1Energy

1.1What is energy?

The word “energy” can have the following meanings:

1. The capacity for work that a certain system potentially has.
2. The ability to do physical work.
3. A useful resource for human society.
4. A resource required for physical or mental activity.

In the field of physics, energy generally refers to a quantity of work, as in definition (1). Heat, light, electromagnetic waves, and mass are also forms of energy. Within general usage, definitions (2) and (3) are more commonly used. There are many types of energy resources, and exhaustive energy and renewable energy have often been compared. Recently, a transition from exhaustive energy to renewable energy has begun taking place across the world.

The measurement used for energy in the International System of Units (SI unit) is the joule (J). The electron volt (eV) and kilowatt hour (kWh) are also used in the field of solar cells, as is shown in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1: Unit of energy.

Item	Symbol of quantity
Energy	E
Dimension	kg m2 s−2
Kind	scalar
SI unit	J (Joule)
CGS unit	erg = 10−7 J
MKS system of units	kgf m
Planck unit	Planck energy EP = 1.956× 109 J
Atomic unit	Hartree Eh = 4.360× 10−18 J
Kilo watt hour (kWh)	3.6 MJ
Electron volt (eV)	1.602× 10−19 J

There are many types of energy, including: physical energy, kinetic energy, potential energy, elastic energy, chemical energy, ionization energy, heat energy, light energy, electric energy, acoustic energy, nuclear energy, mass energy and dark energy. Resources that are useful for industry, transportation and human life are generally referred to as “energy resources”, which include oil, coal, natural gas, nuclear power energy, water power, solar heat and so on. Recently, a distinction has been made between energy resources that are exhaustive forms of energy and those that are renewable. A development towards the increased use of renewable energy sources is currently in progress.

1.2Fermions and bosons

An atom consists of a nucleus with positive charge and electrons with negative charge. The nucleus consists of protons with positive charge and electrically neutral neutrons. An electron is believed to be an elementary particle, and measures less than 10−18 m in diameter. Elementary particle is a general term for particles that cannot be further divided. Electrons do not orbit around the nucleus in the usual sense of the word, even though textbook figures often illustrate them as if they did. Electron clouds are stochastically distributed around the nucleus, which contributes to the size of the atom (diameter: ~ 0.2 nm). Electron clouds also exist like waves, which can be observed as a particle when measured. However, it is difficult to define the size of electron clouds. When atoms connect through chemical bonding to form molecules, or they are ionized, the size of atomic clouds change naturally and the size of atoms also becomes different.

The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons, and measures ~ 10−15 m (1 fm) in diameter. Mesons transmit the force of protons at a minute scale. According to the standard model, protons and neutrons consist of up and down quarks, and there are six types of quarks with three stages of generation in nature.

An electron is one of the six particles referred to as leptons. A proton consists of two up quarks and one down quark, and a neutron consists of one up quark and two down quarks, as shown in Fig. 1.1. These quarks are believed to be elementary particles at present, though superstring theory has also been proposed as a further theory. Superstring theory indicates that elementary particles are a certain kind of string, and that quarks and leptons can be formed by the vibration of the strings. This theory is also called the quantum theory of gravity because of its inclusion of gravity.

Fig. 1.1: Structure of atom, proton and neutron.

Fermions are quantum particles with a spin angular momentum of half-integers such as 1/2, 3/2 and 5/2, as listed in Table 1.2. Fermions are guided by the Pauli Exclusion Principle, which indicates that two particles cannot occupy the same quantum state. Fermi-Dirac statistics apply to identical particles with half-integer spins in a system with thermodynamic equilibrium. The particles classified as fermions are quarks and leptons such as electrons, muons and neutrinos.

Table 1.2: Fermions and bosons.

On the other hand, bosons are quantum particles with an integer spin angular momentum, as listed in Table 1.2. A photon is a particle with a spin of 1. Bosons can occupy the same quantum state even in the case of more than one particle in one system. Bose-Einstein statistics apply to identical particles with an integer spin in systems with thermodynamic equilibrium. Examples of bosons include gauge particles, which carry the forces of elementary particles, such as photons, weak bosons and gluons. A graviton is an undiscovered boson with a spin of 2. A Higgs boson, which causes mass in elementary particles is a boson with a spin of 0. Cooper pairs, which are related to the phenomenon of superconductivity, obey Bose-Einstein statistics.

Neutrino is a general name for electrically neutral leptons, and neutrinos come in three flavors: electron neutrinos, muon neutrinos and tau neutrinos, associated with the electron, muon and tau, respectively. Although several quadrillion neutrinos pass through the human body each second, nobody feels them as they pass. Neutrinos almost never interact with matter, and it is quite difficult to observe them.

1.3Important physical constants in the universe

The most important physical constants in our universe are the following:

–Velocityoflightc (3.00 × 108 m s−1)

–Planck constant h (6.63 × 10−34 J s)

–Gravitational constant G (6.67 × 10−11 m3 S−2 kg−1)

The Planck constant is a universal constant at the quantum scale. The energy of light (E) is proportional to the frequency (ν) of light, and the proportionality constant is a Planck constant.

$E=hv$

The velocity of light and the gravitational constant are large-scale constants valid across the universe, while the Planck constant is a constant at an extremely small scale.

1.4Four fundamental forces of nature

–Gravity: The universal gravitation (F) between m1 and m2 at a distance of r is expressed as follows:

$F=G\frac{m_1{m}_2}{r^2}$

Although gravitation interacts at a distance in a similar way to the electromagnetic force, gravitational force is very weak. Stars with high mass density attract and confine light, and can potentially form black holes.

–Electromagnetic force: The electrostatic force (F) between q1 and q2 with a distance of r is expressed by Coulomb’s law as follows:

$F=\frac{1}{4\pi {\epsilon }_0}\frac{q_1{q}_2}{r^2}$

ε0 is a dielectric constant of a vacuum. Magnetic force functions similarly, and gravitational and electromagnetic forces depend on r2. Various forms of energies central to life depend on the electromagnetic force, such as chemical reactions or bioenergy.

–Weak force: The weak force found by Fermi works at the elementary particle scale (10−18 m) and causes radioactive decay such as beta decay, in which a beta-ray (an electron) and an associated neutrino are emitted from an atomic nucleus.

–Strong force: The strong force is about 100 times stronger than electromagnetic force according to the theory of nucleus force and mesons. The interaction range of the strong force extends to about the size of nucleus (10−15 m) and its potential is expressed as follows:

$E^2=c^2{p}^2+m_0^2{c}^4$

Where m is the mass of a meson, a particle has a Compton wavelength (λ = h/mc), and g2/4π is a bonding constant. As expressed by the exponential e−r/λ, the force only acts at a close distance and other repulsive forces also act around the center of the nucleus.

These are the four forces that exist in the universe and their interaction ranges are different, as listed in Table 1.3. The forces interact through the distortion of fields and the exchange of particles. Gravitational and electromagnetic forces act over an infinite range. These four forces can be used in various ways as energy resources.

Table 1.3: The four fundamental forces as gauge bosons.

1.5The mass of light

Particles with an electric charge, such as electrons and protons, absorb or discharge photons and the kinetic energy of the photons is exchanged for the transmission of electromagnetic force. Light is a quantum particle in an electromagnetic field. Its static mass m0 is 0 and its spin is 1. Energy (E) is expressed by hν (ν: frequency), and the direction of the electric field vector is vertical to the direction of the movement of light as a result of m0.

However, light is not actually static, but, rather, moves at the velocity of light. A static mass of zero is an expedient value without any physical meaning, and light has energy as expressed in Eq. (1.1):

$E=\pm {\left(c^2{p}^2+m_0^2{c}^4\right)}^{1/2}$

where c is the velocity of light and p is momentum. E indicates static energy for p = 0, and Eq. (1.1) can be applied to photons and phonons for m0 = 0. This equation has two solutions as expressed in Eq. (1.2).

$E=hv=\frac{hc}{\lambda }$

Here, the minus sign corresponds to an antiparticle or antimatter such as a positron for an electron or an antihydrogen atomfor a hydrogen atom.

The kinetic energy of ordinary light is hν, and the mass of moving light, which interacts with gravity, can be expressed as hν/c2. However, this mass is also an expedient value without a physical meaning, and the mass is generally expressed as E/c2 by using energy.

Light waves detected as particles are photons, and photons transmit electromagnetic force. In the interaction between two objects at a distance, charged particles such as protons and electrons always repeated emit and absorb photons. When the charged particles are close to each other, the force acts through the frequent emission and absorption of photons. Since the photons have no mass, the electromagnetic force acts over an infinite range.

According to the theory of relativity, four-dimensional spacetime is considered as a combination of three-dimensional space and one-dimensional time. What connects spatial coordinates and the axis of time is “information transmitted by photons”. Since the velocity of light is not infinite, it takes some time for photons to reach a certain distance. Therefore, when the photon arrives, the information carried by the photon has already become old.

The energy of photons for a number of photons (N) is expressed by the following equation. Here, λ is the wavelength of light, and P(W) expresses the power of light.

$\begin{array}{l}E=hv=\frac{hc}{\lambda }\\ N=\frac{E}{hv}=\frac{Pt\lambda }{hc}\end{array}$

1.6The materialization of light and antimatter

If the density of the atomic nucleus (~ 1017 kg m−3) is transformed into energy, the energy is calculated to be ~ 1034 J m−3 (1025 J mm−3). When such a very high energy density is obtained, energy can materialize. There are few forms of matter with such huge energy density that exist in our universe. Matter’s density is generally low because the atomic nucleus is surrounded by an electron cloud. However, black holes and neutron stars have densities close to that of an atomic nucleus.

It has been shown that a quantum particle of radiation generates an electron-positron pair from the occurrence of positive and negative electron pairs when high energy cosmic-rays collide with the nucleus inside a cloud chamber [1]. An energy of 2mc2, equivalent to twice the mass of an electron (or positron), is necessary for the pair generation according to Einstein’s equation

$E=m{c}^2$

In this way, it was first demonstrated that light can be transformed into matter.

Electrons and positrons are generated together from high energy photons such as gamma rays, and they revert to photons through pair annihilation when they collide, as shown in Fig. 1.2(a). This indicates the occurrence of probable modulation according to quantum mechanics and energy equivalence with mass for the theory of relativity. In relativistic quantum theory, a vacuum is not an empty space, but rather a space filled with particle pairs in a process of generation and annihilation. Sakharov indicated that a smaller amount of matter in comparison to antimatter could be produced through a small violation of charge parity (CP) symmetry.

Fig. 1.2: The materialization of light and the generation of hydrogen.

Dirac predicted the existence of antimatter theoretically, and Anderson found positron antimatter in 1932 [2]. Positrons have the same weight as electrons, a positive charge, and combine with electrons. An electron and positron pair is formed from high energy light such as gamma rays, and, after pair annihilation, becomes a photon again.

In 1996, researchers at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) succeeded in synthesizing antihydrogen atoms, as shown in Fig. 1.2(b). An antihydrogen atom consists of antiparticles and is the form of antimatter with the simplest structure. Recently, the generation of a large amount of antihydrogen atoms has been reported [3].

On the other hand, Einstein’s finding that matter changes into light is utilized in nuclear reactors. Matter also changes into light in the sun. The nuclear fission of uranium occurs in nuclear reactors, the nuclear fusion of protons occurs in the sun, and in both cases we utilize the huge energies generated.

Theoretically, antimatter is a completely clean energy source [4]. Whenmatter and antimatter annihilate each other, all the mass is transformed into energy (photons). The pair annihilation is 100% efficient, and comparatively more energy can be produced than in nuclear fission and nuclear fusion reactions. Although antimatter could be used as fuel without leaving behind any residue because no reaction products are produced, this is extremely difficult to do in reality. However, it’s possible to consider a method in which a layer resulting from the first reaction blocks the remaining reaction and antimatter is stopped from continuing the reaction, through a phenomenon comparable to the the Leiden frost effect.

1.7Bose-Einstein condensation and freezing light

Usually, at the high temperature that is room temperature, both bosons and fermions behave as classical particles and can be distinguished from each other. Fermions behave claustrophobically, and two fermions cannot occupy identical quantum states in the same location [5]. Electrons, protons and neutrons are fermions. On the other hand, bosons behave gregariously, and bosons of a particular species tend to gather together in identical quantum states if given the opportunity. Photons are bosons. Composite particles such as atoms are also either bosons or fermions. An atom made of an even number of protons, neutrons and electrons is a boson.

When wavelengths of thermal de Brogliewaves increase to the distances between atomic particles at low temperatures, these particles cannot be distinguished, and bosons condense [6]. Bose-Einstein condensation (BEC) is a phenomenon in which the wave functions of Bose particles (bosons) are extended and overlap at very low temperatures, and all bosons have the same quantum state, as shown in Fig. 1.3. Bose-Einstein condensates (BECs) have a huge size of 10 μm, which is almost the same as that of human cells. The probability of occupying the same state for a number of N bosons increases according to the equation (2N/(N+1)).

To freeze light, BEC as a macroscopic quantum phenomenon is necessary. Similarphenomena such as superconductivity and superfluidity have been found, and BEC with ideal Bose gas was first achieved in 1995 [5, 7], Atoms in a gaseous condensate experience a small amount of mutual repulsion or attraction, depending on the species. Importantly, repulsion stabilizes condensates, whereas attraction destabilizes them. Consequently, repulsive atoms form BECs consisting of millions of atoms.

Fig. 1.3: Schematic illustration of BEC.

Other BEC-related systems include lasers, superconductivity, superfluidity and excitons. Since photons (bosons) have characteristics that place them in the same quantum state, laser light is produced by the coherent phase of the photon wave. Superconductivity and superfluidity are phenomena in which electron pairs and helium atoms are Bose-condensed. Excitons are pairs of a hole and an electron which are Bose-condensed. Such phenomena related to quantum coherence have been observed for C60 fullerene [8]. In addition to the BEC, macroscopic quantum coherence has also been achieved by using a superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) [9, 10].

Although producing fermions in the laboratory was difficult originally, most matter around us consists of fermions. To make an equivalent Fermi condensate requires pairing off reluctant fermions so that their combined spin is an integer. A method that makes pairs of them like bosons was discovered in 2003 [11]. Fermi condensation could be related to phenomena that play a role in life [12].

Recently, a method for freezing light was developed [5, 13]. The method is described below. First, Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC) is prepared as the light freezing medium. Before the light pulse reaches the cloud of BEC atoms that will freeze it, all the atoms’ spins are aligned, and a coupling laser beam renders the BEC transparent to the pulse [14]. The BEC atoms greatly slow and compress the pulse, and the atoms’ states change in a wave that accompanies the slow light. When the pulse is fully inside the cloud, the coupling beam is turned off, halting the wave and the light. Then, the light vanishes at zero velocity. Later, the coupling beam is turned on again, regenerating the light pulse and setting the wave and the light back in motion.

The light pulse comes to a grinding halt and turns off. However, the information that was in the light is not lost. That information has already been imprinted on the atoms’ states. When the pulse halts, the imprint is simply frozen in place. The frozen pattern imprinted on the atoms contains all information about the original light pulse. This phenomenon is equivalent to a hologram of the pulse written on the atoms of gas. The hologram is read out by turning the coupling laser on again. The light pulse reappears and sets off in slow motion again, along with the wave of the atoms’ state. It was reported that light could be stored for 1 ms by using the above method [15, 16].

1.8Quantum brain theory and light

Quantum brain theory clarifies the elemental process that brings forth consciousness even at the level of a quantum effect on the basis of the minute structure of brain cells. Theoretically describing the physical elemental processes that take place in the organization of the brain as a macroscopic condensate is unreasonable in quantum mechanics; quantum field theory can handle a specific physics phenomenon in a system with infinite degrees of freedom.

Quantum brain theory was developed to propose a relationship between brain areas in the cranium and their functions by using first principle calculations from quantum field theory [17]. It has now developed into the field of quantum brain dynamics (QBD) [18]. It was theoretically argued that water inside of cells should behave like macroscopic condensates because the ground state of an electric dipole field degenerates infinitely and electric dipoles have a macroscopic quantum state with a size of several tens of microns [17]. It was also theoretically reported that microtubles should be produced from protein molecules, and coherent light (super-radiance) should be radiated [19, 20]. This light could be related to polaritons, which have the characteristics of both light and matter. Based on the Higgs mechanism for a gauge field in the cranium, critical temperature TC is expressed as follows:

$T_c=\frac{2\pi h^2}{m{k}_B}{\left[\frac{n}{\zeta \left(3/2\right)}\right]}^{2/3}$

where quantum fluctuation energy is equal to thermal energy, mass is 13.6 eV, k is the Boltzmann constant, mp is the weight of a photon, n is the particle density, and ζ is the Riemann zeta function. Since the TC increases to room temperature, tunneling (evanescent) photons which are stable at around 300 K (close to human body temperature) appear as BECs [21]. These photons are a macroscopic quantum condensate and quantum particles of an unprogressive wave mode by the tunneling effect, and the momentum becomes an imaginary number. These tunneling photons generated in the brain could be closely related to consciousness. The coherent length ξ = ħ/mpcis calculated to be several tens of microns. According to this theory, these evanescent photons are strongly related to the mind, and the vibration mode measured at the surface of cranium corresponds to brain waves (observed as an electroencephalogram). It has also been reported that the most important preservation site of light is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and that DNA is a source of bio-photon emission [22]. It is believed that the phenomena of light could also be related to both consciousness and life-related phenomena, as described previously [23–25].

The holographic principle is a concept proposed by Gerard’t Hooft, a 1999 Nobel laureate in physics [26, 27]. According to the holographic principle, the universe can be explained as a gigantic hologram. The universe where we live is a 4-dimensional system with time, and all information on time and space in the universe is recorded on a 3-dimensional boundary [28]. relation between information and energy was also indicated from the holographic principle, as the universal entropy boundary (IUEB), expressed as the next equation [29].

$I_{UEB}\le \frac{2\pi ER}{hc\ln 2}$

This is the upper information limit when all energy E is included within the radius R. From eqs. (1.9) and (1.11), mutual transformations betweeninformation, energy and mass are possible. The information projected from a 3-dimensional boundary would be transformed to energy, and a part of it would be materialized as atoms. Presently, the consciousness of a human being can be regarded as a form of information in science, and consciousness aould have energy. The holographic information limit that a certain space can hold might be related with the consciousness [23–25].

1.9The materialization of vacuum

Our universe consists of positive energy. Negative energy is exceedingly unstable, and there are few cases of few negative energy in nature. Negative energy is also called antimatter or antiparticles. These are generated in particle accelerators such as the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), and become light again by combining with matter after an extremely short time. However, negative energy appears throughout the whole universe at a quantum level, and the vacuum is an inexhaustible treasure house for finding negative energy particles.

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle is expressed as follows.

$\Delta t\Delta E\ge \frac{h}{2},\Delta x\Delta p\ge \frac{h}{2}$

X, p, E and t are position, momentum, energy and time, respectively. Wave functions have two components of phase and amplitude, and two conjugate physical quantities cannot be determined simultaneously from the equation. The uncertainty principle indicates that if the time is confirmed, energy information becomes vague. When the time Δt is exceedingly short, the energy ΔE become extremely huge, which results in the materialization of the energy even in a vacuum, as shown in Fig. 1.4 [30].

Fig. 1.4: The materialization of vacuum.

The vacuum experiences fluctuation and vibrations, and has an extremely small energy called zero-point energy in a certain region size L.

$E=\frac{h^2}{8m{L}^2}$

A pair of particle and antiparticle (positive and negative energies) appears at all times from the space of zero-point energy. After a very short time, the particles and antiparticles combine again, and return to the zero-point energy. The time and size are too small to detect negative energy or antiparticles. However, negative energy has been found indirectly by the Casmir effect, where an attractive force from the negative energy acts between two metal plates in a vacuum. The formation of the pair of particle and antiparticle indicates statistical fluctuation for quantum dynamics and the equivalence of energy and mass for theory of relativity. According to relativistic quantum theory, the vacuum is not a space that contains nothing, but rather a space filled with appearing and disappearing pairs of particles and antiparticles.

1.10The energy constitution of the entire universe

In February 2003, NASA announced the observation results of the universe’s temperature and light obtained by the investigation satellite Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP). NASA determined basic data about the universe’s constitution, expansion speed and geometry with a very high accuracy. The energy composition of the entire universe is shown in Fig. 1.5, which was determined with the high accuracy of 5% or less error. The detailed constitution of the universe as far as it is understood is summarized in Table 1.4 [31, 32]. In addition, the geometry of the universe was determined to be flat with a space curvature of 0 [33], and the age of the universe was determined to be 13.7 billion years.

Fig. 1.5: The energy composition of the entire universe.

Table 1.4: The constitution of the universe.

Although the forms of energy in the universe which have been clarified are matter and radiation light, as shown in Table 2.1, these make up only 5% of all the universe’s energy. These correspond to quarks and leptons, and gauge particles transferring the forces are also included. However, dark matter makes up 27 %of the universe’s energy and the particles which compose it are unknown. A further 68% is dark energy that has not been clarified at all. That is, about 95% of the entire universe is composed of unclarified forms of energy. This is the biggest mystery faced by cosmological and particle physics in the 21st century.

Although a leading candidate for hot dark matter in dark matter is neutrinos, the proportion of neutrinos in the universe is very small (0.3%) [32]. It is important to note that cold dark matter occupies about 1/4 of the universe. Although cold dark matter has not yet been identified, several candidates have been considered [32].

The first candidate for cold dark matter is the still unknown elementary particle that supersymmetry theory predicts, the neutralino [34] These are an amalgam of superpartners, photons (which transmit electromagnetic force), Z bosons (which transmit weak nuclear force) and other particle types. The neutralino is very heavy, has zero charge and is unaffected by electromagnetic forces involving light. Since the neutralino has almost no interaction with other matter, it has not yet been detected. When an occasional neutralino hits an atomic nucleus, the unlucky particle will transfer a small amount of its kinetic energy to the nucleus, thereby raising the temperature of the material slightly. At present the search for the neutralino is being continued by researchers worldwide.

The second candidate for dark matter is an axion, predicted as a particle with strong force, whichwas theoretically introduced for charge parity (CP) transfer preservation [35]. However, the axion has also not yet been discovered.

Dark energy was discovered from the observation of supernovae in 1998 [36], and Science reported on it as the most important scientific discovery in 1998 [37]. As part of this discovery, the fact that the expansion of the universe is accelerating was clarified [38] and the energy responsible for this was named dark energy. This dark energy is completely burying all cosmic space with an energy of 4 eV mm−3 [39].

The cosmological constant Einstein predicted is believed to be one of the candidates for dark energy [40, 41]. Quintessence, a cosmological constant with time dependence, has also been proposed [39]. This energy is based on the concept that energy exists in space which had been thought to be a vacuum. This concept is introduced from a basic principle of quantum mechanics combined with special relativity. Empty space without matter and light is actually filled with elementary particles that pop in and out of existence too quickly to be detected directly, which are called ‘virtual particles’. According to the uncertainty principle of quantum theory, all things, even emptiness, are wavering, and the product of time and energy is larger than Planck’s constant. In other words, the generation and disappearance of pair particles with high energy for a short period can occur without contradicting the energy preservation rule. An observed effect that the virtual particles cause on real space is the Casimir effect [39]. If particles with positive or negative energy are controlled, positive or negative energy can be observed. If the dark energy is due to a quantum gravity effect, the energy level would be expected to have the energy density of Planck’s energy. However, the problem posed by the fact that the energy in fact has the smaller value of 123 orders remains unsolved. Although some possible candidates to explain dark energy have been presented in recent years, its essence remains entirely unclarified.

1.11Cosmological constant

As described in the previous section, Einstein’s cosmological term is proposed as a candidate for the dark energy that occupies 73% of the universe. The Einstein equation, which connects the structure of time and space and the gravity of matter is as follows:

$R_{\mu v}-\frac{1}{2}{g}_{\mu v}R+\Lambda g_{\mu v}=\frac{8\pi G}{c^4}{T}_{\mu v}$

Rμν: Ricci tensor showing the distortion of time and space by the metric tensor, gμν: metric tensor prescribing distance of time and space, R: R = gμνRμν, Λ: cosmological constant, G: Newton’s gravity constant, c: velocity of light, Tμν: energy-momentum tensor showing the energy and momentum of matter. This equation prescribes mass, energy, time and space. Based on the general coordinate transformation covariance, scalar and vector (electromagnetic force etc.) quantities are tensors of the 0th and 1st rank, respectively, and the time and space geometry of this equation are expressed by a metric tensor of the second rank.

In this equation, Λgμν is called the cosmological term, referring to negative pressure and antigravity. Matter particles such as gases have positive pressure; the kinetic energy of atoms and radiation pushes outward on the container. However, negative pressure behaves in the opposite way and interaction between atoms overcomes the kinetic energy, which causes the gas to implode. Implosive gas has a negative pressure. Note that the direct effect of negative pressure – implosion – is the opposite of its gravitational effect – repulsion.

A cosmological term in Einstein equation is the cosmological constant Λ, and it has a regular value. Since the cosmological term is not sufficient for a complete description of the accelerating expansion of the universe, the energy of a scalar field (invariable field to space rotation) dependent on time is introduced as a cosmological term dependent on time, which is called quintessence [42]. Quantum field theory predicts quintessence is conceivable as one candidate for dark energy. Although there have been many inquiries into dark energy itself, more detailed research will be necessary in the future.

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