Introduction
1. Jane Allhouse, Jean Buzby, David Harvey et al., “International trade and seafood safety,” International Trade and Food Safety AER-828 (2004): 109.
2. Jennifer Fisher Wilson, “Balancing the risks and benefits of fish consumption,” Ann Intern Med 141, no. 2 (December 21, 2004): 977–80.
3. Jonathan Safran Foer, Eating Animals (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2009).
Chapter One
1. Elizabeth Grossman, Chasing Molecules: Poisonous Products, Human Health, and the Promise of Green Chemistry (Washington, DC: Shearwater, 2009).
2. United Nations Environment Programme, “Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants,” 2001, chm.pops.int/Convention/tabid/54/Default.aspx.
3. See note 1 above.
4. Spencer Peterson, John Van Sickle, Alan Herlihy et al., “Mercury concentrations in fish from streams and rivers throughout the western United States,” Environ Sci Technol 41, no. 1 (2007): 58–65.
5. Chad Hammerschmidt and William Fitzerald, “Methylmercury in freshwater fish linked to atmospheric mercury deposition,” Environ Sci Technol 40, no. 24 (2006): 7764–70.
6. W. Fitzgerald, D. Engstrom, R. Mason et al., “The case for atmospheric mercury contamination in remote areas,” Environ Sci Technol 32, no. 1 (1998): 1–7.
7. S. P. Bhavsar et al., “Change in mercury levels in Great Lakes fish between 1970s and 2007,” Environ Sci Technol 44, no. 9 (2010): 3273–9.
8. California Department of Health Services, Research, Education, and Outreach on Fish Contamination in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta and Tributaries, January 2004, ehib.org/papers/NeedsAssessmentDF.pdf.
9. California Environmental Protection Agency Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, OEHHA Issues Updated Fish Advisory for San Francisco Bay, May 23, 2011, oehha.ca.gov/fish/nor_cal/pdf/SFBaypress052311.pdf.
10. US Food and Drug Administration, “Mercury levels in commercial fish and shellfish 1990–2010,” fda.gov/Food/FoodSafety/Product-SpecificInformation/Seafood/FoodbornePathogensContaminants/Methylmercury/
default.htm.
11. S. L. Gerstenberger and J. A. Dellinger, “PCBs, mercury, and organochlorine concentrations in lake trout, walleye, and whitefish from selected tribal fisheries in the Upper Great Lakes region,” Environ Toxicol 17, no. 6 (2002): 513–9.
12. R. F. Pearson et al., “Concentrations, accumulations, and inventories of toxaphene in sediments of the Great Lakes,” Environ Sci Technol 31, no. 12 (1997): 3523–9.
13. California Environmental Protection Agency Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, OEHHA Issues Fish Advisory for Donner Lake, January 27, 2011, oehha.ca.gov/public_info/press/donnerpress012711.pdf.
14. M. S. Evans et al., “Persistent organic pollutants and metals in the freshwater biota of the Canadian Subarctic and Arctic: an overview,” Sci Total Environ 351–2 (December 1, 2005): 94–147.
15. S. Hardell et al., “Levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and three organochlorine pesticides in fish from the Aleutian Islands of Alaska,” PLoS One 5, no. 8 (August 25, 2010): e12396.
16. K. Arisawa et al., “Fish intake, plasma omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/polychlorinated dibenzo-furans and co-planar polychlorinated biphenyls in the blood of the Japanese population,” Int Arch Occup Environ Health 76, no. 3 (April 2003): 205–15.
17. S. Bayen et al., “Persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals in typical seafood consumed in Singapore,” Journal Toxicol Environ Health A 68, no. 3 (February 13, 2005): 151–66.
18. A. Covaci et al., “Levels and distribution of organochlorine pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers in sediments and biota from the Danube Delta, Romania,” Environ Pollut 140, no. 1 (March 2006): 136–49.
19. J. L. Domingo et al., “Human exposure to PBDEs through the diet in Catalonia, Spain: temporal trend. A review of recent literature on dietary PBDE intake,” Toxicology 248, no. 1 (June 3, 2008): 25–32.
20. G. Falco et al., “Exposure to hexachlorobenzene through fish and seafood consumption in Catalonia, Spain,” Sci Total Environ 389, nos. 2–3 (January 25, 2008): 289–95.
21. M. Perugini et al., “Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in marine organisms from the Adriatic Sea, Italy,” Chemosphere 66, no. 10 (January 2007): 1904–10.
22. P. Visciano et al., “Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in farmed rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) processed by traditional flue gas smoking and by liquid smoke flavourings,” Food Chem Toxicol 46, no. 5 (May 2008): 1409–13.
23. P. Visciano et al., “Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in fresh and cold-smoked Atlantic salmon fillets,” J Food Prot 69, no. 5 (May 2006): 1134–8.
24. J. M. Liobet et al., “Exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons through consumption of edible marine species in Catalonia, Spain,” J Food Prot 69, no. 10 (October 2006): 2493–9.
25. L. Duedahl-Olesen et al., “Influence of smoking parameters on the concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Danish smoked fish,” Food Addit Contam Part A 27, no. 9 (September 2010): 1294–305.
26. M. M. Storelli et al., “Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) from the Ionian Sea, Italy,” J Food Prot 64, no. 3 (March 2001): 405–9.
27. See note 15 above.
28. J. E. Hinck et al., “Chemical contaminants, health indicators, and reproductive biomarker responses in fish from rivers in the southeastern United States,” Sci Total Environ 390, nos. 2–3 (February 15, 2008): 538–57.
29. J. E. Hinck et al., “Chemical contaminants, health indicators, and reproductive biomarker responses in fish from the Colorado River and its tributaries,” Sci Total Environ 378, no. 3 (June 1, 2007): 376–402.
30. J. E. Hinck et al., “Widespread occurrence of intersex in black basses (Micropterus spp.) from US rivers, 1995–2004,” Aquat Toxicol 95, no. 1 (October 19, 2009): 60–70.
31. Florida Department of Health, “Fish consumption advisories,” myfloridaeh.com/medicine/fishconsumptionadvisories.
32. Fen Montaigne, “Still waters, the global fish crisis,” National Geographic, April 2007, ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/04/global-fisheries-crisis/montaigne-text.
33. Daniel J. Madigan, Zofia Baumann, and Nicholas S. Fisher, “Pacific bluefin tuna transport Fukushima-derived radionuclides from Japan to California,” P Natal Aca Sci USA, May 29, 2012 (Epub ahead of print).
34. Alicia Chang, “Radioactive bluefin tuna: Japan nuclear plant contaminated fish found off California coast,” Huffington Post, May 28, 2012.
35. Cain Burdeau, “Two years after BP oil spill, sick fish found in gulf,” Associated Press, April 19, 2012.
Chapter Two
1. Jennifer Fisher Wilson, “Balancing the risks and benefits of fish consumption,” Ann Intern Med 141, no. 2 (December 21, 2004): 977–80.
2. B. J. Wallace et al., “Seafood-associated disease outbreaks in New York, 1980–1994,” Am J Prev Med 17, no. 1 (July 1999): 48–54.
3. J. Sumner et al., “A semiquantitative seafood safety risk assessment,” Int J Food Microbiol 77, nos. 1–2 (July 25, 2002): 55–9.
4. J. Y. Ting and A. F. Brown, “Ciguatera poisoning: a global issue with common management problems,” Eur J Emerg Med 8, no. 4 (December 2001): 295–300.
5. E. K. Lipp and J. B. Rose, “The role of seafood in foodborne diseases in the United States of America,” Rev Sci Tech 16, no. 2 (August 1997): 620–40.
6. Roshini Raj, “What the yuck? Mercury poisoning from sushi?” CNN Health, April 8, 2011, thechart.blogs.cnn.com/2011/04/08/what-the-yuck-mercury-poisoning-from-sushi.
7. See note 6 above.
8. L. C. Chien, C. S. Gao, and H. H. Lin, “Hair mercury concentration and fish consumption: risk and perceptions of risk among women of childbearing age,” Environ Res 110, no. 1 (January 2010): 123–9.
9. M. Sakamoto, M. Kubota, X. J. Liu et al., “Maternal and fetal mercury and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids as a risk and benefit of fish consumption to fetus,” Environ Sci Technol 38, no. 14 (July 15, 2001): 3860–3.
10. S. Diez, S. Elgado, and I. Aguilera et al., “Prenatal and early childhood exposure to mercury and methylmercury in Spain, a high-fish-consumer country,” Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 56, no. 3 (April 2009): 615–22.
11. K. A. Bjornberg, M. Vahter, K. P. Grawe et al., “Methylmercury exposure in Swedish women with high fish consumption,” Sci Total Environ 342, nos. 1–3 (April 1, 2005): 45–52.
12. J. T. Salonen et al., “Intake of mercury from fish, lipid peroxidation, and the risk of myocardial infarction and coronary, cardiovascular, and any death in eastern Finnish men,” Circulation 91, no. 3 (February 1, 1995): 645–55.
13. J. K. Virtanen et al., “Mercury, fish oils, and risk of acute coronary events and cardiovascular disease, coronary heart disease, and all-cause mortality in men in eastern Finland,” Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 25, no. 1 (January 2005): 228–33.
14. Marian Burros, “High mercury levels are found in tuna sushi,” New York Times, January 23, 2008.
15. D. H. Phillips, “Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the diet,” Mutat Res 443, nos. 1–2 (July 15, 1999): 139–47.
16. J. M. Liobet, G. Falco, A. Bocio et al., “Exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons through consumption of edible marine species in Catalonia, Spain,” J Food Prot 69, no. 10 (October): 2493–9.
17. P. Visciano, M. Perugini, M. Amoerena et al., “Polycylic aromatic hydrocarbons in fresh and cold-smoked Atlantic salmon fillets,” J Food Prot 69, no. 5 (May 2006): 1134–8.
18. David O. Carpenter, “Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): routes of exposure and effects on human health,” Rev Environ Health 21, no. 1 (January–March 2006): 1–23.
19. S. L. Schantz et al., “Impairments of memory and learning in older adults exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls via consumption of Great Lakes fish,” Environ Health Persp 109, no. 5 (June 2001): 605.
20. N. Codru et al., “Diabetes in relation to serum levels of polychlorinated biphenyls and chlorinated pesticides in adult Native Americans,” Environ Health Persp 115, no. 10 (October 2007): 1442–7.
21. A. Goncharov, “High serum PCBs are associated with elevation of serum lipids and cardiovascular disease in a Native American population,” Environ Res 106, no. 2 (February 2008): 226–39.
22. X. Huang et al., “Consumption advisories from salmon based on risk of cancer and noncancerous health effects,” Environ Res 101, no. 2 (June 2006): 263–74.
23. See note 22 above.
24. A. Bocio, J. M. Llobet, J. L. Domingo et al., “Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in foodstuffs: human exposure through diet,” J Agric Food Chem 51, no. 10 (2003): 3191–5.
25. S. Bayen et al., “Persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals in typical seafoods consumed in Singapore,” J Toxic Env Health A 68, no. 3 (February 13, 2005): 151–66.
26. Kathleen McAuliffe, “There’s something in the water,” Discover, May 2011, 41–6.
27. See note 26 above.
28. See note 26 above.
Chapter Three
1. I. S. Shin et al., “Bactericidal activity of wasabi (Wasabia japonica) against Helicobacter pylori,” Int J Food Microbiol 94, no. 3 (August 1, 2004): 255–61.
2. Marian Burros, “High mercury levels are found in tuna sushi,” New York Times, January 23, 2008.
3. See note 2 above.
4. See note 2 above.
5. “Sushi eaters weigh the health risks,” New York Times, January 23, 2008.
6. J. H. Lowenstein et al., “DNA barcodes reveal species-specific mercury levels in tuna sushi that pose a health risk to consumers,” Biology Letters 6, no. 5 (October 23, 2010): 692–5.
7. See note 6 above.
8. Danny Penman, “Sushi—the raw truth,” Daily Mail, April 4, 2006.
9. See note 8 above.
10. David O. Carpenter et al., “Benefits versus risks associated with consumption of fish and other seafood,” Rev Environ Health 25, no. 3 (2010): 161–91.
11. S. D. Shaw et al., “Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in farmed and wild salmon marketed in the northeastern United States,” Chemosphere 71, no. 8 (April 2008): 1422–31.
12. V. Atanassova, F. Reich, and G. Klein, “Microbiological quality of sushi from sushi bars and retailers,” J Food Prot 71, no. 4 (April 2008): 860–4.
13. J. Barralet, R. Stafford, C. Towner et al., “Outbreak of Salmonella singapore associated with eating sushi,” Commun Dis Intell 28, no. 4 (2004): 527–8.
14. See note 13 above.
15. J. Suzuki et al., “Risk factors for human Anisakis infection and association between the geographic origins of Scomber japonicas and anisakid nematodes,” Int J Food Microbiol 137, no. 1 (January 31, 2010): 88–93.
Chapter Four
1. E. Gray et al., “Latent effects of pesticides and toxic substances on sexual differentiation of rodents,” Toxicol Ind Health 12, nos. 3–4 (May 1996): 515–531.
2. Nicholas D. Kristof, “It’s time to learn from frogs,” New York Times, June 27, 2009.
3. B. W. Brooks et al., “Occurrence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in fish: Results of a national pilot study in the United States,” Environ Toxicol Chem 28, no. 12 (December 2009): 2587–97.
4. S. Sauvé et al., “Distribution of antidepressants and their metabolites in brook trout exposed to municipal wastewaters before and after ozone treatment—evidence of biological effects,” Chemosphere 83, no. 4 (April 2011): 564–71.
5. US Geological Survey, Summary of US Geological Survey Information Related to the Intersex Characteristics of Fish in the Potomac Watershed, accessed February 10, 2012, chesapeake.usgs.gov/feature/fishhealthWWWfeature.pdf.
6. David Fahrenthold, “Male bass across region found to be bearing eggs,” Washington Post, September 6, 2006, A1.
7. Michael Rollins, “A medicine cabinet runs through it,” Portland Oregonian, March 10, 2008.
8. See note 7 above.
9. Z. Zhang and J. Hu, “Effects of p,p’-DDE exposure on gonadal development and gene expression in Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes),” J Environ Sci 20, no. 3 (2008): 347–52.
10. J. G. Vos et al., “Health effects of endocrine-disrupting chemicals on wildlife, with special reference to the European situation,” Crit Rev Toxicol 30, no. 2 (January 2000): 71–133.
11. M. A. Kelly et al., “Investigation of the estrogenic risk to feral male brown trout (Salmo trutta) in the Shannon International River Basin District of Ireland,” Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 73, no. 7 (October 2010): 1658–65.
12. A. Mandich et al., “In vivo exposure of carp to graded concentrations of bisphenol A,” Gen Comp Endocrinol 153, nos. 1–3 (August–September 2007): 15–24.
13. A. P. Scott et al., “Evidence for estrogenic endocrine disruption in an offshore flatfish, the dab (Limanda limando L.),” Marine Environ Res 64, no. 2 (August 2007): 128–48.
14. I. E. Barnhoorn et al., “Intersex in feral indigenous freshwater Oreochromis mossambicus, from various parts in the Luvuvhu River, Limpopo Province, South Africa,” Ectotoxicol Environ Saf 73, no. 7 (October 2010): 1537–42.
15. K. A. Kidd et al., “Collapse of a fish population after exposure to a synthetic estrogen,” P Natl Acad of Sci 104, no. 21 (May 22, 2007): 8897–901.
16. John Roach, “Sex-changing chemicals can wipe out fish, study shows,” National Geographic News, May 21, 2007.
17. B. S. Chesman, “Intersex in the clam Scrobicularia plana: a sign of endocrine disruption in estuaries?” Biological Letters 2, no. 3 (September 22, 2006): 420–2.
18. M. J. Bebianno, “Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons concentrations and biomarker responses in the clam Ruditapes decussatus transplanted in the Ria Formosa Lagoon,” Ecotox Environ Safe 72, no. 7 (October 2009): 1849–60.
19. Randall Fitzgerald, The Hundred Year Lie: How Food and Medicine Are Destroying Your Health (New York: Penguin/Dutton, 2006).
20. Samuel J. Epstein, Toxic Beauty (Dallas: BenBella, 2008).
21. D. Schlenk et al., “In vivo bioassay-guided fractionation of marine sediment extracts from the Southern California Bight for estrogenic activity,” Environ Toxicol Chem 24, no. 11 (November 2005): 2820–6.
22. M. E. Balmer, “Occurrence of some organic UV filters in wastewater, in surface waters, and in fish from Swiss lakes,” Environ Sci Technol 39, no. 4 (February 15, 2005): 953–62.
23. A. M. Vajda et al., “Reproductive disruption in fish downstream from an estrogenic wastewater effluent,” Environ Sci Technol 42, no. 9 (May 1, 2008): 3407–14.
24. C. Staples, U. Friedrich, H. Tilghman et al., “Estimating potential risks to terrestrial invertebrates and plants exposed to bisphenol A in soil amended with activated sludge biosolids,” Environ Toxicol Chem 29, no. 2 (February 2010): 467–75.
25. L. B. Bjerregaard et al., “Sex hormone concentrations and gonad histology in brown trout (Salmo trutta) exposed to 17beta-estradiol and bisphenol A,” Ecotoxicology 17, no. 4 (May 2008): 252–63.
26. A. Lange et al., “Sexual reprogramming and estrogenic sensitization in wild fish exposed to ethinylestradiol,” Environ Sci Technol 43, no. 4 (February 15, 2009): 1219–25.
27. S. Jobling et al., “Predicted exposures to steroid estrogens in UK rivers correlate with widespread sexual disruption in wild fish populations,” Environ Health Perspect 114, supplement 1 (April 2006): 32–9.
28. J. W. Kwon et al., “Determination of 17alpha-ethynylestradiol, carbamazepine, diazepam, simvastatin, and oxybenzone in fish livers,” J AOAC Int 92, no. 1 (January–February 2009): 359–69.
29. J. E. Hinck et al., “Chemical contaminants, health indicators, and reproductive biomarker responses in fish from rivers in the southeastern United States,” Sci Total Environ 390, nos. 2–3 (February 15, 2008): 538–57.
30. J. E. Hinck et al., “Chemical contaminants, health indicators, and reproductive biomarker responses in fish from the Colorado River and its tributaries,” Sci Total Environ 378, no. 3 (June 1, 2007): 378–402.
31. J. C. Fournier et al., “Antidepressant drug effects and depression severity,” J Amer Med Assoc 303, no. 1 (2010): 47–53.
32. B. W. Brooks et al., “Determination of select antidepressants in fish from an effluent-dominated stream,” Environ Toxicol Chem 24, no. 2 (February 2005): 464–9.
33. S. Chu and C. D. Metcalfe, “Analysis of paroxetine, fluoxetine, and norfluoxetine in fish tissues using pressurized liquid extraction, mixed mode solid phase extraction cleanup, and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry,” J Chromatogr A 1163, nos. 1–2 (September 7, 2007): 112–8.
34. See note 3 above.
Chapter Five
1. P. Pietinen et al., “Intake of fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease in a cohort of Finnish men: the alpha-tocopherol, beta-carotene cancer prevention study,” Am J Epidemiol 145, no. 10 (1997): 876–87.
2. L. M. Arterburn et al., “Algal-oil capsules and cooked salmon: nutritionally equivalent sources of docosahexaenoic acid,” J Am Diet Assoc 108, no. 7 (July 2008): 1204–9.
3. K. L. Weaver et al., “The content of favorable and unfavorable polyunsaturated fatty acids found in commonly eaten fish,” J Am Diet Assoc 108, no. 7 (July 2008): 1178–85.
4. “Popular fish, tilapia, contains potentially dangerous fatty acid combination,” Science Daily, July 8, 2008, sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/07/080708092228.htm.
5. See note 3 above.
6. H. L. Woodworth et al., “Dietary fish oil alters T lymphocyte cell populations and exacerbates disease in a mouse model of inflammatory colitis,” Cancer Research 7, no. 20 (October 15, 2010): 7960–9.
7. “Fish oil linked to increased risk of colon cancer in mice,” Science Daily, October 6, 2010, sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/10/101005104342.htm.
8. J. Delarue et al., “Fish oil supplementation reduces stimulation of plasma glucose fluxes during exercise in untrained males,” Brit J Nutr 90 (2003): 777–86.
9. R. A. Gibson et al., “Effect of DHA supplementation during pregnancy on maternal depression and neurodevelopment of young children: a randomized controlled trial,” J Am Med Assoc 304, no. 15 (October 20, 2010): 1675–83.
10. J. F. Quinn et al., “Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation and cognitive decline in Alzheimer’s disease: a randomized trial,” J Amer Med Assoc 304, no. 17 (November 3, 2010): 1903–11.
11. See note 10 above.
12. L. Harbige, “Fatty acids, the immune response, and autoimmunity: a question of n-6 essentiality and the balance between n-6 and n-3,” Lipids 38, no. 4 (2003): 323–41.
13. L. Hooper et al., “Risks and benefits of omega-3 fats for mortality, cardiovascular disease, and cancer: systematic review,” Brit Med J 323 (2006): 752.
14. T. Mori et al., “Omega-3 fatty acids and inflammation,” Cur Atheroscler Rep 6, no. 6 (2004): 461–7.
15. “Women with type 1 diabetes receive no heart benefit from omega 3,” Medical News Today, June 28, 2010, medicalnewstoday.com/articles/193107.php.
16. P. Angerer et al., “Effect of dietary supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids on progression of atherosclerosis in carotid arteries,” Cardiovasc Res 54 (2002): 183–90.
17. C. Von Schacky et al., “The effect of dietary omega-3 fatty acids on coronary atherosclerosis: a randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled trial,” Ann Intern Med 130, no. 7 (April 6, 1999): 554–62.
18. A. Ascherio et al., “Dietary intake of marine n-3 fatty acids, fish intake, and the risk of coronary disease among men,” New Engl J Med 332, no. 15 (April 13, 1995): 977–82.
19. M. L. Burr et al., “Lack of benefit of dietary advice to men with angina: results of a controlled trial,” Eur J Clin Nutr 57, no. 2 (February 2003): 193–200.
20. Brian Peskin, “Warning: fish oil contains no true EFAS—physicians may be unknowingly prescribing the wrong substance to patients causing great harm—PEOS solve this problem,” Explore 19, no. 6 (2010).
21. See note 20 above.
22. Robert Rowen, “Is this the most controversial stance I’ve ever taken?” Second Opinion 21, no. 6 (June 2011).
23. See note 22 above.
24. See note 22 above.
25. S. H. Lee, H. J. Kang, H. J. Lee et al., “Six-week supplementation with chlorella has favorable impact on antioxidant status in Korean male smokers,” Nutrition, August 4, 2009 (Epub ahead of print).
26. M. A. Juarez-Oropeza, D. Mascher, P. V. Torres-Duran et al., “Effects of dietary spirulina on vascular reactivity,” J Med Food 12, no. 1 (February 2009): 15–20.
27. P. Parikh, U. Mani, and U. Iyer, “Role of spirulina in the control of glycemia and lipidemia in type 2 diabetes mellitus,” J Med Food 4, no. 4 (Winter 2001): 193–9.
28. H. J. Park, Y.J. Lee, H. K. Ryu et al., “A randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled study to establish the effects of spirulina in elderly Koreans,” Ann Nutr Metab 53, no. 4 (2008): 322–8.
29. R. Manoukian, M. Citton, P. Huerta et al., “The effects of the blue-green algae A. phanizomenon flos-aquae on human natural killer cells,” IBC Library Series 1911, chapter 3.1 (1998).
30. J. A. Joseph, B. Shukitt-Hale, N. A. Denisova et al., “Long-term dietary strawberry, spinach, or vitamin E supplementation retards the onset of age-related neuronal signal-transduction and cognitive behavioral deficits,” J Neurosci 18, no. 19 (October 1, 1998): 8047–55.
31. M. Sarawat, P. Muthenna, P. Suryanarayana et al., “Dietary sources of aldose reductase inhibitors: prospects for alleviating diabetic complications,” Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 17, no. 4 (2008): 558–65.
32. K. Matsubara, H. Matsumoto, Y. Mizushina et al., “Inhibitory effect of glycolipids from spinach on in vitro and ex vivo angiogenesis,” Oncol Rep 14, no. 1 (July 2005): 157–60.
33. L. C. Tapsell, M. J. Batterham, G. Teuss et al., “Long-term effects of increased dietary polyunsaturated fat from walnuts on metabolic parameters in type II diabetes,” Eur J Clin Nutr 63, no. 8 (August 2009): 1008–15.
34. T. L. Psota, S. K. Gebauer, and P. Kris-Etherton, “Dietary omega-3 fatty acid intake and cardiovascular disease,” Am J Cardiol 98, no. 4A (August 21, 2006): 3i–18i.
35. A. Chisholm, J. Mann, M. Skeaff et al., “A diet rich in walnuts favourably influences plasma fatty acid profile in moderately hyperlipidaemic subjects,” Eur J Clin Nutr 52, no. 1 (January 1998): 12–6.
36. W. E. Hardman and G. Ion, “Suppression of implanted MDA-MB 231 human breast cancer growth in nude mice by dietary walnut,” Nutr Cancer 60, no. 5 (2008): 666–74.
Chapter Six
1. R. A. Hites et al., “Global assessment of organic contaminants in farmed salmon,” Science 303, no. 5655 (January 9, 2004): 226–9.
2. See note 1 above.
3. New York University of Albany, Institute for Health and the Environment, First Global Study Reveals Health Risks of Widely Eaten Farm-Raised Salmon, albany.edu/ihe/salmonstudy/pressrelease.html.
4. See note 3 above.
5. R. L. Naylor, R. J. Goldburg, J. H. Primavera et al., “Effect of aquaculture on world fish supplies,” Nature 405 (June 2000): 1017–24.
6. See note 3 above.
7. See note 5 above.
8. See note 5 above.
9. R. L. Naylor, R. W. Hardy, D. P. Bureau et al., “Feeding aquaculture in an era of finite resources,” P Natl Acad Sci, 106, no. 96 (September 8, 2009): 15103–10.
10. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, “Aquaculture in the United States,” nmfs.noaa.gov/aquaculture/aquaculture_in_us.html.
11. Juliet Eilperin, “Fish farming’s bounty isn’t without barbs,” Washington Post, January 24, 2005.
12. Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture, 2004, fao.org/DOCREP/007/y5600e/y5600e00.htm.
13. D. W. Cole, R. Cole, S. J. Gaydos et al., “Aquaculture: environmental, toxicological, and health issues,” Int J Hyg Environ Heal 212 (2009): 369–77.
14. See note 13 above.
15. J. A. Foran, R. A. Hites, D. O. Carpenter et al., “A survey of metals in tissues of farmed Atlantic and wild Pacific salmon,” Environ Toxicol Chem 23, no. 9 (September 2004): 2108–10.
16. S. D. Shaw, D. Brenner, M. L. Berger et al., “PCBs, PCDD/Fs, and organochlorine pesticides in farmed Atlantic salmon from Maine, eastern Canada, and Norway, and wild salmon from Alaska,” Environ Sci Tech 40, no. 17 (September 1, 2006): 5347–54.
17. See note 13 above.
18. J. A. Foran et al., “Risk-based consumption advice for farmed Atlantic and wild Pacific salmon contaminated with dioxins and dioxin-like compounds,” Environ Health Persp 113, no. 5 (May 2005): 552–6.
19. See note 18 above.
20. See note 18 above.
21. X. Huang et al., “Consumption advisories for salmon based on risk of cancer and noncancer health effects,” Environ Res 101, no. 2 (June 2006): 263–74.
22. See note 21 above.
23. See note 1 above.
24. See note 21 above.
25. See note 18 above.
Chapter Seven
1. Fen Montaigne, “Still waters, the global fish crisis,” National Geographic, April 2007, ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/04/global-fisheries-crisis/montaigne-text.
2. See note 1 above.
3. B. Worm et al., “Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean ecosystem services,” Science 314, no. 5800 (November 3, 2006): 787–90.
4. R. L. Naylor et al., “Effect of aquaculture on world fish supplies,” Nature 405 (June 29, 2000): 1017–24.
5. R. W. Hardy et al., “Feeding aquaculture in an era of finite resources,” P Natal Aca Sci USA 106, no. 96 (September 8, 2009): 15103–10.
6. See note 4 above.
7. Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, The State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture, 2006, fao.org/fishery/sofia/en.
8. See note 5 above.
9. See note 4 above.
10. Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Review of Fisheries and Aquaculture, 2008 ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/011/i0250e/i0250e01.pdf.
11. J. H. Tidwell et al., “Fish as food: aquaculture’s contribution,” EMBO Reports 2, no. 11 (November 15, 2001): 958–63.
12. See note 11 above.
13. Bryan Walsh, “Faster-growing salmon,” Time, November 11, 2010.
14. Henry I. Miller, “Frankenfish fatuity,” The Rationalist, Forbes, March 23, 2011, forbes.com/sites/henrymiller/2011/03/23/frankenfish-fatuity.
15. Tessa Holloway, “The science of bigger salmon,” North Shore News (British Columbia), March 25, 2011, nsnews.com/health/story.html?id=4502286.
16. See note 4 above.
17. See note 4 above.
18. W. M. Muir and R. D. Howard, “Possible ecological risks of transgenic organism release when transgenes affect mating success,” P Natal Aca Sci USA 96 (1999): 13853–6.
19. M. D. Smith et al., “Genetically modified salmon and full impact assessment,” Science 330 (November 19, 2010): 1052–3.
Chapter Eight
1. P. A. Tyler et al., “Man and the last great wilderness: human impact on the deep sea,” PLoS One 6, no. 8 (August 1, 2011): e22588.
2. “Ocean’s fish could disappear by 2050,” Discovery News, May 17, 2010, news.discovery.com/earth/oceans-fish-fishing-industry.html.
3. A. D. Barnosky, N. Matzke, S. Tomiya et al., “Has the earth’s sixth mass extinction already arrived?” Nature 471 (March 3, 2011): 51–7.
4. International Programme on the State of the Ocean, Summary Report: International Earth System Expert Workshop on Ocean Stresses and Impacts, June 21, 2011, stateoftheocean.org/pdfs/1806_IPSOshort.pdf.
5. See note 1 above.
6. See note 1 above.
7. See note 1 above.
8. See note 1 above.
9. See note 1 above.
10. Kathleen Jones, “Giant coral die-off found—gulf spill ‘smoking gun?’ ” National Geographic News, November 5, 2010.
11. Barton Silverman and Michael Wilson, “The last of the lobstermen, chasing a vanishing treasure,” New York Times, August 8, 2011, A12.
12. George Monbiot, “Have jellyfish come to rule the waves?’ The Guardian, July 8, 2011.
13. See note 12 above.
14. Susan Millus, “Be more afraid, young clownfish,” Science News, July 2, 2011, 12.
15. “Fish that triggers hallucinations found off British coast,” The Telegraph, May 13, 2009, telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/5318202/Fish-that-triggers-hallucinations-found-off-British-coast.html.
16. Elizabeth Quill, “A new carp comes to town,” Science News, July 2, 2011, 32.
17. See note 16 above.
18. Environmental Working Group, “On the hook: commercial fishing reaps billions,” March 2009, ewg.org/fishing-subsidies.
19. American Association for the Advancement of Science, “Session 2050: Will there be fish in the ocean?” Feb. 18, 2011, aaas.confex.com/aaas/2011/webprogram/Session 2904.html.
20. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Catch Share Programs, September 2009, noaa.gov/factsheets/new version/catch_shares.pdf.