Note: Italicized page numbers indicate a figure on the designated page. Page numbers followed by “n” and another number indicate a numbered endnote on the designated page.
acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), 9, 148, 176n26
active control condition, 119
active control group, 120, 136–137, 142–143, 186n27
adherence to practice, impact on trait mindfulness, 137–138
adverse effects, of mindfulness, 154–156
alpha waves, 19, 24, 56, 72, 130
amygdala, 27, 30, 67–68, 71, 91
anterior cingulate cortex, 28, 30, 41, 46, 61, 67, 82–83, 86–87, 90–92, 101, 165
anterior insula, 28, 30, 41, 47, 61, 67, 82–84, 89
antidepressants, 120, 147, 149
anxiety
mindfulness’s effects on, 15, 142, 146, 149–150, 153–154
state anxiety, 127–128, 134, 135, 160, 161, 164
trait anxiety, 128, 135, 160, 161, 164
attention. See also attention networks; paying attention
brain changes related to, 77, 82
Cahn’s study of, 58
controlling, in meditation, 34
controlling function of, 97
core self and, 63
effects of meditation on controlling, 97–99
effort vs., 104–105
in focused-attention practices, 7, 8, 27, 47–48, 56–57, 59–60
functions of, 96–97
Garrison’s findings on, 43–45
Hasenkamp’s findings on, 40–42, 97
Lindahl’s speculations on, 55
in longer-term vs. shorter-term meditators, 70
MBSR program studies involving, 102–104
meditator’s statements on, 118
mindfulness practice and, 95–116
as neural switch into meditation, 39–40
in nimitta, 56
nonjudgmental, effects of meditation on, 99–102
nonjudgmental attention, 99
noticing and alerting function of, 97
in open-monitoring meditation, 46–48
stability of, meditation’s effects on, 103–104
Stroop task measure, 24–25
sustained, meditation’s effects on, 103–104
sustaining and stabilizing function of, 97
white matter and, 89
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 112–114
attention networks, 17. See also executive control network; salience network
core hubs, 28
cycling between, in meditation, 42
default-mode network coupling with, 29, 42, 70
meditation expertise and, 70
attentional blink task, 99–100, 114, 160, 161
audio meditations, guided, 176n17
auditory perception research, 57–58
Austin, James, 84
autonomic nervous system, 17–18. See also parasympathetic nervous system; sympathetic nervous system
awareness of the body, in space and time, 49–52
Bærentsen, Klaus, 39–40
behavioral therapy techniques, 137
Benson, Herbert, 21
Berkovich-Ohana, Aviva, 50–52, 65
Bierce, Ambrose, 23
blood-oxygenation-level dependent (BOLD) response, 23, 43
changes in awareness of, 35–36, 49–52
global body awareness, 83, 87, 88, 93, 165
heart rate reduction in meditation, 20–21
meditation’s effects on paying attention to, 105–109
perception of, 50
quieting during meditation, 17–20
self-reported body awareness, 107
sense of disembodiment, 36–37, 40, 52, 71, 165
warmth during meditation, 20–22
body movements, 37
body scan meditation, 7, 8, 36, 105, 176n19
body sensations, 49–50
benefits of paying attention to, 90, 109
body scan meditation and, 7, 36, 105
brain activation and, 36, 40, 86–87
disembodiment and, 37
Grant’s study findings, 87
Kang’s study findings, 87
long-term meditators and, 66
mindfulness exercise example, 2–3
mind-meditations and, 40
Tomasino’s map and, 36, 40, 83
borderline personality disorder, 9
Brahm, Ajahn, 54
brain. See also brain activation; brain plasticity; Tomasino’s map; specific brain structures
attention networks, 29–30
changes after mindfulness interventions, 88–90
changes in grey matter, 82–86
changes in white matter, 86–87
cross-sectional studies of, 77–79, 93
default mode network, 28, 28–29
EEG studies, 23, 24, 56–58, 72, 124, 172
executive network, 30
fMRI studies, 23–24
fusiform face area, 27
longitudinal studies of, 78–79, 86, 88–89, 93
phrenology and, 22–23
quantitative differences in meditators, 76–77
reorganization capacity of, 89–90
response to pain, 60–62, 90–92
salience network, 30
studying the influence of meditation on, 77–79
two selves representation in, 63
white matter, 15, 28, 77, 86–87, 89, 91–93
brain activation
challenges in studying, 32
Davidson’s study findings, 124
Fox’s meta-analysis, 79–80, 176n44
Garrison’s study findings, 43
heart practices and, 67
long-term meditator studies, 167
measurement strategies, 25
meditators vs. nonmeditators, 78
open-monitoring meditation and, 47
publication bias in studies of, 80–81
results from changes in, 165
Stroop test and, 25
Tomasino’s meta-analysis, 31–37, 32, 79
brain plasticity, 55, 75–76, 79
brain waves
Brasington, Leigh, 48–49. See also joy hypothesis
breath (breathing; breath rate)
attention networks and, 167
autonomic nervous system and, 17–18
becoming the breath, 35–36
body awareness study and, 105–106
body temperature and, 21
brainstem and, 81
decreasing frequency, 19, 20–21
executive network and, 30
in focused-attention meditation, 7, 8–9, 48
focusing on, in mindfulness, xi, xiv, 6, 9, 18, 35–36, 43, 47, 95, 105
forceful breath technique, 21–22
heart rate synchrony with, 19
MBSR-like program study, 130–131
in open-monitoring techniques, 8–9
pain sensitivity and, 60–62, 181n38
parasympathetic nervous system and, 169
relaxation therapy and, 120, 185n6
returning to, 40–42
rostrolateral prefrontal cortex and, 83
salience network and, 30
Shabad Kriya and, 46
study of frequency, depth, 105
suspension, in Transcendental Meditation®, 20
breath-holding/muscle-tension techniques, 22
Brefczynski- Lewis, Julie, 70, 71
Britton, Willoughby, 10–11, 126, 155, 190–191n30
Broks, Paul, 26
Brotto, Lori, 108–109
Buckner, Randy, 34
Buddhism (Buddhist tradition), xiii, 6–8. See also Zen Buddhism
Büssing, Cysarz, 19
cancer patients, MBSR program for, 148
Capgras syndrome, 27–28
Carter, Olivia, 103
Chade-Meng Tan (Meng), xiv
Charles Bonnet Syndrome, 54
clinical populations, mindfulness’s effects in, 146–149
cognition, meditation’s effects on, 111–112
cognitive-based therapy, 109
Cognitively Based Compassion Training, 8
compassion
measurement of, 133–134
self-compassion, 118, 126, 131, 138–139
studies of, 135
usefulness of, 132–133
Compassion Cultivation Training, 9
compassion meditation, 8, 67–69, 68, 104, 123, 133
compassion training, 8, 123, 133–134, 144, 171, 188n58. See also lojong tradition
complementary intervention, mindfulness as, 148
control groups, active and passive, 120
controlled comparison, 119–120
convergence argument, in research papers, 77–78
core (minimal) self. See also narrative self; self
Berkovich-Ohana study findings, 65
description, 63
meditation and, 65
narrative self vs., 62, 64, 65
correctional settings, mindfulness in, 143
cortex
anterior cingulate, 28, 30, 41, 46, 61, 67, 82–83, 86–87, 90–92, 101, 165
dorsal medial prefrontal, 29
dorsolateral prefrontal, 28, 30
lateral parietal, 28–29
lateral temporal, 29
medial prefrontal, 28, 28–29, 35, 64
posterior cingulate, xiii, 28–29, 41–45, 67, 71, 82, 86, 87, 89
posterior parietal, 28, 30, 52, 83
rostrolateral prefrontal cortex, 83
cortisol, 85, 123, 135–136, 139–140, 160, 161, 191
couples going through mindfulness training, study of, 131–132
cross-sectional studies, 77–79, 93
David- Néel, Alexandra, 21
Davidson, Richie, 124
de Vibe, Michael, 143–144
default-mode network. See also medial prefrontal cortex; posterior cingulate cortex; precuneus
attention network coupling with, 29, 42, 70
core hub of, 28
meditation findings, 34–35, 40–44, 46, 51–52, 67, 71, 85
mind-wandering and, 5, 28, 34–35, 70
minimal-self and, 65
open-monitoring meditation and, 46
Raichle’s discovery of, 28–29
salience network coupling with, 72
subdivisions of, 29
depression
books related to, 1
Britton’s writings on, 10–11
MBCT program for, 126, 145, 148, 149, 163
mindfulness books related to, 1
mindfulness’s effects on, 15, 113, 117, 120, 134, 142, 146–147, 150, 152–154, 156, 168
orbitofrontal cortex, letting go, and, 84
placebo treatment comparison, 162
studies, 160
white matter pathways and, 91–92
The Devil’s Dictionary (Bierce), 23
dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), 9
dictator game, 133–134
disembodiment, 36–37, 40, 52, 71, 165
dopamine system, 48–49
dorsal attention network. See salience network
dorsal medial prefrontal cortex, 29
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, 28, 30
Dor-Ziderman, Yair, 65, 66, 71
dose-response relationship
in attention-regulation, self-regulation, 107
Britton’s sleep quality study, 126
in long-term meditators, 78–79, 87–88, 98, 102, 107, 156
mindfulness as medicine and, 150–152
Pace’s study findings, 123
role in changes in brain structure, 165
short dose-response relationships, 164
Zenner’s study findings, 143
Ekman, Paul, 59–60
electroencephalography (EEG) studies
asymmetry in frontal brain activation, 124
brainwave detection, 24, 56–57
Cahn/Vipassanā meditators, 72
description, 23
findings on nimitta, 56
meditation period vs. mind-wandering, 58
meditation research, 24
emotion regulation
attention networks and, 167
dose-response relationship and, 165
gray matter and, 92
hippocampal role in, 85
interventions for, 142
mindfulness’s effects on, 142, 163–164
open-monitoring meditation and, 47
rumination and, 129–130
studies related to, 129, 135, 139
Tomasino’s map and, 178–179n48
ventromedial cortex role in, 41
emotional stability, 191n5
meditation’s effect on, 164
empathic distress, 132
empathy
compassion training and, 8, 9, 68, 133, 134
frontal gyrus and, 69
meditation/mindfulness’s effects on, 136, 163–163
studies of, 132, 135, 139, 144, 160
temporal parietal junction and, 180n19
Engström, Maria, 68
error-related negativity (ERN), 100–101, 114–115
error-related positivity, 101, 114
executive control network
breath and, 30
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, 28, 30
Grant’s study findings, 87
inferior parietal lobe, 32, 34, 40, 41, 65, 66
as part of attention network, 28
posterior parietal cortex, 28, 30, 52, 83
superior parietal lobe, 32, 34, 36, 82
Farb, Norman, 63–65
feelings, mindfulness of, 9
Ferrarelli, Fabio, 126
Five-Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire, 109, 176n12, 187n45
fMRI. See functional magnetic resonance imaging
focused-attention meditation, 7
Brewer’s study findings, 47
open-monitoring comparison, 47–48
reaction to sounds, noise in, 56–57
forceful breath technique, 21–22
Fox, Kieran
study of gray matter changes, 82–86
study of white matter changes, 86–87
touch sensitivity study, 106–107
Freiberg Mindfulness Inventory, 176n12
frontal gyrus. See also gyrus
superior, 32
frontoparietal network. See executive control network
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 23–24
brain research findings, 24–25
Brewer’s long-term meditator findings, 72
of Charles-Bonnet Syndrome patients, 55
current research limitations, 27
description, 23
Farb’s narrative self study findings, 63–65
Fox’s gray matter studies, 84
Garrison’s quieting the mind study, 43
heart practices findings, 67, 181n57
Lutz’s loving-kindness study findings, 66–67
meditation findings, 32, 34, 43, 63, 72, 84
sensory deprivation findings, 54–55
fusiform face area (FFA), in the brain, 27
fusiform gyrus, 84
Gard, Tim, 61
Garrison, Kathleen, 42–45, 69, 70–71, 169, 179n6
Gilbert, Dan, 4
global body awareness, 83, 87, 88, 93, 165
glucocorticoid hormones, 85
God module, 66
God spot, 66
Goldstein, Joseph, 175n3
Goyal, Madhav, 10, 145–149, 154–155
Grant, Joshua
bodily sensations study, 87
dose-response correlation study, 88
executive control/default network study, 87
salience network study, 87
salience network-pain connection study, 90, 91
gray matter
Fox’s study of changes in, 82–86
IBMT and, 89
Tomasino’s map and, 82–84
gray matter density (gray matter concentration), 76
g–tummo (Tibetan meditation practice), 21–22
gyrus
fusiform, 84
inferior frontal gyrus, 68, 69
inferior temporal, 84
superior frontal gyrus, 32, 52, 68
hallucinations (visual)
in drug experiences, 110
hypnagogic, 54
Kornfield’s study findings, 50, 53
Lindahl’s study findings, 53–56
in nonmeditators, 54
in psychosis, 148–149
on retreats, in long sitting periods, 84, 169
sensory-loss driven, 54–55
as side effect of meditation, 53
simple, 54–55
Wired article on, 180n28
Hasenkamp, Wendy, 40–42, 83, 97
health. See also mental health
meditation/mindfulness’s effects on, 1, 117, 121–125, 152, 154, 159
quality of life studies, 146
heart practices
Brewer, study findings, 68–69
compassion meditation, 67–69, 104, 123, 133
compassion training, 8, 123, 133–134, 144, 171, 188n58
Engström/Söderfeldt, study findings, 68
Lee, study findings, 68
Lutz’s study findings, 67–68
heart rate
autonomic nervous system and, 18, 59
body awarenes, emotional awareness, and, 108
compassion meditation and, 68
reduction during meditation, 18–19, 20–21
stress response and, 85–86
study of meditator’s ability to detect, 106, 184n38
synchrony with breath rate, 19
Henry, David, 137
hippocampus
deactivation in loving-kindness meditation, 68
enlargement in meditators, 84–85
Fox map and, 88
link with spatial navigation, 75, 79
pain sensitivity and, 91
Hölzel, B. K., 87, 88, 178–179n48
Hou, Wai Kai, 139–140
Hougaard, E., 149
HPA (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal) axis, 85
hypnagogic hallucinations, 54
IBMT. See integrative body-mind training
IL-6, 123–124
immune functioning study, 124
inferior temporal gyrus, 84
Insight Meditation, 175n3
Insight Meditation Society (MA), 6
insula
anterior, 28, 30, 41, 47, 61, 67, 82–84, 89
and direct awareness of body sensations, 83, 87, 165
meditation activation, 32, 36, 67–68, 86–87
mid insula, 82
narrative-focus condition and, 64
pain response and, 90
self-of-momentary experience and, 63
integrative body-mind training (IBMT), 89
interpersonal well-being, 131–134
iPhone app study (Killingsworth and Gilbert), 4
Jain, Shamini, 137
Jensen, Christian, 102, 104–105
jhana meditation, 48–49, 54, 67. See also joy hypothesis
joy hypothesis, 48–49
Kabat-Zinn, Jon. See also mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program
definition of mindfulness, 2, 61, 97, 114
insight on mindfulness, 5
“karmic assignment” vision of, 1, 6
meditation-related background, 6
nonjudgmental attention concept, 99
smart marketing moves by, 5, 10
Wilson on work of, 175n3
Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness, 176n12
Khoury, Bassam, 149–151, 154, 190n3
Kirsch, Irving, 137
Kirtan Kriya, 46
Kornfield, Jack, 175n3
findings in interviews with yogis, 36–37, 46, 49–50, 53
Kozhevnikov, Maria, 21
Kriya. See Kirtan Kriya; Shabad Kriya
Kundalini yoga, 46
lateral parietal cortex, 28–29
lateral temporal cortex, 29
Lee, Tatia, 68
Leung, M. K., 88
Levenson, Bob, 59–60
limbic system, 84–85
Lin, Peter, 128–129
Lindahl, Jared, 53–56
living-in-the-moment self. See core (minimal) self
local-global stimuli, 101
longitudinal studies, 78–79, 86, 88–89, 93
long-term meditators. See meditators, experienced
loving-kindness meditation
Brewer’s study findings, 47, 68–69
description, 8–9
Fox’s meta-analysis of, 178n44
Garrison’s study findings, 69
re-energizing property, 170
Lutz, Antoine, 46–47, 67–69, 176n17
MacLean, Katherine, 102
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
in fMRI studies, 23
results produced by, 76
scanner environment description, 26
switching process study, 39–40
magnetoencephalography (MEG)
use in Berkovich-Ohana’s study, 50–52
use in Dor-Ziderman’s study, 65
manipulation of meditative states, 26
mantra meditation, 178–179n48. See also Transcendental Meditation®
effects on mental health, 146, 190n4
mental health and, 190n4
MBCT mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) program
for ADHD, 113
antidepressant comparison, 149
Britton’s sleep study, 126
as complementary intervention, 148
for depression, 9, 126, 145, 148, 149, 163
NCCIH statement on, 155
origin of, 145
post-treatment relapse rate, in depression, 149
MBSR program. See mindfulness-based stress reduction program
McCall, C., 143
medial prefrontal cortex
activation/deactivation, 28–29
as default-mode network component, 29
narrative self and, 64
Tomasino’s map and, 35
unfocused attention, mind-wandering, 28
medical uses of mindfulness. See mindfulness as medicine
meditation. See also meditation, effects of; meditation teachers; meditators, experienced; meditators, inexperienced; meditators vs. nonmeditators; mindfulness; specific types of meditation
attention as neural switch into, 39–40
attention systems, default-mode cycling in, 42
body temperature changes in, 20–22
breath suspension in, 20
consequences of straining in, 45
as controlling attention, 34
depth of, 45–46
as dynamic process, 42
EEG findings, 24
fMRI findings, 32, 34, 43, 63, 72, 84
future research directions, 171–172
hallucinations in, 55–56
helpful feedback mechanisms, 169–170
interpersonal well-being and, 131–134
as a mental gym, 161–162
mind-wandering in, 39
mini-meditations, 40
noise and sounds in, 56–60
parasympathetic effects in, 18–20
as particular experience of the self, 35
personal well-being and, 91, 117, 127
personality and, 130–131
placebo treatment comparison, 162–163
positive side effects, 84, 90–92
practices inspired by Buddhism, 6–8
quieting the body in, 17–20
quieting the mind in, 42–45
reasons for practicing, xiv
reasons for success of, 168–170
research challenges, 25
Sedlmeier’s meta-analysis of psychological effects, 96
sensory deprivation relation to, 55
sitting meditation, 8–9
state manipulation in, 26
Stroop task test of, 98, 100, 183n7
visual experiences in, 49, 53–56
meditation, effects of
on ADHD, 112–114
on controlling attention, 97–99
on coordination between seeing and acting, 107
on depressed mood, 129–130
on emotional stability, 164
on emotional well-being, 127–130
on health, 1, 117, 121–125, 152, 154, 159
increased sensitivity to signs of sexual arousal, 108
on integration between body awareness, emotional awareness, 108
on interpersonal well-being, 131–134
on limits of perception, 102
on mood, 91–92
on nonjudgmental alerting, 99–102
on paying attention to the body, 105–109
on proprioception, 49, 105–109
on rumination, 152–153, 163–164
on sleep quality, 125–126
on stress and health, 121–125
on sustained attention, attentional stability, 103–104
time course of, 163–167
on timekeeping, 109–111
on verbal fluency, 112
on well-being and general quality of life, 127
on working memory, 111
meditation teachers
criticism of mindfulness by, 177n32
on ease of attention in meditation, 45
experience discussions with, 180n20
heart practices recommendations, 68
on mindfulness as a tool, 3
on “monkey mind,” 4
reactions to visual experiences, 54
risk factors discussions with, 135
on storytelling in meditation, 35
warning against evaluating experiences, 45
meditators, experienced, 69–73
attention practices meta-analysis, 70
brain activation studies, 167
Brefczynski- Lewis’s study findings, 70
Brewer’s study findings, 72
Cahn’s study findings, 72
Dor-Ziderman’s study findings, 65–66
dose-response relationship in, 78–79, 87–88, 98, 102, 107, 156
evolving positive effects for, 164–165
forgetting the self by, 66
Garrison’s study of, 70–71
heart/breathing rate synchronization, 19
hippocampal enlargement in, 84–85
Lutz’s study findings, 67–68
Manna’s study findings, 70, 72
meditation carryover in daily life, 71–72
parasympathetic nervous system and, 19
reduced judgmental, evaluative, emotional stance in meditation, 71
researchers preference for, 26
self-descriptions of effects of meditation, 118
sensitivity to inner states by, 71
Short’s study findings, 70
skills development by, 70
study of coordination between seeing, acting, 107
switching process study, 39–40
Tomasino’s study of, 70–71
trend toward disembodiment, selflessness, 71
Wang’s study findings, 46
meditators, inexperienced
heart/breathing rate synchronization, 19
Lutz’s fMRI study findings, 67–68
meditators vs. nonmeditators (comparisons)
anger/retaliation, 134
anxiety, 128
body awareness-emotional awareness integration, 108
brain structure, 25, 72, 76, 77–79, 81, 83, 87, 88, 179n6
breath/breathing, 105–106
compassion, 133
control of actions, 107
ERN effect, 101
immune functioning, 124
ruminations, 130
self-concept, 131
self-confidence, 132
sensitivity to touch, 105–107
sleep, 125
timekeeping, 110–111
working memory, 111
mantra meditation and, 146, 190n4
mindfulness’s effects on, 146–150, 152–154, 163
metta meditation, 8
mind. See also mind-wandering
Buddhist concept of, xiii
in compassion training, 8
connection to the body, 22
in focused-attention meditation, 7, 32
judging aspect of, 3
mindfulness’s impact on, 3–5, 10
networks, 27–30
in open-monitoring meditation, 8
phrenology and, 22
quieting the mind, 42–45
training of, 6
Mindful Attention Awareness Scale, 176n12
mindfulness (mindfulness programs), 8–9. See also meditation; mindfulness as medicine; paying attention; specific programs
attention and, 95–116
awakening-liberation-enlightenment strain of, 166
backlash against, 177n32
brain changes after interventions, 88–90
comparison with nonspecific controls, 146–147
comparison with specific active controls, 147
as complementary intervention, 148
in correctional settings, 143
definitions, xi, 2–3, 61, 95, 97, 114, 175n6
effectiveness for depression, 120
effects on mental health, 146–150, 152–154, 163
evaluation of results, 10–14
future research directions, 171–172
helpful feedback mechanisms, 169–170
long-term effects on mental health, 153–154
as medicine, 146–157
meditator vs. nonmeditator comparison, 111
personal/well-being strain of, 165–166
Pickert’s example of, 2–3
placebo treatment comparison, 162–163
reasons for success of, 138–142, 168–170
in school settings, 142–143
self-reported body awareness study, 107
shortage of findings on, xii
side effects/adverse effects, 154–156
summary of studies on effects, 160
supportive therapy comparison, 154
training, 5–6
well-being and, 117–144
in work settings, 143
mindfulness as medicine, 146–157, 160, 162–163
adverse effects, side effects, 154–156
for anxiety, 15, 142, 146, 149–150, 153–154
for chronic pain patients, 148
in clinical populations, 146–149
for depression, 15, 113, 117, 120, 134, 142, 146–147, 150, 152–154, 156, 168
dose-response relationships, 150–152
for health, 1, 117, 121–125, 152, 154, 159
lasting effects of interventions, 153–154
for mental health issues, 152–153
for negative psychological effects of medical problems, 148
for pain, 15, 145–148, 150, 156, 160, 162
for psychosis, 148–149
for repetitive negative thinking, 153
for rumination, 142, 152–153, 163–164
studies in clinical populations, 146–149
summary of effects, 160
for targeted symptoms, 149–150
time course of effects, 163–167
mindfulness scales, 176n13
mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program
attention-based studies, 102–104, 103–104
Baer’s trait mindfulness study, 140–141
for cancer patients, 148
for chronic pain patients, 148
Farb’s narrative self study and, 62–63
immune functioning study, 124
non-MBSR program comparison, 105
sleep quality study, 125–126
Snippe’s positive/negative mood study, 141
study of coordination between seeing and acting, 107
mind-wandering, 29
Buckner on, 34
default-mode network and, 28, 34–35, 70
EEG recording during, 58
executive network and, 41
habituation and, 58
happiness and, 175n9
Hasenkamp’s findings on, 41, 83, 97
loving-kindness meditation and, 69
in meditation, 39
suppression of, 70
mini-meditations, 40
The Miracle of Mindfulness (Thích Nhầt Hạnh), 175n3
Mirams, Laura, 106–107
Mitchell, John, 112
monkey mind
transition to monk’s mind, 95–116
mood
meditation–brain–behavior effects on, 91–92
mindfulness’s effects on, 146
motion-induced blindness task, 104
Naranjo, José Raúl, 107
narrative self (self-as-story). See also core (minimal) self; self
activation of, 44
Berkovich-Ohana’s study findings, 51, 65
core (minimal) self vs., 62, 64, 65
default-mode network and, 44, 65
Dor-Ziderman study findings, 65
posterior cingulate and, 40, 43, 63
shushing, at onset of meditation, 40
switching off (quieting down), 63–65, 84
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), 117, 154–155
NCCIH. See National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health
networks. See default-mode network; executive control network; salience network
neurophenomenology, 25–26
nimittas (spots of light), 54, 56, 170
nociception (awareness of pain). See pain
noise and sounds, 56–60
focused-attention meditation and, 56–57, 59–60
Levenson/Ekman/Ricard study findings, 59–60
open-monitoring meditation and, 57
open-presence meditation and, 59
startle reflex, 59
Transcendental Meditation® and, 57–58
Vipassanā meditation and, 57
nonjudgmental attention, effects of meditation on, 99–102
nonmeditators. See meditators vs. nonmeditators
nucleus accumbens, 48–49
open-monitoring meditation
attention in, 46–48
awareness of internal body states in, 46–47
Brewer’s study findings, 47
description, 7–8
focused-attention meditation comparison, 47–48
as MBSR program component, 9
pre-/post-retreat study, 183–184n20
reaction to sounds, noise in, 57
orbitofrontal cortex, 84
out-of-body experiences, 49
pain
acceptance and commitment therapy for, 148
emotional, 131
fibromyalgia-related, 125
intercourse-related, 109
Kornfield’s research findings, 49
MBCT and, 145
mindfulness interventions for, 15, 145–148, 150, 156, 160, 162
salience network connection with, 90–91
slow breathing and, 181n38
parahippocampal complex, 29
parasympathetic nervous system
effects in meditation, 18–20
non-REM sleep and, 19
parietal lobe
inferior, 32, 34, 40, 41, 65, 66
passive control group, 120
depth of meditation, 45–46
example of, 2–3
as neural switch into meditation, 39–40
in open-monitoring meditation, 46–48
quieting the mind, 42–45
Tomasino’s map and, 36
PCC. See posterior cingulate cortex
perception
auditory, 57
meditation’s effects on limits of, 102
of pain, 50
of spatial awareness, 52
of time and space, 49–50
personal well-being, 91, 117, 127
personality
meditations effects on, 72, 118, 130–131
negative traits, 130
precuneus and, 35
trait anxiety and, 128
Piet, J., 149
posterior cingulate cortex (PCC)
activation during self-related thinking, 43
activation/deactivation patterns, 28–29
as default-mode network component, 28, 28–29, 43
Garrison’s study findings, 42–45, 169, 179n6
Grant’s study findings, 87
gray matter and, 89
mind-wandering and, 41
storytelling mind and, xiii
Tomasino’s map and, 82
posterior parietal cortex, 28, 30, 52, 83
Praxil, 147
precuneus
activation/deactivation patterns, 28–29, 32, 35
body sensation awareness and, 31, 65
dose-response relationship and, 87
Fox’s gray matter findings, 82–86
Grant’s study findings, 87
long-term meditators and, 66–68
narrative self and, 35, 40, 47, 63, 65, 84, 90, 165
PCC linkage with, 179n7
present moment, 2, 3, 51, 52, 60, 65, 95, 105, 109
Prozac, 147
psychosis, mindfulness for, 148–149
pure consciousness, in Transcendental Meditation®, 20
Raichle, Marcus, 28–29
randomization, 120
relaxation therapy, 120, 185n6
retrosplenial cortex, 29
Ricard, Matthieu, 59–60
right angular gyrus, 36
right orbitofrontal cortex, 84, 165, 182n14
rostrolateral prefrontal cortex, 83
rumination
emotion regulation and, 129–130
interventions for, 142
meditation’s effects on, 152–153, 163–164
mindfulness’s effects on, 142
positive effects on, 187n40
studies on, 135, 139, 140, 141, 160
trait mindfulness and, 152–153, 156–157
well-being and, 138
Rush, Sarah, 121–122
salience network. See also anterior cingulate cortex; anterior insula
brain morphology changes, 88, 165, 167
default-mode networks coupling with, 42, 70
Hölzel’s study of, 87
meditation expertise and, 70
pain connection with, 90–91
Theravāda meditation and, 47
Salzberg, Sharon, 175n3
Schmidt, Stefan, 107
school settings, mindfulness in, 142–143
Schwartz, Jacqueline, 175n3
scientific research, 10–14
Benson/Tibetan yogis, 21
cherrypicking results, 11
evaluating results, 12–14
Search Inside Yourself (Meng), xiv
Sears, S., 118
Sedlmeier, Peter, 96, 127, 131, 133
Segal, Zindel, 9
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), 147, 190n6
self, 62–67. See also core (minimal) self; narrative self
Berkovich-Ohana’s study findings, 51
completely forgetting, 17, 65–67
defined, 62
Kornfield’s interview findings, 36
meditation as particular experience of, 35
Tomasino’s map and, 62
self-as-story. See narrative self
self-awareness, change in, 138
self-less experience (kenshō or satori), 66
selflessness, 71
self-of-momentary-awareness, 62, 63
self-perceived stress, 91, 121, 134–136, 139–140, 160, 161, 165
self-referential networks, 35, 65
self-regulation, change in, 138
self-transcendence, increase in, 138
sensory deprivation, 55–56, 180n28
sensory-loss driven hallucinations, 54–55
Serretti, Alessandro, 121–122, 148
Seung Sahn, 6
sexual abuse, 109
Shabad Kriya, 46
Sharma, Manoj, 121–122
side effects, of mindfulness, 154–156
Singer, Tania, 134
Singleton, Omar, 91
Slagter, Helen, 99–100
sleep quality, meditation’s effects on, 125–126
Söderfeldt, Birgitta, 68
somatic experiences, 49–50
somatosensory cortex, 47, 61, 64
startle reflex, 59
startle-type task, 100
state anxiety, 127–128, 134, 135, 160, 161, 164
stress
meditation/mindfulness’s effects on, 121–125, 143–144, 146
self-perceived, 91, 121, 134–136, 139–140, 160, 161, 165
Stress Reduction Clinic, University of Massachusetts Medical Center, 145
stress response, 85–86, 92, 95, 140
Stroop task test
attention measurement by, 24–25, 31, 97
meditation findings, 98, 100, 183n7
reasons for use of, 97–98
studies/findings involving use of, 98–99
substance abuse, mindfulness’s effects on, 146
superior longitudinal fasciculus, 86, 89
supplementary motor area, 32, 37, 40, 71, 165
supportive therapy, 154, 190n24
supramarginal gyrus, 32, 36, 82, 83, 87, 165
switching process, 40–41
sympathetic nervous system, 18, 85
systematic desensitization, 137
Sze, Jocelyn, 108
teachers. See meditation teachers
Teasdale, John, 9
temporal parietal junction, 29, 40, 52, 67, 180n19
temporal pole, 29
test anxiety, mindfulness’s effects on, 142
Theravāda tradition, 6, 47, 54, 176n15
Thích Nhầt Hạnh, 175n3
thoughts, mindfulness of, 9
Tibetan Buddhism, 68, 103, 132. See also g–tummo; Vipassanā meditation
Tibetan Dzogchen tradition, 54
Tibetan meditation. See g–tummo
timekeeping, meditation’s effects on, 109–111, 184n47
Tomasino, Antonietta, 31, 70–71, 79, 178–179n48
Tomasino’s map, 30–37, 39–40, 44, 47, 49, 62, 70–71, 79, 81–82
activated brain areas, 31–32, 32, 34–37, 44, 178–179n48
attention, body, self themes, 37
changes in body awareness and, 35–36
deactivated brain areas, 31, 32, 34–36, 40
gray matter and, 82–84
meditating brain meta-analysis, 30–37
particular experience of the self and, 35
right angular gyrus, 36
the self and, 62
self-referential networks, 35, 65
supplementary motor area, 32, 37, 40, 71, 165
supramarginal gyrus, 32, 36, 82, 83, 87, 165
Toronto Mindfulness Scale, 187n48
touch sensitivity study, 106–107
tractography, mapping of white matter, 77
training mindfulness, 5–6
trait anxiety, 128, 135, 160, 161, 164
trait mindfulness
adherence to practice and, 138
defined, 5
error-related positivity and, 114
impact of half-day retreat on, 137–138
MBSR and, 15
meditators vs. nonmeditators, 130
mindful practice and, 143
as a one-dimensional concept, 187n45
as predictor of well-being, 138
pre-/post-meditation study, 109
psychologists definition, 5
role in depression, rumination, 152–153
role in meditation, 138–142
trait, defined, 176n11
well-being and, 140
Transcendental Meditation®, 96, 127, 166
auditory perception research, 57–58
breath suspension during, 20
mental health and, 190n4
Valentine, Elizabeth, 101, 104
van Vugt, Marieke, 99–100
ventral medial prefrontal cortex, 29, 35
verbal fluency, meditation’s effects on, 112
verbal GRE score, meditation’s effects on, 112
Vipassanā meditation, xv, 79–80, 166, 175n3
Berkovich-Ohana study findings, 50–52
Dor-Ziderman’s findings, 65–67
reaction to sound, noise in, 57
van Vugt/Slagter’s findings, 99–100
Zen comparison, 82
visual experiences, 49, 53–56. See also hallucinations (visual)
Lindahl’s study findings, 54–56
in Theravāda tradition, 54
types of, 54
in walking meditation, 53
visualization, 21–22
Wang, Danny, 46
well-being
brain changes and, 92
emotional aspects of, 127–130
interpersonal, 131–134
methods of studying mindfulness’s effects on, 118–121
mindfulness and, 117–144
mindfulness-related studies on, 135
resistance to stress and, 121–124
rumination and, 130
sleep quality and, 125
trait mindfulness as predictor of, 138
Wherever You Go, There You Are (Kabat-Zinn), 2
white matter
brain activation and, 15
defined, 77
depression and, 91–92
Fox’s study of changes in, 86–87, 89
future research directions, 93
MBSR-like programs and, 91–92
reasons for investigating, 28
tractography mapping of, 77
Williams, Mark, 9
Wilson, J., 175n3
Woodrow, Herbert, 110
work settings, mindfulness in, 143
working memory, meditation’s effects on, 111
Zeidan, Fadel, 61
Zen Buddhism
attention study, 100
invocation on living beings, xiii
“just sitting” practice, 7
Kabat-Zinn’s background in, 6
salience network-pain connection study, 90
self-less experience in, 66
thanking of “ancestors” in, xv
Vipassanā comparison, 82
Zoloft, 147