybean product made with fresh soybeans, by adding a fungus culture (Rhizopas oryzae or Rhizopas oligosporus) to soaked, hulled, and partially cooked soybeans. The beans, which are still whole, are placed in a brine and fermented for a few days at around 86°F (30°C). This causes the mycelium from the mold to grow into the beans, knitting them together into a cakelike solid, in which it is still possible to feel the structure of the individual beans.
TEMPURA Japanese expression for deep-fried fish, shellfish, or vegetables. They are breaded with panko, bread crumbs that turn out to be especially crisp and spongy because of the leavening agent that is used in the dough from which they are made.
TENSION Describes the mechanical force (stress) applied to a material so that it deforms.
TEXTURE Textural properties of a food is that group of distinctive physical characteristics that can be felt primarily by touch and that are due to the structural elements of the food. Textural properties are connected to mechanical properties such as deformation, breakdown, and streaming of the food when it is subjected to forces. These mechanical properties, and not the texture per se, can be measured by objective, physical means.
THALAMUS Gray matter lying in the middle part of the brain through which sensory and motor signals pass to and from the cerebral cortex.
THICKENER Substance that can make liquids more viscous and tougher, so that they flow more slowly. There is a sliding transition between a liquid that has been thickened and a true gel, which has the properties of a solid. Thickeners are of great importance for mouthfeel and their use is, therefore, one of the most common culinary techniques for modifying the texture of a dish—for example, gravies. Eggs, starch, and gelling agents can function as thickeners. A sauce can also be thickened by adding fat—for example, butter or cream—to it when it is below the boiling point. This works because the fat in the form of smaller droplets somewhat thickens the sauce, helps to round out its taste, and makes it feel creamier in the mouth. As the fat can bind some of the taste and aroma substances, however, adding too much dilutes the taste of the gravy. Sauces of this type can also be enriched using milk, sour milk products, and cheese.
THIS, HERVÉ French chemistry professor who is considered one of the fathers of molecular gastronomy.
TOKOROTEN Thousand-year-old Japanese dish made with a cooked extract of red alga (
Gelidium amansii) that is cooled and turned into a gel. The gelling agent is agar (
kanten).
TOSAKA-NORI Fine Japanese red alga (Meristotheca papulosa) that has a crisp, crunchy mouthfeel and that is found in green, red, and white varieties.
TRANS FATS Fatty acids with so-called trans-bonds, which makes the fats more solid, even if the fats remains unsaturated. A traditional hard margarine can have up to 20 percent trans fats. The presence of trans fats has been demonstrated to increase the risk of hardening of the arteries and blood clots in the heart. As a consequence, many countries have prohibited the sale of foods containing more than 2 percent industrially produced trans-fatty acids or are in the process of implementing such regulations. Trans fats are found most commonly in deep-fried food and a variety of fast foods, but also occur naturally in smaller quantities (1–5 percent) in other foods—for example, butter, cheeses, and other dairy products, as well as the meat from sheep, where they are formed by bacterial action in the stomach of ruminants.
TRANSGLUTAMINASE Also known as meat glue, an enzyme that catalyzes the formation of a particular bond between a free amine group on one protein and the acyl group on the amino acid glutamine on another protein. This causes them to bind together in such a way that they cannot be broken down by proteases, the enzymes that usually degrade proteins. Transglutamase is used, for instance, for the production of surimi.
TRIGEMINAL NERVE Fifth cranial nerve, which is stimulated by substances that cause irritation (chemesthesis)—for example, capsaicin from chile peppers, isothiocyanate from horseradish, and piperine from black pepper.
TRIGLYCERIDE Hydrophobic fat composed of three fatty acids that are bound to glycerol.
TRIPEPTIDE Three amino acids that are bound together. Some tripeptides are taste substances—for example, glutathione found in liver, scallops, fish sauce, garlic, and yeast extract.
TROPOCOLLAGEN Long protein molecules in connective tissue that in bundles of three are helically wound around one another to make up a collagen fibril. These fibrils are joined together to make collagen fibers, which form connective tissue structures—for example, in muscles.
TRP CHANNELS Transient receptor potential channels, which are special membrane channels that are involved in the transport of sodium, calcium, and magnesium ions. They can register a series of different sensory impressions—for example, hot and cold temperatures, as well as pain.
TSUKEMONO From the Japanese for “something pickled,” brined or fermented foods, especially vegetables, but also stone fruits such as plums and apricots. Some must be eaten within a few days and some will last for several months, particularly if they are salted as well as fermented.
TYROSINE Amino acid that has a bitter taste.
UMAMI Fifth basic taste, made up of two components—a basal part that is attributed to free glutamate and a reinforcing or synergistic part that is attributable to the simultaneous presence of 5′-ribonucleotides, especially inosinate and guanylate.
VACUUM COOKING Technique to cook food under reduced pressure—for example, in a sous vide pouch.
VELOUTÉ Classic French sauce made with a light roux and thickened with egg yolks and cream. Served with white meats such as poultry and veal and with fish.
VISCOELASTICITY Property of a material—for example, a foodstuff—that describes how in some circumstances the food behaves like an elastic or plastic solid and under others like a liquid that can flow. Gels made with water and complex carbohydrates (hydrogels) are a good examples of how this works. Complex mixtures of fats, water, and air can also exhibit viscoelasticity—for example, margarine, baked cakes, ice cream, vegetables, fruits, and some cheeses.
VISCOSITY Measure of the resistance to flow of a fluid or semifluid. Alternatively the capacity of a liquid to resist the movement of another substance through it.
WAKAME Japanese term for the brown macroalga of the genus Undaria. It has a beautiful green color and a sweet and typically umami taste and is best known as an ingredient in almost all types of miso soups. Hiyashi wakame is a seaweed salad with sesame and dill.
WASABI Japanese horseradish (Wasabi japonica).
WHEY PROTEIN Protein containing sulfur found in whey. Used, for example, to make ricotta.
XANTHAN GUM Complex, branched polysaccharide produced by the action of the bacteria Xanthomonas campestris. It is soluble in both cold and warm water, where it serves as a thickener in concentrations as small as 0.1–0.3 percent. Liquids stiffened with xanthan gum exhibit shear thinning, an effect well known from ketchup and dressings.
XYLITOL Sugar alcohol that can sweeten almost as much as ordinary sugar, but contains 33 percent fewer calories. As they dissolve on the tongue, xylitol crystals induce a sensation of cold.
YŌKAN Japanese confectionary or candy made from red adzuki bean paste that is made into a firm gel with the help of sugar and the thickener agar (kanten).
YUBA Skin that forms of the surface of soy milk when it is boiled.
YUZU Small Japanese citrus fruit (Citrus junus) that has a more aromatic taste than a lemon.