The epigraph for this chapter is from Jane Jacobs, letter to Grady Clay, Mar. 3, 1959, courtesy of Grady Clay.
1. William H. Whyte Jr., “Preface: C. D. Jackson Meets Jane Jacobs,” in The Exploding Metropolis (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), xv. Two of Jacobs’s four New York “working districts” essays and Jacobs’s first book, Constitutional Chaff: Rejected Suggestions of the Constitutional Convention of 1787, with Explanatory Argument (New York: Columbia University Press, 1941), were “lost” and not incorporated into Jacobs’s historiography until 2007. See Peter L. Laurence, “Jane Jacobs Before Death and Life,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians (Mar. 2007), 5–15. The anthology mentioned is Max Allen, ed., Ideas That Matter: The Worlds of Jane Jacobs (Owen Sound, Ontario: Ginger, 1997). Although Jacobs’s work before the late 1950s receives only a few pages, ITM is a valuable collection of primary and secondary sources; it was coedited by Mary Rowe with Jacobs’s assistance around the time that Jacobs established her archive at Boston College.
2. Douglas Haskell, memo to Jane Jacobs, Jul. 2, 1959 (Haskell Papers, 79:6).
3. Jacobs, letter to Clay, Mar. 3, 1959.
4. The first headline is from the Saturday Evening Post (Oct. 14, 1961); the second is from Harper’s (Nov. 4, 1961).
5. Peter L. Laurence, “Contradictions and Complexities: Jane Jacobs’ and Robert Venturi’s Complexity Theories,” Journal of Architectural Education (Feb. 2006), 49–60.
6. A complete bibliography of writing about Jacobs, Death and Life, and her other books would include many thousands of citations. However, important books and edited collections include Marshall Berman, All That Is Solid Melts into Air: The Experience of Modernity (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982); James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999); Alice Alexiou Sparberg, Jane Jacobs: Urban Visionary (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2006); Tim Mennel, Block by Block: Jane Jacobs and the Future of New York (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2007); Glenna Lang, Genius of Common Sense: Jane Jacobs and the Story of “The Death and Life of Great American Cities” (Boston: David R. Godine, 2009); Anthony Flint, Wrestling with Moses: How Jane Jacobs Took on New York’s Master Builder and Transformed the American City (New York: Random House, 2009); Stephen Goldsmith and Lynne Elizabeth, What We See: Advancing the Observations of Jane Jacobs (New York: New Village, 2010); Roberta Brandes Gratz, The Battle for Gotham: New York in the Shadow of Robert Moses and Jane Jacobs (New York: Nation, 2010); Samuel Zipp, Manhattan Projects: The Rise and Fall of Urban Renewal in Cold War New York (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010); Christopher Klemek, The Transatlantic Collapse of Urban Renewal: Postwar Urbanism from New York to Berlin (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011); Tim Mennel and Max Page, Reconsidering Jane Jacobs (Chicago: Planners Press, 2011); Sonia Hirt and Diane Zahm, The Urban Wisdom of Jane Jacobs (New York: Routledge, 2012); and Dirk Schubert, Contemporary Perspectives on Jane Jacobs: Reassessing the Impacts of an Urban Visionary (Surrey, UK: Ashgate, 2014). I was also a contributor to Reconsidering Jane Jacobs; see Peter L. Laurence, “The Unknown Jane Jacobs: Geographer, Propagandist, City Planning Idealist,” 15–36, which outlines some of the ideas described here.
7. Lewis Mumford, “Mother Jacobs’ Home Remedies,” NY 38 (Dec. 1, 1962), 149; D&L, 51.
8. D&L, 3, 371, 435 (emphasis in the original).
9. Peter L. Laurence, “The Death and Life of Urban Design: Jane Jacobs, the Rockefeller Foundation and the New Research in Urbanism, 1955–65,” Journal of Urban Design (Jun. 2006), 145–72.
The epigraph for this chapter is from Jane Butzner, “Flowers Come to Town,” Vogue (Feb. 15, 1937), 113–14.
1. Death and Life was also dedicated to her husband, Bob; her sons, Jim and Ned; and her daughter, Mary.
2. D&L, 348, 376.
3. Bonnie Yochelson, Berenice Abbott: Changing New York, the Complete WPA Project (New York: New Press/Museum of the City of New York, 1997), 85. I learned of Jacobs’s friendship with Abbott from a family member. After being introduced by their mutual friend Leticia Kent, the Jacobses visited Abbott in Maine during the summers.
4. “New York of the Future: A Titan City,” NYT (Nov. 2, 1924), XX7.
5. E. B. White, Here Is New York (New York: Harper and Bros., 1949), 9.
6. Regional Plan Committee, The Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs, vol. 1 (Philadelphia: Wm. Fell Printers, 1929), 111–12; vol. 2, 581, 583. Le Corbusier’s The City of To-Morrow and Its Planning (Mineola, NY: Dover, 1987) was originally published as Urbanisme in 1925 and first published in English (in New York) in 1929.
7. The phrase “the pathology of public housing” comes from Richard Plunz, A History of Housing in New York City (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), 247, but Jacobs, citing Herbert Gans, used the term “pathological” to describe flawed housing projects in Death and Life (272). See also Max Page, The Creative Destruction of Manhattan, 1900—1940 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 69–109.
8. D&L, 271.
9. Jacobs, letter to Ms. Talmey, Nov. 22, 1961 (Jacobs Papers, 13:12), 1. A slightly different version of Jacobs’s autobiographical account in this letter is republished in ITM, 3. For Jacobs on Scranton and the Depression, see DAA, 54.
10. James Howard Kunstler, interview with Jane Jacobs, Sept. 6, 2000, Metropolis (Mar. 2001), accessed Oct. 24, 2007, http://www.kunstler.com/mags_jacobs2.htm.
11. Jacobs, letter to Talmey, 1; Jane Butzner Jacobs, applications for federal employment, Nov. 27, 1943, Oct. 26, 1946, and Sept. 8, 1949, CPR. See also DAA, 53.
12. CWN, 124–25.
13. “It Happened in Brooklyn,” oral history, Jul. 12, 2000 (Jacobs Papers, 1:1).
14. Civil Service Commission application, Jan. 5, 1950 (NPRC), 2.
15. Jane Butzner Jacobs, application for federal employment, Sept. 8, 1949, Attachment H, CPR. Before he became a writer, Hemphill was an inventor, the creator of equipment used in commercial ice plants, and a former utilities company executive in South Carolina. See “Robert Herman Hemphill” obituary (NYT, Apr. 24, 1941), 21. Hemphill is cited in “Ask Central Bank, No Interest Bonds; Sixteen Groups in National Monetary Conference Adopt Inflation Program,” NYT (Jan. 17, 1935), 4.
16. Jacobs, application, Sept. 8, 1949, attachments F and G.
17. Le Corbusier, When Cathedrals Were White (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), 55. Cathedrals was originally published in 1937 and translated into English in 1947. See also Mardges Bacon, Le Corbusier in America (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001), 52. Jacobs admired Rockefeller Center, where she worked from 1952 to 1961, for the way it worked with the existing city block structure. In D&L, she referred to it on some six occasions (cf. 89, 104, 110, 181, 386, 439) and opined that “none of today’s pallid imitations of Rockefeller Center is as good as the original” (439). See also D&L, 377.
18. Kunstler, interview; Henry I. Brock, “Le Corbusier Scans Gotham’s Towers; the French Architect, on a Tour, Finds the City Violently Alive, a Wilderness of Experiment Toward a New Order,” NYT (Nov. 3, 1935), SM10, 32; Le Corbusier, “The Street,” in Le Corbusier, Oeuvre complète, Vol. 1, 1910–29 (Boston: Birkhäuser, 1995), 112, 118. See also Le Corbusier, Cathedrals, 40; Bacon, Le Corbusier in America, 158.
19. Rockefeller Foundation, 1958 Annual Report (New York: Rockefeller Foundation, 1958), 291; D&L, 376, 377; Jonathan Karp, “Jane Jacobs Doesn’t Live Here Anymore,” ITM, 15.
20. Jane Butzner, “Where the Fur Flies,” Vogue (Nov. 15, 1935), 103; “Leather Shocking Tales,” Vogue (Mar. 1, 1936), 139; “Diamonds in the Tough,” Vogue (Oct. 15, 1936), 154; “Flowers Come to Town,” 113–14. “Flowers” and “Diamonds” were reprinted in ITM, 35–37; I found the missing “Fur” and “Leather” essays in 2005 in microfilms of the magazine.
21. EOC, 11.
22. “Leather,” 139.
23. “Diamonds,” 154.
24. Le Corbusier, Cathedrals, 34; “Fur,” 103.
25. D&L, 376.
26. Caroline F. Ware, Greenwich Village, 1920–1930: A Comment on American Civilization in the Post-War Years (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1935), 124.
27. Christian Science Monitor, Aug. 29, 1927, quoted in Ware, Greenwich Village, 21; D&L, ch. 15, “Unslumming and Slumming,” and 271, 290.
28. Jan Seidler Ramirez, “Greenwich Village,” in The Encyclopedia of New York City, ed. Kenneth T. Jackson (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995), 508. The reference here is to Richard Florida’s Jacobs-inspired “creative class” theory and book The Rise of the Creative Class (New York: Basic Books, 2002).
29. Federal Writers’ Project of the Works Progress Administration in New York City (1939), The WPA Guide to New York City (New York: Pantheon, 1982), 126; Eric Homberger, The Historical Atlas of New York City (New York: Henry Holt, 2005), 134; Ramirez, “Greenwich Village”; D&L, 275.
30. D&L, 273.
31. Ibid., 273, 290.
32. Ibid., 274. See also Joel Schwartz, The New York Approach: Robert Moses, Urban Liberals, and Redevelopment of the Inner City (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1993), 26.
33. Homberger, Historical Atlas, 84; Plunz, History of Housing, 9–10; Henry James, quoted in Peter Hall’s Cities of Tomorrow: An Intellectual History of Urban Planning and Design in the Twentieth Century, 3rd ed. (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2002), 36. See also Kenneth Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); John Stilgoe, Borderland: Origins of the American Suburb, 1820–1939 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988); and Robert Bruegmann, Sprawl: A Compact History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005).
34. “Slumming in This Town; a Fashionable London Mania Reaches New-York; Slumming Parties to Be the Rage This Winter; Good Districts to Visit,” NYT (Sept. 14, 1884), 4.
35. Homberger, Historical Atlas, 110. See also NYC Department of City Planning, Population Division, “New York City Total and Foreign-Born Population, 1790–2000”; “A Plea for More Parks; Reasons Why We Should Have Them and Cheap Fares on the Elevated,” NYT (Nov. 27, 1891), 5.
36. “Mulberry Bend as a Park; Property Owners Want the City to Pay the Whole Cost,” NYT (Jan. 21, 1893), 9. See also Plunz, History of Housing, 52, 73–78, and Page, Creative Destruction, 2–5.
37. “Queer Foreign Quarter; Mulberry Bend Park and Its Curious Inhabitants; Glimpse of Italy in the Midst of New-York; Language, Manners, Dress and Customs All Strange; Transformation of a Wretched Quarter; Chinamen Near By in Pell and Mott Streets; What Trees and Grass Mean to These People,” NYT (Jul. 12, 1896), 32; “Plea for More Parks,” 5. See also Ebenezer Howard, To-Morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform, ed. Peter Hall, Dennis Hardy, and Colin Ward (New York: Routledge, 2003), 157–58, 163.
38. Schwartz, New York Approach, 26.
39. Stewart Chase, “A Suburban Garden City for the Motor Age,” NYT (Jun. 24, 1928), XX4; “City Planning Aid Asked of Realtors; John Nolen of Mass. Commission Urges National Association to Research; ‘Super Block’ City Viewed,” NYT (Jun. 28, 1929), 15; Regional Plan Committee, Regional Plan of New York, vol. 2: 5, 219. See also Clarence Stein, Toward New Towns for America (1951; Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989), 21. In D&L, Jacobs described Radburn and other Greenbelt towns as “incomplete modifications” of Howard’s “Garden City.” See Le Corbusier, “What Is the Problem of America?,” in Oeuvre complète, 1934–1938, 2nd ed., trans. A. Dakin (Zurich: Les Editions d’Architecture, 1947), 66–67; Lewis Mumford, The Culture of Cities (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1938), 459.
40. D&L, 287, 406.
41. Bacon, Le Corbusier in America, 160–61.
42. “First Houses Open, Roosevelt Hails New Slum Policy; East Side Block Thronged for Dedication of the City’s Low-Rent Project; First Step, Officials Say,” NYT (Dec. 4, 1935), 16.
43. Ibid. See also Plunz, History of Housing, 210.
44. Lee E. Cooper, “City Speeds Work on Three Public Housing Projects; First City Houses Ready for Opening; Families from the East Side Slums Soon to Occupy Modern Suites,” NYT (Nov. 24, 1935), RE1.
45. “First Houses Assailed; Kings Associated Builders See Extravagance in Project,” NYT (Dec. 19, 1935), 8; Charles Abrams, “Letter to the Editor: Mr. Moses on Housing; Commissioner’s Views on Federal Program Meet with Criticism,” NYT (Jul. 1, 1936), 24; “First Houses Cost Held $10,000 A Room; Total Expenditure $1,155,649, Against $328,621 Estimated, Survey Discloses,” NYT (Sept. 25, 1936), 25; Robert Moses, “Slums and City Planning,” Atlantic (Jan. 1, 1945), n.p. (accessed online).
46. Roland Wood, “Vast Housing Plan Envisaged for City; Post Sees First Houses as Proving Ground for Program to Provide Homes for 500,000 Families,” NYT (Dec. 8, 1935), E10. See also Christopher Mele, Selling the Lower East Side: Culture, Real Estate, and Resistance in New York (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000), 110.
47. Rem Koolhaas, Delirious New York: A Retroactive Manifesto for Manhattan (New York: Monacelli, 1994), 10. Written in 1978, a low point for New York City, Koolhaas’s argument for “Manhattanism,” and its pro-urban, hyper-dense “culture of congestion,” came more than two decades after Jacobs’s similar arguments about the virtues of congestion (discussed later), but it marked an important generational shift toward urbanism in architecture culture. See also Robert A. M. Stern, Gregory Gilmartin, and Thomas Mellins, New York 1930: Architecture and Urbanism Between the Two World Wars (New York: Rizzoli, 1987), 439–40.
48. “Great White Plague in City’s Tenements; Report of the Charity Organization Society’s Committee,” NYT (Feb. 7, 1904), 11; Henry J. Rosner, “The RFC Subsidizes Fred F. French,” Nation 136 (Apr. 19, 1933), 438; “Asking Aid of the RFC,” NYT (Feb. 8, 1933), 18; Stern et al., New York 1930, 418.
49. Rosner, “RFC Subsidizes Fred F. French,” 438; U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, “HUD Historical Background,” www.hud.gov/offices/adm/about/ admguide/history.cfm, accessed Mar. 26, 2007. See also Richard Pommer, “The Architecture of Urban Housing in the United States During the Early 1930s,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 37 (Dec. 1978), 235.
50. Robert Moses, letter to Dorothy Pratt, Apr. 17, 1933 (Haskell Papers, 34:9).
51. Plunz, History of Housing, 139, 210.
52. Douglas Haskell, “New Mayland,” Nation 134 (Mar. 9, 1932), 292.
53. “Backs Housing Plan for Chrystie Area,” NYT (Mar. 3, 1932), 21; Stern et al., New York 1930, 443.
54. “File a New Plan for Slum Housing,” NYT (Jul. 30, 1933), 126; “East River Housing Favored by O’Brien,” NYT (Jul. 13, 1933), 21; Le Corbusier, City of To-Morrow, 173, 184, 288.
55. “Rutgerstown,” NYT (Aug. 1, 1933), 16; Plunz, History of Housing, 190–91.
56. “East Side Housing Not for the Poor,” NYT (Jul. 8, 1933), 13.
57. “Ickes Bars Loans to Two Projects Here for Lack of Funds,” NYT (Jun. 13, 1934), 1; “War on Slums Proceeds Steadily,” NYT (Jun. 17, 1934), XX2.
58. Bacon, Le Corbusier in America, 164–65; Plunz, History of Housing, 219–21; Paul Emmons, “Diagrammatic Practices: The Office of Frederick L. Ackerman and ‘Architectural Graphic Standards,’ “ Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 64 (Mar. 2005), 4–21; “Brooklyn Slum Clearance,” NYT (Oct. 15, 1936), 26.
59. “Brooklyn Slum Clearance,” 26; Lewis Mumford, “The Sky Line: The New Order,” New Yorker (Feb. 26, 1938), reprinted in Robert Wojtowicz, Sidewalk Critic: Lewis Mumford’s Writing on New York (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2000), 209.
60. According to Betty Butzner and Jonathan Karp, Jane and Betty visited one of “the first public housing” projects in Brooklyn in the late 1930s or early 1940s. “She began thinking about whether these houses were imaginatively enough designed and how people would like them,” Betty recalled. Quoted in Karp, ITM, 16. See also Catherine Mackenzie, “120 ‘First Families’ Get New Homes,” NYT (Dec. 1, 1935), E10; “25,789 Apply for Suites in Williamsburg Housing,” NYT (Jul. 9, 1937), 35.
61. R. L. Duffus, “What Modern Housing Means and Why It Is Delayed,” NYT (Dec. 23, 1934), BR3; Albert Mayer, “Garden Cities Within a City: A Large Scheme of Rehousing,” NYT (May 6, 1934), XX3.
62. Lewis Mumford, “The Sky Line: Old and New,” New Yorker (Jan. 11, 1936), in Wojtowicz, Sidewalk Critic, 151.
63. Mayer, “Garden Cities Within a City,” XX3; “New Colony Urged as Slum Solution,” NYT (Jul. 25, 1937), 33. The Slum Clearance Committee of New York was formed in 1933 and prepared a book of maps and charts of fourteen “special study areas” that was presented to the NYCHA in April 1934. This committee was different from the Mayor’s Committee on Slum Clearance, created by New York City mayor William O’Dwyer in 1948 and chaired by Robert Moses.
64. Le Corbusier, “A Noted Architect Dissects Our Cities,” NYT (Jan. 3, 1932), SM10; Frederick Etchells, introduction to Le Corbusier, City of To-Morrow, xiv.
The epigraph for this chapter is from D&L, 221.
1. SOS, 20–21.
2. Jane Jacobs, letter to Chadbourne Gilpatric, Jul. 23, 1959 (RG 1.2, series 200R, 390:3381, RAC).
3. See, for example, Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), 85. In D&L, Jacobs used the term “orthodox [city] planning” about twenty times, usually as a shorthand for “orthodox modern city planning and city architectural design” (17). It is worth noting that she used the word “modern” about the same number of times. Sometimes it had a negative connotation, as in “orthodox modern city planning,” but it was generally not negative for her. She never used the term “modernism” in D&L and was not antimodern per se. See D&L, 6.
4. Jacobs, letter to Ms. Talmey, Nov. 22, 1961, 1. A slightly different version of Jacobs’s autobiographical account in this letter is republished in ITM, 3. Columbia’s Extension program was reorganized as the College of General Studies in 1947.
5. Information about Jacobs’s coursework at Columbia University is from Jane Butzner [Jacobs], applications for federal employment, Nov. 27, 1943; Oct. 26, 1946; and Sept. 8, 1949, CPR; FBI, Jane Butzner Jacobs, NY File no. 123–252, Jul. 20, 1948, 2. Jacobs took classes during the day and night for two years for a total of sixty-five credits. See also Kunstler, interview with Jacobs, part 1, 6.
6. “News Items: Columbia University, Department of Geography,” Economic Geography 2 (Apr. 1926), 332; Harlan H. Barrows, “Geography as Human Ecology,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 13 (Mar. 1923), 1, 3 (emphasis in the original).
7. DAA, 177–78. Jacobs indicated here that Mumford’s “obtuse” foreword to the 1956 paperback edition of Pirenne’s Medieval Cities was another source of disagreement between them. See also EOS, 131; CWN, 241; and SOS, 219.
8. Chadbourne Gilpatric, interview with Jane Jacobs, Jun. 4, 1958 (RF RG 1.2, series 200R, 390:3380, RAC).
9. D&L, 13, 436; Laurence, “Contradictions and Complexities,” 49–60.
10. Jacobs, letter to Ms. Talmey, 1–3. See also Kunstler, interview with Jacobs, part 1, 6.
11. The extent of Hemphill’s involvement in Jacobs’s Constitutional Chaff is unclear. He was certainly an influence on the project, both in terms of “wisdom and enthusiasm” for which Jacobs thanked him in the acknowledgments and indirectly through the legal research that Jacobs did for him in 1935 and 1936. Others who knew Jacobs (FBI informants in the late 1940s) believed that he was a collaborator on the book or vice versa, although this is unlikely because Hemphill had retired to Florida by the late 1930s and died there in 1941. Her key source for Constitutional Chaff was Documents Illustrative of the Formation of the Union of the American States, 69th Congress, 1st Sess., House Doc. no. 398, ed. Charles C. Tansill (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1927). As Jacobs notes in the preface, this document made available to the general public all of the known notes on the proceedings of the Constitutional Convention for the first time.
12. Jacobs, application for federal employment, Standard Form no. 57, U.S. Civil Service Commission, Sept. 8, 1949, Attachment K, 1.
13. Max Farrand, “Constitutional Chaff: Rejected Suggestions of the Constitutional Convention of 1787, with Explanatory Argument” (book review), American Historical Review 47 (Oct. 1941), 197–98; E. Wilder Spaulding (book review), New York History (Jul. 1941), n.p.
A more recent citation can be found in Douglas D. Heckathorn and Steven M. Maser, “Bargaining and Constitutional Contracts,” American Journal of Political Science 31 (Feb. 1987), 166. Thanks to Glenna Lang for sharing the Spaulding review.
14. Jane Butzner, “Caution, Men Working,” Cue: The Weekly Magazine of New York Life (May 18, 1940), 24.
15. The Death and Life of Great American Cities (New York: Modern Library, 1993), xvi (hereafter cited as D&L, Modern Library edition).
16. CC, 2, 4 (emphasis in the original).
17. Henri Pirenne, Medieval Cities (1925; Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1946), 193.
18. Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958), 194–95. Jacobs cited Arendt in SOS, 200, 233. Also see CC, 2, 4; Jacobs, “A Lesson in Urban Redevelopment: Philadelphia’s Redevelopment, a Progress Report,” AF 103 (Jul. 1955), 118; D&L, 405–6; Jane Jacobs and Mary Rowe, introduction, in Toronto: Considering Self-Government, ed. Mary Rowe (Ontario: Ginger, 2000), xv–xxi.
19. SOS, 205.
20. D&L, 406, 407; CC, 1.
21. CC, 2.
22. Ibid.
23. CC, 153.
24. Jacobs was registered as a Republican in 1936, suggesting that she voted against Roosevelt (a Democrat) in 1936; as a Democrat in 1937, suggesting she voted against La Guardia (Republican) in 1937; and as a Republican in 1938, 1939, and 1940, suggesting she voted against Governor Lehman (a Democrat) in 1938 and again against Roosevelt in 1940, for his unprecedented third term. She registered with the ALP from the early 1940s until 1949. See FBI, “Jane Butzner Jacobs, Special Inquiry—State Department,” Form 1, NY File no. 123–252, 10; Jacobs, “Interrogatory,” Mar. 25, 1952 (Jacobs Papers, 12:8), 6.
25. There may be some contradictions in Jacobs’s support for Willkie. Unlike his primary contestants, in 1940, Willkie advocated support for allies in World War II, although not necessarily for entering the war. However, Jacobs was a strong isolationist until the attack on Pearl Harbor. Thus, it seems that her opposition to FDR’s third term and other policies outweighed this.
26. SOS, xi-xii.
27. J. I. Butzner, “Non-Ferrous Metals,” IA 151 (Jan. 7, 1943), 140, 236 (emphasis in the original).
28. Ibid., 290.
29. J. I. Butzner, “Silver Alloy Brazing with High-Speed Localized Gas Heating,” IA 152 (Sept. 23, 1943), 38.
30. Jane Butzner Jacobs, FBI NY File no. 123-252, Jul. 20, 1948, 4-5.
31. Jane Butzner, “Women Wanted to Fill 2,795 Kinds of Jobs,” NYHT (Oct. 18, 1942), n.p.; Jane Butzner, “Waves and Waacs Go Through the Assignment Classification Mill,” NYHT (Mar. 28, 1943), n.p.
32. Jane Jacobs, “Answers to Interrogatory for Jane Butzner Jacobs,” Jul. 22, 1949 (Jacobs Papers, 12:8), 1.
33. Butzner Jacobs, FBI NY File, 4-5.
34. Jane Butzner, “Trylon’s Steel Helps to Build Big New Nickel Plant in Cuba,” NYHT (Dec. 27, 1942), n.p.
35. [Jane Butzner], “30,000 Unemployed and 7,000 Empty Houses in Scranton, Neglected City,” IA 151 (Mar. 25, 1943), 94.
36. Butzner, “30,000 Unemployed,” 95.
37. Butzner, “Waves and Waacs,” n.p.
38. Jane Butzner, “Daily’s Effort Saves City from ‘Ghost Town’ Fate: Scranton Tribune Leadership Converting Mining Town into Manufacturing Center Because of Vanishing Coal Veins,” Editor & Publisher (Sept. 4, 1943), 12.
39. “Ex-Scranton Girl Helps Home City: Miss Butzner’s Story in Iron Age Brought Nationwide Publicity,” Scrantonian (Sept. 26, 1943), reprinted in ITM, 37. The story of Jacobs’s Scranton campaign is told well in Lang, Genius of Common Sense, 31-32, 115.
40. George Stratemeyer, letter to Jane Butzner, Jul. 11, 1943 (Jacobs Papers, 23:5).
41. OWI, “Justification for Rapid Promotion” for Jane Butzner, Oct. 3, 1944.
42. SOS, 23-24, 28, 215.
43. Ibid. Regarding Jacobs’s affiliation with the trader moral system, see Fred Lawrence, ed., Ethics in Making a Living: The Jane Jacobs Conference (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1989), 5.
44. Butzner Jacobs, FBI NY File, 3.
45. “Jane Butzner, Robert Jacobs to Wed Today,” Scranton Tribune (May 27, 1944), reprinted in ITM, 37. The last store at 555 Hudson Street sold candy, soda, and cigars. For descriptions of the Jacobses’ home, see Eric Larrabee, “In Print: Jane Jacobs,” Horizon, reprinted in ITM, 50; Gin Briggs, “Crusader on Housing: Jane Butzner Jacobs Wrote Controversial Book,” NYT (May 6, 1963), 42. See also D&L, 50-53.
46. Leticia Kent, “Jane Jacobs: An Oral History Interview Conducted for the GVSHP Preservation Archives, Toronto, Canada, October 1997” (New York: Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation, 2001), 5-7. Jacobs said, “You know I’ve gotten a lot of credit— first, last and in between—for being astute politically. But I don’t think I was astute politically at all in comparison with Bob” (7).
47. J. L. Moreno, “Foundations of Sociometry: An Introduction,” Sociometry 4 (Feb. 1941), 15; J. L. Moreno, “Reflections on My Method of Group Psychotherapy and Psychodrama,” in Experimentation and Innovation in Psychotherapy, ed. Harold Greenwald (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2010), 133.
48. J. L. Moreno, “Sociometry in Relation to Other Social Sciences,” Sociometry 1 (July–Oct. 1937), 207.
49. J. L. Moreno, ed., “Sociometric Ballot of Research Projects,” Sociometry 8 (May 1945), 229–30.
50. Jane Butzner Jacobs, application for federal employment, Sept. 8, 1949 (CPR), Attachment D, 1.
51. Moreno’s conception of interpersonal relationships shares something with the philosopher of phenomenology Edmund Husserl’s concept of intersubjectivity. Jacobs’s interest in Moreno’s ideas, including his thoughts about the city, provides part of an intellectual foundation for such a phenomenological interpretation of her work as has been explored by David Seamon in “Jane Jacobs’s Death and Life of Great American Cities as a Phenomenology of Urban Place,” Journal of Space Syntax (Aug. 2012), 139–49.
52. Jacobs and her colleagues were terminated from their positions at the OWI in December 1945, and they were apparently unaware that the State Department would take over some of the OWI’s foreign affairs roles and New York publications offices. They were also unaware that they would have the opportunity to be rehired in positions similar or identical to those that they had held during the war. Jacobs was required to reapply for her position with the State Department and to undergo a new background check. However, once rehired, her federal employment record was effectively continuous, despite the gap in employment and shift in departments.
53. Jane Butzner Jacobs, application for federal employment, Sept. 8, 1949 (CPR), Attachment C.
54. Ibid. The Coast Watchers was reprinted by Oxford University Press in 1959, by Bantam Books in 1979, and by Doubleday in a Book Club edition. In 1946, Jacobs also discussed writing a memoir for Tania Manooiloff Cosman, who eventually self-published My Heritage with Morning Glories: A White Russian Growing Up in China in 1995.
55. Howard Oiseth, “The First Magazine,” in The Way It Was: USIA’s Press and Publications Service (1935–77) (Washington, DC: U.S. Information Agency, 1977), 56. See also “Amerika for the Russians,” Time (Mar. 4, 1946), Time Archive, http://www.time.com, accessed Feb. 7, 2007. I am indebted to Martin Manning of the Department of State for a related history of State Department and U.S. Information Agency publications.
56. “Amerika for the Russians”; Oiseth, “First Magazine,” 56–57. Amerika Illustrated outlived the USSR, which was dissolved in 1991, and it continued to be popular in Russia until it ceased publication in 1994.
57. Quoted in Oiseth, “First Magazine,” 57. See also Creighton Peet, “Russian ‘Amerika,’ A Magazine About U.S. for Soviet Citizens,” College Art Journal (Fall 1951), 18.
58. U.S. Civil Service Commission, “Classification Sheet,” Nov. 5, 1946, 1–2. Among Jane’s colleagues at Amerika was Bob Jacobs’s cousin John Jacobs, who joined the magazine in 1948, a few years after her. After the New York office closed in 1952, he moved to Washington, worked for the Voice of America, and joined the magazine’s new DC staff, rising to editor in 1959. Arthur Pariente, “USIA Profile: A Philosopher on Overseas Information,” USIA World, Aug. 1970 (Jacobs Papers, 24:5).
59. Jacobs, application for federal employment, Sept. 8, 1949, Attachment A, 2. See also Peet, “Russian ‘Amerika,”’ 17; Jennifer Griffin, “US Stops Publishing Amerika,” Associated Press (Aug. 17, 1994), accessed online Sept. 9, 1997.
60. Jacobs, application for federal employment, Sept. 8, 1949, Attachment A, 6.
61. Ibid., 5; Richard E. Morrissey, “Justification for Promotion,” Dec. 21, 1949 (CPR), 2–3.
62. Public Law 80–402, 22 USC 1442-Sec. 1442a, National Security Measures.
63. FBI, Jane Butzner Jacobs, Special Inquiry, Public Law 402, 80th Congress (Voice of America), May 13, 1948, 2. NKVD was the Soviet espionage agency that preceded the KGB.
64. [J. Edgar Hoover,] FBI, Voice of America investigation, Oct. 1, 1948; [J. Edgar Hoover,] FBI, Jane Butzner Jacobs Special Inquiry—State Department, Jun. 18, 1948.
65. Joseph McCarthy, “Major Speeches and Debates of Senator Joe McCarthy Delivered in the United States Senate, 1950–1951,” U.S. Government Printing Office, n.p.
66. Ibid.
67. FBI, Jane Butzner Jacobs, Special Inquiry—State Department, Dec. 10, 1951, 2–3.
68. Jane Jacobs, letter to Carrell St. Claire, Jul. 22, 1949 (Jacobs Papers, 12:8).
69. Two of the individuals Jacobs was asked about were Seymour Peck and Sylvia Grovesmith Peck. Sylvia worked with Jacobs in the State Department publications office, but she did not know Seymour Peck, a New York Times columnist, who was later subpoenaed by the Senate Security Subcommittee. In 1955, Peck admitted communist affiliations between 1935 and ‘49, and he was indicted for contempt of Congress the following year for refusing to label others as communists.
70. Butzner Jacobs, FBI NY File, 3; Jacobs, “Interrogatory,” I10.
71. Jacobs, “Interrogatory,” F2.
72. Ibid., F1–3.
73. Ibid., F2.
74. “Many of Staff Quit Magazine Amerika; Resist Move from New York to Washington of Periodical Distributed in Soviet [sic],” NYT (Apr. 15, 1952), 4; “Propaganda Steps by U.S. Criticized; Publications Chief Quits over Shake-Up Plan,” NYT (Jun. 1, 1952), 29; “Editorial: Amerika Magazine,” NYT (Jun. 28, 1952), 18.
75. Pirenne, Medieval Cities, 177; David Simon, “Foreign Information Program; Proposed Change in Operations Is Opposed as Harmful,” NYT (Jun. 9, 1952), 22.
76. Jacobs, “Interrogatory,” F1, F3, F7–8.
The epigraph for this chapter is from “On Architectural Criticism,” quoted in Robert Alan Benson, “Douglas Putnam Haskell (1899–1979): The Early Critical Writings” (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1987), 233. I am indebted to Benson for an understanding of Haskell’s early career and writing.
1. “Organ of Integration,” Time (Apr. 11, 1932), n.p.
2. Jacobs, letter to Ms. Talmey, Nov. 22, 1961, 2. The first of Jacobs’s articles on urban redevelopment for Amerika was “Planned Reconstruction of Lagging City Districts,” AI (no. 25, n.d. [Feb. 1949?]), 1–9. Jacobs’s second article on the subject was titled “Slum Clearance,” AI (no. 43, Aug. 1950), 2–11. Amerika no. 43 was rare in having a publication date. Because it could be almost nine months until a Russian reader saw the magazine because of the uncertain amount of time needed to clear Soviet censors, the editors sometimes avoided dating the magazine to extend its shelf life. The copy reviewed was also rare among surviving copies to have an English insert with a summary of the contents, which indicated the English titles of the articles. Translations in this chapter are by Alina Yakubova and Artemiy Zheltov. See also Jacobs, “New Horizons in Architecture,” AI (no. 29, n.d. [Jun. 1949?]), 2–11; “New Horizons in Architecture, Part II,” AI (no. 30, n.d. [Jul. 1949?]), 26–35.
3. [Jane Jacobs], “Two-in-One Hospital; Big Double Hospital,” AF96 (June 1952), 138.
4. Ibid., 140.
5. Douglas Haskell, memo to Suzanne Gleaves and Perry Prentice, “Why We Publish Modern,” Mar. 17, 1952 (Haskell Papers, 57:3).
6. Benson, “Douglas Putnam Haskell,” 83. Thanks to Richard Longstreth for related information about the Haskells.
7. Peter Blake, No Place Like Utopia: Modern Architecture and the Company We Kept (New York: W. W. Norton, 1993), 163.
8. Douglas Haskell, memo to staff regarding the new editorial policy, Jul. 23, 1952 (Haskell Papers, 57:3), 2 (emphasis in the original).
9. Ibid., 3.
10. Ibid., 4.
11. Ibid., 1.
12. Mary Ferranti and Janet Parks, Finding Aid for the Douglas Putnam Haskell Papers, Nov. 2006 (Department of Drawings and Archives, Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library), 3.
13. See ch. 3, “Toward an Organic Architectural Criticism,” in Robert Wojtowicz, Lewis Mumford and American Modernism: Eutopian Theories for Architecture and Urban Planning (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996). It is especially helpful for understanding Mumford’s contributions to architectural criticism.
14. Benson, “Douglas Putnam Haskell,” 2, 20.
15. Ibid., 49.
16. Ibid., 67. See also “Shells,” cited in Benson, “Douglas Putnam Haskell,” 62; Leon Solon, “Modernism in Architecture,” Architectural Record 58 (Sept. 1925), 215.
17. Benson, “Douglas Putnam Haskell,” 84.
18. Ibid., 344. In Modern Architecture (1929), Henry-Russell Hitchcock first used the term “international style” to describe the work of the architects he called the “New Pioneers,” including Le Corbusier. Hitchcock’s point was to emphasize the idea that the new architecture was a cross-cultural and transnational phenomenon, but he did not capitalize the term “international style.” See Hitchcock, Modern Architecture: Romanticism and Reintegration (New York: Da Capo, 1993), 162. The label reappeared the following year, in Hitchcock and Philip Johnson’s book The International Style: Architecture Since 1922 (1932; New York: W. W. Norton, 1997), which accompanied their Museum of Modern Art exhibition. Hitchcock, who thereafter embraced the term, later equivocated. In the foreword to a 1966 edition of the book, he emphasized the fact that it was Alfred Barr who first capitalized the term: “[This] book has for some time belonged to history, and the ‘Style’ (which Alfred Barr in his Preface to the book capitalized, but which we in our text did not) has been universally recognized” (vii).
19. Douglas Haskell, “The Column, the Gable, and the Box,” The Arts 17 (June 1931).
20. D&L, 371 (emphasis in the original).
21. Douglas Haskell, “What the Man About Town Will Build,” Nation 134 (Apr. 13, 1932), 441–42.
22. Douglas Haskell, “Is It Functional?” Creative Art 10 (May 1932), 373–74.
23. Ibid., 378.
24. Ibid.
25. Benson, “Douglas Putnam Haskell,” 233, 488.
26. Douglas Haskell, letter to William W. Wurster, Nov. 4, 1952 (Haskell Papers, 24:6).
27. Benson, “Douglas Putnam Haskell,” 234.
28. J. M. Richards, “The Next Step?” AR 107 (Mar. 1950), 166.
29. Leicester B. Holland, “The Function of Functionalism,” Architect and Engineer 126 (Aug. 1936), 25, 32. This article was presented at the sixty-eighth convention of the American Institute of Architects, May 1936, and was also reprinted in Octagon 8 (Jul. 1936), 3–10.
30. Ibid., 27–30. This critique of functionalism anticipated Robert Venturi’s wry diagrammatic critique of modernism, firmness + commodity = delight.
31. James MacQuedy [J. M. Richards], “Criticism,” AR 99 (Dec. 1940), 183.
32. Ibid.
33. Philip Johnson and Henry-Russell Hitchcock, “Mr. Oud Embroiders a Theme,” Architectural Record (Dec. 1946), 80. This article and Oud’s reply can be found in Joan Ockman, Architecture Culture 1943–1968: A Documentary Anthology (New York: Rizzoli, 1993), 103–6.
34. J. J. P. Oud, “Mr. Oud Replies,” Architectural Record (Mar. 1947), 18.
35. Hubert de Cronin Hastings, Nikolaus Pevsner, and J. M. Richards, “The Functional Tradition,” AR 107 (Jan. 1950), 3.
36. J. M. Richards, “The New Empiricism: Sweden’s Latest Style,” AR (Jun. 1947), 199200. Richards quoted Sven Backstrom from a September 1943 article in AR.
37. Mumford’s essay has three sections without headings. The first two sections deal with new architecture in New York and Washington, DC; the third discusses functionalism and “that native and human form of modernism which one might call the Bay Region style.” Mumford, “Status Quo,” New Yorker 23 (Oct. 11, 1947), 104–10. This essay, when discussed today, is usually referred to by the title “The Bay Region Style.”
38. Museum of Modern Art, “What Is Happening to Modern Architecture? A Symposium at the Museum of Modern Art,” MOMA Bulletin 15 (Spring 1948), 9.
39. Ibid., 8–9.
40. Douglas Haskell, “Googie Architecture,” House & Home 1 (Feb. 1952), 85–86.
41. Henry-Russell Hitchcock, “The International Style Twenty Years After,” Architectural Record 110 (Aug. 1951), 90, 97.
42. Richards, “The Next Step?,” 166, 181.
43. Douglas Haskell, “Criticism vs. Statesmanship in Architecture,” AF 98 (May 1953), 97.
44. Jane Jacobs and the Rockefeller Foundation, The Rockefeller Foundation Annual Report, 1958 (New York: Rockefeller Foundation, 1958), 291; D&L, Modern Library edition, xiii, 390.
45. J. M. Richards, “Architect, Critic and Public,” Royal Architectural Institute of Canada Journal 27 (Nov. 1950), 372.
46. Talbot Hamlin, “Criticism Might Help Architecture: Let’s Try It,” American Architect 137 (May 1930), 41.
47. Ibid.
48. Blake, No Place Like Utopia, 163.
49. “Enter House and Home,” Time (Jan. 21, 1952), n.p.
50. Douglas Haskell, telegram to Robert Little, David Runnells, Charles Goodman, and Oscar Stonorov, Nov. 13, 1951 (Haskell Papers, 80:8). “Monsters” contributors included Robert Little of Cleveland, David Runnells of Kansas City, Charles Goodman of Washington, DC, and Oscar Stonorov of Philadelphia. Their suggestions included Kansas City’s Starlight Theater; Houston’s Shamrock Hotel; U.S. Steel’s Fairless Works; airport terminals in Seattle, Pittsburgh, and Baltimore (which looked “hideously gross alongside the elegant planes that they are inevitably seen with”); and Boston’s 1947 John Hancock Life Insurance Building. David Runnells and Charles Goodman, telegrams to Douglas Haskell, Nov. 23 and 27, 1951 (Haskell Papers, 80:8).
51. Perry Prentice, memo to Joe Hazen and Douglas Haskell, Nov. 14, 1951 (Haskell Papers, 80:8); Joe Hazen, memo to Douglas Haskell, Nov. 14, 1951 (Haskell Papers, 80:8); Douglas Haskell, memo to Joe Hazen, Nov. 16, 1951 (Haskell Papers, 80:8).
52. Haskell, memo to Hazen, Nov. 16, 1951.
53. Ibid.
54. Ibid.
55. Albert Connelly, letter to Howard Myers, Apr. 26, 1937 (Haskell Papers, 80:8).
56. Blake, No Place Like Utopia, 46. Forum’s dedication to Wright did not mean that Blake or others accepted Wright’s antics without comment. In May 1953, Haskell wrote a letter to George Howe relating a recent episode. “I tried to help keep FLlW from acting like a fool,” he wrote, “but it can’t be done.” The conversation included these highlights: Haskell said, “Frank Wright, I just can’t believe God exhausted Himself in creating even you.” Wright replied, “I’m not exhausted. I am God.” Douglas Haskell, letter to George Howe, May 23, 1953 (Haskell Papers, 57:4).
57. Haskell, “Googie Architecture,” 85–86.
58. Haskell, memo to staff, 4.
59. Haskell, “Googie Architecture,” 88.
60. Ibid.
61. Jane Jacobs, memo to Douglas Haskell, Jul. 22, 1952 (Haskell Papers, 4–4).
62. Douglas Haskell, letter to Vincent Kling, Mar. 10, 1953 (Haskell Papers, 11:6); [Jane Jacobs], “Hospital for the Well,” AF 99 (Dec. 1953), 130–35.
63. Jane Jacobs, memo to Douglas Haskell, Mar. 25, 1953 (Haskell Papers, 8:7). For the definitive study on Gruen, see M. Jeffrey Hardwick, Mall Maker: Victor Gruen, Architect of an American Dream (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004). Gruen had a longstanding relationship with AFs editors, who had published his work since the late 1930s (28, 73). Gruen and his family escaped Nazi-controlled Vienna in 1938. In New York, Gruen first found work drafting designs for the 1939 World ‘s Fair, then returned to store design.
64. Jane Jacobs, memo to Douglas Haskell, Joe Hazen, and Mary Jane Lightbown, May 1955 (Haskell Papers, 10:7).
65. Ibid. Commonly known as the Trenton Bath House, Kahn’ s swimming center is located in Ewing, New Jersey.
66. Ibid.
67. D&L, 227.
68. Jane Jacobs, memo to Douglas Haskell, Joe Hazen, and Mary Jane Lightbown, Dec. 1954 (Haskell Papers, 12:4). See also Rosalie R. Radomsky, “A Vinoly Redesign; Architecture Building at City College,” NYT (Nov. 3, 2002), sec. 11, 1.
69. Jacobs, memo to Haskell, Hazen, and Lightbown, Dec. 10, 1954.
70. D&L, 375.
71. Eve Auchincloss and Nancy Lynch, “Disturber of the Peace: Jane Jacobs (Interview),” Mademoiselle (Oct. 1962), 165–66.
72. Ibid., 166–67; D&L, 7–8.
73. D&L, 374.
The epigraph for this chapter is from [Jane Jacobs], “Rosenfield and His Hospitals: He Approaches His Jobs like a City Planner,” AF 97 (Sept. 1952), 128.
01. Haskell, memo to staff, Jul. 23, 1952.
02. Merle Travis and Cliffie Stone, “No Vacancy, recorded by Merle Travis, Capitol Single #258, May 1946 (Hill and Range Songs, 1946, 1975).
03. I allude here to Should Our Cities Survive?, the original title of Josep Lluis Sert ‘s book Can Our Cities Survive? (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1944), as well as Eric Mumford’ s books on Sert and modern city planning theory. His The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928–1960 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000) is essential for understanding the rise and fall of modern city planning and for tracking the internal doubts and attacks that made Jacobs ‘s attacks less revolutionary than is commonly believed. Also, his Defining Urban Design: CIAM Architects and the Formation of Discipline, 1937–69 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009) is an equally essential history of urban design.
04. Clarence Stein, Toward New Towns for America (1951; Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989), 7; Harold Hauf, “City Planning and Civil Defense,” Architectural Record 108 (Dec. 1950), 99. The idea of decentralization as a defense measure was not new after World War II. After World War I, Le Corbusier had also argued that his Radiant City concept could protect cities from aerial bombardment. Le Corbusier, The Radiant City (1933; New York: Orion Press and Grossman, 1967), 60.
05. “The Philadelphia Cure: Clearing Slums with Penicillin, Not Surgery,” AF 96 (Apr. 1952), 115. The author may have been Walter McQuade.
06. “Redevelopment of Norfolk: Federal Slum Clearance Gets Its First Full Scale Tryout,” AF 92 (May 1950), 132–37. See also “Modernization by the Block, “ AF 93 (Oct. 1950), 171–80, which examined “slum modernization in Philadelphia and Baltimore, and Henry S. Churchill, “City Redevelopment,” AF 93 (Dec. 1950), 72–77, which focused on Nashville, Philadelphia, and Providence.
07. “Redevelopment of Norfolk, “ 132. I discussed the Stuyvesant Town precedent in “The Death and Life of Urban Design.
08. James Baldwin, “The Negro and the American Promise,” interview with Kenneth Clark, WGBH TV, Spring 1963. Baldwin described urban renewal as “negro removal while relating a conversation that he had with a teenager from San Francisco. Baldwin recalled, “He said, ‘I ve got no country. I ve got no flag. Now, he’s only sixteen years old, and I couldn t say, ‘You do. I don t have any evidence to prove that he does. They were tearing down his house, because San Francisco is engaging—as most northern cities now are engaged—in something called ‘urban renewal, which means moving the Negroes out. It means Negro removal—that is what it means. The federal government is an accomplice to this fact.
09. “Chicago Redevelops,” AF 93 (Aug. 1950), 99–105.
10. D&L, 50.
11. See Charles Jencks, The Language of Post-Modern Architecture (New York: Rizzoli, 1977).
12. “Slum Surgery in St. Louis,” AF 94 (Apr. 1951), 128–36.
13. D&L, 77. A few years after Death and Life, Forum published “The Case History of a Failure, “ AF 123 (Dec. 1965), 22–25, in which James Bailey recanted the magazine’ s former praise, and he reported on the Public Housing Administration’s and the architectural firm HOK ‘s unsuccessful attempts to save the project from the social implosion that preceded the physical one. See also Katharine Bristol, “The Pruitt-Igoe Myth,” Journal of Architectural Education (May 1991), 163–71; and Chad Freidrich’ s 2011 excellent documentary film by the same name.
14. “Slum Surgery in St. Louis,” 129, 136.
15. Robert Caro, The Power Broker: Robert Moses and the Fall of New York (New York: Vintage, 1974), 753, 777. In his redevelopment proposals of the early 1950s, Moses called this group, which he chaired, the Committee on Slum Clearance Plans. Moses also directed the Mayor’s Committee on Slum Clearance, which, as noted earlier, was different from the Slum Clearance Committee of New York, which was formed in 1933.
16. “Topics of the Times: New Face for the Village,” NYT (Mar. 13, 1951), 30; Robert Moses et al., “Washington Square South” and “South Village: Slum Clearance Plan Under Title I of the Housing Act of 1949, NYC Committee on Slum Clearance Plans, Jan. 1951. At the time of Moses’s proposals, there were already roads bisecting Washington Square. Running south from Fifth Avenue, the road ran through the thirty-foot-wide arch and then split, with one branch connecting to Thompson Street and the other connecting to West Broadway, the two blocks south of the arch. Moses sought to widen this to a divided four-lane roadway more than fifty feet wide and connect this to a widened, four-lane West Broadway called “Fifth Avenue South, which would effectively extend Fifth Avenue to Canal Street, in order to provide access to the Holland Tunnel. While Shirley Hayes, and later Jacobs, campaigned for closing Washington Square to all motor traffic, others groups sought compromise positions that retained the existing connection to West Broadway. See “De Sapio Supports Study on Village; Advocates ‘Minimal Through Roadway’ in Washington Sq., Not Expressway,” NYT (Dec. 20, 1957), 29. In the midst of the battle for the square, Gilbert Millstein wrote a brief history of the park, which included its historical traffic issues in “New Battle of Our Village Square,” NYT (May 4, 1958), SM32. Showing how history repeated itself, Millstein noted that in 1870 Boss Tweed created a street through the square to connect Fifth Avenue to what was then known as Laurens Street but renamed South Fifth Avenue (before being named West Broadway in the 1890s).
17. Lewis Mumford, “Fifth Avenue, for Better or Worse,” New Yorker 28 (Aug. 16, 1952), 56.
18. Mary Mix Foley, “What Is Urban Redevelopment? Replanning of Washington’ s Famous Capitol Slums Poses a Basic Question for Every U.S. Community,” AF 97 (Aug. 1952), 124–31.
19. Ibid., 128. Chloethiel Woodard Smith (1911–93) was one of the first women to break the glass ceiling in the American architectural profession. The “Robert Moses approach” to urban redevelopment was sometimes also called the “New York approach,” as noted in Joel Schwartz, The New York Approach: Robert Moses, Urban Liberals, and Redevelopment of the Inner City (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1993).
20. “The Philadelphia Cure,”115.
21. Ibid., 113–14 (emphasis in the original).
22. Ibid., 118.
23. Le Corbusier, ch. 14, “Physic or Surgery,” in The City of To-Morrow and Its Planning (Urbanisme, 8th ed.) (1929; New York: Dover, 1987), 253–76. Eric Mumford discusses the Philadelphia cure in Defining Urban Design, 74.
24. [Jacobs], “Rosenfield and His Hospitals,” 128–34.
25. [Jane Jacobs], “New Hospital Type,” AF98 (Jan. 1953), 118–21. Kahn’s rocky relationship with Rosenfield is described by David Brownlee in Louis I. Kahn: In the Realm of Architecture, ed. David B. Brownlee and David G. De Long (New York: Rizzoli, 1991), 40–41.
26. [Jacobs], “Rosenfield and His Hospitals,” 128–29.
27. Ibid., 128.
28. [Jane Jacobs], “New Thinking on Shopping Centers,” AF 98 (Mar. 1953), 122–45. See also the note about her early writing above.
29. [Jacobs], “New Thinking on Shopping Centers,” 122. See also Louis Kahn, “Toward a New Plan for Midtown Philadelphia, “ Perspecta 2 (1953), 11; and M. Jeffrey Hardwick, Mall Maker: Victor Gruen, Architect of an American Dream (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 112–16.
30. From the early 1950s, James Rouse was a strong supporter of the federal urban renewal program and may have influenced Jacobs in this regard at the time. Joshua Olsen, Better Places, Better Lives: A Biography of James Rouse (Washington, DC: Urban Land Institute, 2003), 63.
31. [Jacobs], “New Thinking on Shopping Centers,” 136, 143.
32. Ibid., 127, 132.
33. Ibid., 122.
34. Ibid., 122–23.
35. Ibid., 125, 132.
36. Stuart Chase, “A Suburban Garden City for the Motor Age,” NYT (Jun. 24, 1928), 4; [Jane Jacobs], “Northland: A New Yardstick for Shopping Center Planning,” AF 100 (Jun. 1954), 103.
37. [Jacobs], “Northland,” 103, 106, 110–11; Hardwick, Mall Maker, 129.
38. [Jacobs], “Northland,” 103–4.
39. [Jacobs], “Northland,” 103; Hardwick, Mall Maker, 165.
40. D&L, 4, 71, 192, 454.
41. [Jane Jacobs], “Good-by Neighborhood Schools? The School Village Plan: ‘Junk the Neighborhood School, ‘” AF 98 (Apr. 1953), 129–35, 174ff.
42. Ibid., 190.
43. [Jane Jacobs], “Marshall Shaffer: Teacher-at-Large of Hospital Architecture,” AF 98 (May 1953), 125ff.; D&L, 324.
44. [Jacobs], “Marshall Shaffer,” 125 (emphasis in the original).
45. Ibid., 164, 168 (emphasis in the original).
46. Douglas Haskell, memo to Perry Prentice, Aug. 25, 1953 (Haskell Papers, 38–11).
47. Douglas Haskell, letter to William W. Wurster, Jan. 14, 1954 (Haskell Papers, 24–6).
48. Douglas Haskell, “Pittsburgh and the Architect’ s Problem, “ AF 93 (Sept. 1950), 127.
49. Douglas Haskell et al., “Gateway Center: Now, at Last… Office Towers in a Park,” AF 99 (Dec. 1953), 112–16; Douglas Haskell, “Architecture: Stepchild or Fashioner of Cities?” AF 99 (Dec. 1953), 117.
50. Haskell, “Pittsburgh and the Architect’s Problem, 127; Haskell, “Gateway Center, 113.
51. Douglas Haskell et al., “The Need for Better Planning, and How to Get It,” AF 98 (Jun. 1953), 146–55.
52. Ibid., 152.
53. D&L, 12; Eric Mumford, CIAM Discourse, 201–15. See also Jaqueline Tyrwhitt, Josep Lluis Sert, and Ernesto N. Rogers, eds., The Heart of the City: Towards the Humanization of Urban Life (London: Lund Humphries, 1952).
54. Haskell, “Architecture: Stepchild or Fashioner of Cities?” 117; Haskell, “Pittsburgh and the Architect’s Problem, 127.
55. Haskell, “Architecture: Stepchild or Fashioner of Cities?” 117; Haskell, “Pittsburgh and the Architect’ s Problem,” 127 (emphasis in the original).
56. Haskell, letter to Wurster, Jan. 14, 1954.
57. D&L, 106; Kuhn, Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 85.
The epigraph for this chapter is from [Jane Jacobs], “Philadelphia’s Redevelopment: A Progress Report, “ AF 103 (Jul. 1955), 118.
01. Ashley Foard and Hilbert Fefferman, “Federal Urban Renewal Legislation,” in Urban Renewal: The Record and the Controversy, ed. James Q. Wilson (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1966), 96. See also B. T. McGraw, “The Housing Act of 1954 and Implications for Minorities,” Phylon 16 (Spring 1955), 171–82.
02. “Slum Clearance Faces Supreme Court Test, “ AF 100 (Nov. 1954), 120; Martin Anderson, The Federal Bulldozer: A Critical Analysis of Urban Renewal, 1949–1962 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1964), 187–88.
03. “Slum Clearance Faces Supreme Court Test,” 120; Anderson, Federal Bulldozer, 43.
04. Richard M. Flanagan, “The Housing Act of 1954: The Sea Change in National Urban Policy,” Urban Affairs Review (Nov. 1997), 265, 267.
05. Jane Jacobs, tear-off campaign petition to the Washington Square Park Committee, Apr. 30, 1955 (Hayes Papers, 4:1).
06. Jane Jacobs, letters to Mayor Wagner and Hulan Jack, Jun. 1, 1955 (Hayes Papers, 3:10). With the help of Dr. Jean Ashton and the New-York Historical Society’ s Shirley Hayes Papers, this letter and the history of Jacobs’s early activism were first brought to light in my article “Jane Jacobs Before Death and Life.
07. Jacobs, letters to Wagner and Jack.
08. Lewis Mumford, letter to The Villager, Apr. 1955 (Hayes Papers, 3:10).
09. Jane Jacobs, foreword to D&L, Modern Library edition, xvi. For a full account of Bacon’s work and thought, see Gregory L. Heller, Ed Bacon: Planning, Politics, and the Building of Modern Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013).
10. [Jacobs],”Philadelphia’ s Redevelopment,” 118.
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid.
14. D&L, 293.
15. “The Philadelphia Cure,”118.
16. [Jacobs], “Philadelphia’s Redevelopment, 126.
17. Ibid., 120.
18. Ibid., 127. On the “greenways plan, see also Heller, Ed Bacon, 112.
19. [Jacobs], “Philadelphia’s Redevelopment, 126.
20. Ibid., 120; D&L, 258, 416.
21. The Bacon quotation is from “Urban Design: Condensed Report of an Invitation Conference, Harvard University, Apr. 9–10, 1956,” Progressive Architecture (Aug. 1956), 108. Jacobs was a participant at this conference. Compare with D&L, 448. “Architect Louis Kahn and His Strong-Boned Structures, “ AF (Oct. 1957), 135–43, carried Walter McQuade ‘s byline, although Jacobs contributed to it. The feature began with Jacobs’s review of Kahn’s work in May 1955 (Jacobs, memo to Haskell, Hazen, and Lightbown, May 16, 1955), which was followed by a list of works that Jacobs compiled in 1957 for research on the article (cf. Jane Jacobs, list of Louis Kahn’s projects, 1957 [n.d.] [Haskell Papers, 10:7]). In June 1957, Haskell wrote Kahn stating that Jacobs would start the article but that McQuade would finish it (Douglas Haskell, letter to Louis Kahn, Jun. 10, 1957 [Haskell Papers, 10:7]). See “Louis Kahn and the Living City,” AF (Mar. 1958), 114–19. Jacobs may have suggested the title; in her May 1956 editorial “Pavement Pounders and Olympians, Jacobs used the phrase “the living city.
22. [Jane Jacobs], “Cleveland: City with a Deadline,” AF (Aug. 1955), 131.
23. Ibid., 131, 135.
24. Ibid., 135–38. The term “project” was used to describe public housing developments from the time of their origins in the 1930s. It was in the mid-1950s, when projects proliferated, that the term acquired a negative connotation.
25. Bradley Flamm, “The Garden Valley: Remembering Visions and Values in 1950s Cleveland with Allan Jacobs,” Berkeley Planning Journal 18 (2005), 101, 112–13.
26. Ibid., 108–9, 114.
27. [Jacobs], “Cleveland,” 136; D&L, 4, 71, 282. Jacobs’ s article also included descriptions of both a mixed-use (and therefore unlike the typical urban renewal project) superblock redevelopment project called Charity Hospital and a more typical public housing project. Contrary to expectations, she did not criticize them for their urban design or planning concepts.
28. Jane Jacobs, “Washington: 20th Century Capital?” AF (Jan. 1956), 92–115. Until around 1956, only specially commissioned articles received bylines in Architectural Forum.
29. Ibid., 103–113.
30. Ibid., 93, 94, 103 (emphasis in the original).
31. Ibid., 94.
32. Ibid., 100, 101.
33. Ibid., 97.
34. Ibid., 98.
35. Ibid., 114.
36. Louis Kahn, “Toward a New Plan for Midtown Philadelphia, Perspecta 2 (1953), 11; Victor Gruen, “Dynamic Planning for Retail Areas,” Harvard Business Review 32 (Nov.–Dec. 1954), 53. In conversation with a Rockefeller Foundation director in 1958, Jacobs described Kahn as “one of the most fertile idea men in urban design and originator of ideas for which Victor Gruen has become so noted in the Fort Worth Central City Plan (Chadbourne Gilpatric, interview with Jane Jacobs, June 4, 1958, RF RG 1.2, series 200R, 390:3380, RAC).
37. Gruen, “Dynamic Planning, 57, 62. Jacobs later adopted the “decentralists versus “downtowner trope, but she used the term “decentrists in D&L. She attributed the term to Catherine Bauer (19–20).
38. Gruen, “Dynamic Planning,” 54, 56, 62 (emphasis in the original); Hardwick, Mall Maker, 182. In ch. 7, “Saving Our Cities,” Hardwick outlines Gruen’ s transformation from retail architect to city planner, and he provides a history of the Fort Worth plan.
39. [Jane Jacobs], “Typical Downtown Transformed: The Fort Worth Plan, “ AF (May 1956) , 146.
40. Ibid., 147 (emphasis in the original); D&L, 351.
41. [Jacobs], “Typical Downtown Transformed, “ 147, 150 (emphasis in the original).
42. Ibid. In the end, the State Highway Commission and property rights advocates defeated Gruen’s plan. The commission rejected Gruen’s belt highway; private parking garage owners defeated a bill that would have allowed the city to construct the plan’s six municipal parking garages (which they described as vaguely socialistic); and the state legislature rejected, by one vote, the urban renewal legislation that would have allowed the city to tap the federal funds necessary to fund Gruen’ s plan (Hardwick, Mall Maker, 187–89).
43. [Jane Jacobs], “Pavement Pounders and Olympians,” AF 104 (May 1956), 164. Among city planners, Contini, not Gruen, received Jacobs’s praise. Hardwick suggests that, as compared to Contini, Gruen was concerned with the details of a city primarily to make an effective presentation. He reminded himself to “insert local data because he otherwise delivered the same speech in different cities (Mall Maker, 191).
44. [Jacobs], “Pavement Pounders and Olympians,” 164.
45. D&L, 15–16.
46. William Kirk, letter to Douglas Haskell, Mar. 17, 1955 (Haskell Papers, 22:1); Douglas Haskell, letter to William Kirk, Jan. 17, 1956 (Haskell Papers, 22:1). For more about New York settlement houses, see www.unionsettlement.org and United Neighborhood Houses at www.unhny.org.
47. “Shops a Problem in East Harlem: Only 2 of 9 Housing Projects Provide for Them,” NYT (May 8, 1955), 46. Storefront churches were of particular important in East Harlem. As indicated in a 1950 NYT article, “the area is now the testing grounds for the interdenominational, interracial ‘storefront’ churches started two and one-half years ago by Mr. Webber and the Rev. Don Benedict.” The article also noted that the Rev. George W. Webber, pastor of the East Harlem Protestant Parish, charged that the people of East Harlem were “ ‘treated not as persons but as things by the police, school officials, and landlords. See “East Harlem People Treated as ‘Things,’ Pastor of Storefront Church Charges,” NYT (Dec. 11, 1950), 26.
48. Ellen Lurie, East Harlem Small Business Survey and Planning Committee Fact Sheet, Jan. 16, 1956 (USAR, series V, 35:7), 1. Some of the figures quoted in the “fact sheet” were quoted in the May 8, 1955, Times article “Shops a Problem in East Harlem,” indicating that some of the research had already been done before then. The Times reporter Charles Grutzner later returned to East Harlem to see the aftermath of the destruction of these city blocks and buildings. See Grutzner, “Housing Projects Make Bitter D.P. s; Some Merchants Cite Loss of Business and Savings as City Confiscates Land,” NYT (Mar. 18, 1957), 29; “Most of Neighborhood Businessmen Uprooted by East Harlem Project Complain of Treatment by City, NYT (Mar. 18, 1957), 29. Jacobs related Kirk’s skepticism to Grady Clay in a letter on March 3, 1959 (courtesy of Grady Clay).
49. Lurie, East Harlem Small Business Survey.
50. Ellen Lurie, draft of essay for Architectural Forum, “The Dreary Deadlock of Public Housing” (USAR, series V, 35:7), 1.
51. Charles Grutzner, “City’s ‘Front Door Obscured by Litter; Officials Depressed by Dirt and Refuse That Introduce New York to Rail Visitors,” NYT (Sept. 21, 1948), 29; New York City Planning Commission, “Master Plan Map RS-5M, Borough of Manhattan, “ Master Plan of Sections Containing Areas Suitable for Development and Redevelopment (Dec. 30, 1954), Samuel Zipp relates other important parts of the East Harlem story in Manhattan Projects, 258ff.
53. “The East Harlem Problem,” NYT (Sept. 22, 1948), 30.
54. Ibid.
55. “Rebuilding East Harlem,” NYT (Sept. 25, 1948), 16.
56. Rita Morgan, Maryal Knox, and Clyde Murray, “Letter to the Editor: For Action in East Harlem, Utilization of Area for Experiment in Integrated Planning Suggested,” NYT (Dec. 7, 1948), 30.
57. Charles Bennett, “Wagner Advances Borough Planning; Makes East Harlem Hospital ‘Pilot Project’ for 12 Civic Districts of Manhattan,” NYT (Aug. 12, 1950), 13.
58. “Shops a Problem in East Harlem, 46.
The epigraph for this chapter is from Jane Jacobs, “The Missing Link in City Redevelopment,” AF 104 (Jun. 1956), 133.
01. Douglas Haskell, letter to Catherine Bauer, Oct. 5, 1956 (CBW Papers, Correspondence).
02. Influential turn-of-the-century treatises included Charles M. Robinson’ s Modern Civic Art, or, The City Made Beautiful (New York: G. P. Putnam ‘s Sons,1903), which popularized the City Beautiful movement; Patrick Geddes ‘s essay “Civics as Applied Sociology” (1904; Project Gutenberg, 2004), an argument for the systematic study of cities; Daniel Burnham and Edward Bennett ‘s Plan of Chicago (1909; New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1993), which promoted the concept of the “civic center; Thomas Mawson’s Civic Art: Studies in Town Planning, Parks, Boulevards, and Open Spaces (London: B. T. Batsford, 1911); and Werner Hegemann and Elbert Peets ‘s The American Vitruvius: An Architect’s Handbook of Civic Art (1922; New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1988). In these years, the American City Planning movement also emerged, with the First National Conference on City Planning held in Washington, DC, in 1909. In 1917, Frederick Law Olmsted and Flavel Shurtleff founded the American City Planning Institute, later renamed the American Institute of Planners. See Mel Scott, American City Planning Since 1890 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), 95; Miles Colean, “Economic and Social Significance of Housing Design,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 190 (Mar. 1937), 101; Lewis Mumford, introduction to Clarence Stein, Toward New Towns for America (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989), 11; Stein, Toward New Towns for America, 7.
03. “The Philadelphia Cure, “ 113 (emphasis in the original). Thanks to Nancy Hadley, the archivist for the American Institute of Architects, for historical information about the urban design committee.
04. E. Mumford, Defining Urban Design, 102, 233.
05. Kevin Lynch, “Proceedings of the June 1954 ACSA Conference: A New Look at Civic Design,” Journal of Architectural Education 10 (Spring 1955), 32; Ann L. Strong and George E. Thomas, The Book of the School: 100 Years of the Graduate School of Fine Arts of the University of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia: Graduate School of Fine Arts), 141; David Crane, “A Working Paper for the University of Pennsylvania Conference on Urban Design Criticism” (RF RG 1.2, University of Pennsylvania—Community Planning Conference, Oct. 1958–61, series 200, 457:3904, RAC), 6. Google Books Ngram searches (books.google.com/ngrams) show the use of the term “civic design” reaching a peak in print use in the mid-1950s. Replacing it, “urban design grew dramatically from the early 1950s, peaking in the 1970s, declining, and then rising again. “Urban sprawl” and “urban environment” have similar histories. “Urban redevelopment” peaked in the late 1950s, while “urban renewal” peaked in the late 1960s.
06. L. Mumford, “Mother Jacobs Home Remedies, 151.
07. Douglas Haskell, letter to Josep Lluis Sert, Mar. 19, 1956 (Haskell Papers, 20:5); Harvard Graduate School of Design Alumni Association, “Urban Design Conference, GSD Alumni Newsletter 1, Dec. 29, 1955 (Sert Papers).
08. Harvard Graduate School of Design Alumni Association, “Urban Design Conference Report, “ GSD Alumni Newsletter 2, Jun. 7, 1956 (Sert Papers); Victor Gruen, letter to Douglas Haskell, Apr. 16, 1956 (Haskell Papers, 8:7).
09. Lynch, “Proceedings,” 32; Josep Lluis Sert, “Proceedings of the June 1954 ACSA Conference: Welcome Address: The Challenge Ahead, Journal of Architectural Education 10 (Spring 1955), 3. See also E. Mumford, Defining Urban Design, 102; Eric Mumford, “The Emergence of Urban Design in the Breakup of CIAM, in Urban Design, ed. A. Krieger and W. Saunders (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009), 17, 25; Eric Mumford and Hashim Sarkis, eds., Josep Lluis Sert, the Architect of Urban Design, 1953–1969 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press and Harvard Graduate School of Design, 2008); and Richard Marshall, “The Elusiveness of Urban Design: The Perpetual Problems of Definition and Role,” Harvard Design Magazine 24 (Spring/Summer 2006), 26.
10. Josep Lluís Sert, “Introduction,” for the Urban Design Conference, Harvard Graduate School of Design, Apr. 9, 1956 (Sert Papers), 3; “Condensed Report of an Invitation Conference Sponsored by the Faculty and Alumni Association of the Graduate School of Design, Harvard University, April 9–10, 1956,” Progressive Architecture 37 (Aug. 1956), 97.
11. Sert, “Introduction,” 9, 11. In the “Condensed Report” transcript, Sert’ s “apology for the city was changed to “a case for the city (97).
12. Sert, “Introduction,” 8–9. See also Sert, “Centres of Community,” in Heart of the City, 3–4.
13. Sert, “Introduction,” 9, 11; E. Mumford, CIAM Discourse, 133.
14. Sert, “Introduction, 5–6.
15. Jacobs, “Missing Link in City Redevelopment, 132–33.
16. “Condensed Report, 99.
17. [John Voelcker, Peter Smithson, and Alison Smithson], “Aix-en-Provence 1954: CIAM 9,” in CIAM ‘59 in Otterlo, ed. Oscar Newman (Stuttgart: Karl Kramer Verlag, 1961), 14, 16; Jacob Bakema and Aldo van Eyck et al. “Doorn Manifesto, in Architecture Culture 1943–1968, ed. Joan Ockman (New York: Columbia Books of Architecture/Rizzoli, 1993), 13–24, 181–83; Max Risselada and Dirk van den Heuvel, eds., Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present (Rotterdam: NAi, 2005), 43. See also Volker Welter, Biopolis, Patrick Geddes and the City of Life (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002), 253–4; E. Mumford, CIAM Discourse, 248; and Peter L. Laurence, “Modern (or Contemporary) Architecture Circa 1959, “ in A Critical History of Contemporary Architecture, 1960–2010, ed. Elie Haddad and David Rifkind (London: Ashgate, 2014), 9–29.
18. Sert, “Introduction,” 4; Can Our Cities Survive?, 10; Le Corbusier, City of ToMorrow, 107; [Jacobs], “Pavement Pounders and Olympians,” 164; D&L, 436–37.
19. Jacobs, “Missing Link in City Redevelopment, 133.
20. Ibid., 132.
21. Ibid., 133. Jacobs’s speech was also reprinted in Progressive Architecture s “Condensed Report, but the text is not identical to “Missing Link. Jacobs likely edited the latter before publishing it. Jane Jacobs, “Downtown Is for People,” Fortune 57 (Apr. 1958), 134.
22. Douglas Haskell, letter to Catherine Bauer Wurster, May 28, 1956 (Haskell Papers, 24:6).
23. Bruegmann, Sprawl, 119.
24. “Man Made America: A Special Number of The Architectural Review,” AR 108 (Dec. 1950), 339, 343, 415, 414. For the Townscape’ s influence on urban design history, see David Gosling, The Evolution of American Urban Design (West Sussex: Wiley-Academy, 2003), 42; Laurence, “Contradictions and Complexities, 49–60; Laurence, “Death and Life of Urban Design, “ 145–72; Clement Orillard, “Tracing Urban Design’ s ‘Townscape’ Origins: Some Relationships Between a British Editorial Policy and an American Academic Field in the 1950s,” Urban History 36 (2009), 284–302. See also Erdem Erten, “Shaping ‘The Second Half Century’: The Architectural Review, 1947–1971” (Ph.D. diss., MIT, 2004); and Mathew Aitchison, ed., Nikolaus Pevsner: Visual Planning and the Picturesque (Los Angeles: Getty, 2010).
25. “Man Made America, 416.
26. Ibid., 340.
27. Douglas Haskell, “A Reply to: Man Made America, Special Number of The Architectural Review,’’ AF 94 (Apr. 1951), 158.
28. Ibid., 159.
29. Ibid., 158.
30. Ian Nairn, Outrage (London: Architectural Press), i, 381; Douglas Haskell, letter to John Rannells, Feb. 26, 1954 (Haskell Papers, 38:1), 2–3.
31. Douglas Haskell, “Can Roadtown Be Damned?” AF 103 (Dec. 1955), 166; Douglas Haskell, “Architecture for the Next Twenty Years,” AF 105 (Sept. 1956), 164.
32. Apart from citing Nairn and Cullen in D&L (390), Jacobs later acknowledged AR’s influence in the introduction to D&L, Modern Library edition (xiii).
33. [Jane Jacobs, Walter McQuade, Ogden Tanner, and Douglas Haskell], “What City Pattern? “ AF 105 (Sept. 1956), 103–29. Catherine Bauer married the architect William Wurster in 1940, but went by “Catherine Bauer in her professional life and in print. Since Haskell knew her and William socially, he sometimes addressed her as Wurster.
34. [Jane Jacobs], “By 1976 What City Pattern?” AF (Sept. 1956), 103.
35. Jane Jacobs, memo to Douglas Haskell, May 28, 1956 (Haskell Papers, 24:6).
36. Catherine Bauer, “First Job: Control New-City Sprawl, “ AF 105 (Sept. 1956), 111. There is some evidence that Bauer was not happy with the captions that Jacobs had written. Speaking of her future “Dreary Deadlock of Public Housing article, in a December 1956 letter, Haskell wrote to Bauer, “We agreed to have you check the captions this time.” Douglas Haskell, letter to Catherine Bauer, Dec. 21, 1956 (CBW Papers, Correspondence).
37. Douglas Haskell, letter to Catherine Bauer, July 13, 1956 (Haskell Papers, 24:6).
38. [Jacobs et al.], “What City Pattern?” 105.
39. Haskell, letter to Bauer, July 13, 1956; Douglas Haskell, letter to Victor Gruen, July 13, 1958 (Haskell Papers, 8:7); [Haskell et al.], “What City Pattern? Forum Editors Reply, “ 113. Perhaps unknown to Jacobs, Haskell had in fact initially asked Bauer in February 1956 to “tell the decentralization story for a Forum issue on cities.” He wrote her, “Could we get you to put the case for a completely decentralized pattern the way you were talking about it here in New York [recently], if you had until July to do it?” Douglas Haskell, letter to Catherine Bauer, Feb. 27, 1956 (CBW Papers, Correspondence).
40. [Haskell et al.], “What City Pattern? Forum Editors Reply.”
41. [Jane Jacobs], “What City Pattern? The Central City: Concentration vs. Congestion,” AF 105 (Sept. 1956), 115.
42. Ibid.
43. Ibid.
44. D&L, 338, 340, 343, 349–53.
45. [Jacobs], “What City Pattern? “ 130 (emphasis in the original).
46. Ibid., 134.
47. Douglas Haskell, letter to Catherine Bauer Wurster, Sept. 12, 1956 (Haskell Papers, 24:6).
48. D&L, 337. Jacobs also wrote a summary of the series for New York’s Citizens’ Housing & Planning Council Newsletter. Jane Jacobs, memo to Douglas Haskell, Jun. 3, 1957 (Haskell Papers, 79:6).
49. Catherine Bauer, “The Dreary Deadlock of Public Housing,” AF (May 1957), 142, 219, 221 (emphasis in the original).
50. James Rouse, “The Dreary Deadlock of Public Housing,” part 2, AF (Jun. 1957), 140.
51. Stanley Tankel, “Dreary Deadlock, part 2, 222.
52. Henry Churchill, “Dreary Deadlock, part 2, 218.
53. Ellen Lurie, “Dreary Deadlock,” part 2, 139–41ff.; Ellen Lurie, “Architectural Forum” (USAR 35:7), 1.
54. D&L, 324–25.
55. [Jane Jacobs], “Central City Housing, “ AF (Sept. 1956), 121.
56. [Jane Jacobs], “Row Houses for Cities,” AF (May 1957), 148.
57. [Jacobs], “Row Houses for Cities,” 148–52.
58. D&L, 215–16 (emphasis in the original).
59. “Housing Designed by Village Group,” NYT (May 6, 1963), 1; Peter Freiberg, “Village Wins 10-Year Fight for $23M Housing Project,” New York Post (Apr. 21, 1972), 10; Judith Lack, “Dispute Still Rages as West Village Houses Meets Its Sales Test,” NYT (Aug. 18, 1974), 8–1.
60. Jane Jacobs, “Reason, Emotion, Pressure: There Is No Other Recipe,” VV (May 22, 1957) , 4.
61. Ibid.
62. Ibid., 12.
63. Ibid.; D&L, 252. In 1957, Jacobs attributed the “recipe” for neighborhood activism to the New York City councilman Stanley Isaacs, a longtime city politician. She later spoke of him in her 1997 oral history in the context of her fight to save the West Village. See Kent, “Jane Jacobs: An Oral History,” 36–37. She also mentioned Isaacs in D&L (406) in the context of New York City politics.
64. D&L, 220, 445; [Jane Jacobs], “Our ‘Surplus’ Land,” AF (Mar. 1957), 101–2.
65. [Jacobs], “Our ‘Surplus’ Land,” 102.
66. Jane Jacobs, “New York’ s Office Boom,” AF (Mar. 1957), 104–13; D&L, 227, 383.
67. Jacobs, “New York’s Office Boom, 105.
68. Ibid., 111.
69. Jane Jacobs, “Metropolitan Government,” AF (Aug. 1957), 124.
70. Ibid., 127.
71. Ibid., 204.
72. Ibid., 124.
73. Ibid., 124, 208.
74. Ibid., 125.
75. [Jane Jacobs], “The City’ s Threat to Open Land,” AF (Jan. 1958), 87. See also Jane Jacobs, “Breathing Space for Americans “ [a draft of “The City’ s Threat to Open Land” ] (CBW Papers, Correspondence), 2.
76. [Jacobs], “City’s Threat to Open Land,” 89.
77. Ibid., 90, 166.
78. In her oral history with Kent, Jacobs stated, “I didn’ t play any part in the Greenwich Village Study. However, newspaper articles cited here, some of which included her photograph, plainly indicate that she was a member and a spokesperson on various issues. In another oral history, Claire Tankel, the widow of Stanley Tankel, affirmed the significance of Jacobs’s role in the Study. Although it seems surprising that Jacobs would have forgotten her involvement, she gave many speeches after 1957 and was often in the paper. Moreover, while Claire Tankel felt that the closing of Washington Square was an outcome of the Study, Jacobs did not seem to believe that Tankel or the Study deserved much credit. They also had a major falling out. Tankel was a compromiser; Jacobs was not. When they worked together, Jacobs had him in tears on account of her criticism of his wording of a press release that was apparently concerned about the closure of Washington Square. Later, during the Save the West Village battle, Tankel was on the Landmarks Commission at a time when Historic District designation for the Village was being debated. Jacobs felt that he and others were prepared to accept a trade of the City Planning Commission’ s designation of the West Village as a renewal area in exchange for adoption of the Historic Preservation designation elsewhere. Claire Tankel recalled, “Jane was just furious. I mean I don ‘t think they even talked again, she was so angry.” See Kent, “Jane Jacobs: An Oral History,” 62; and Laura Hansen, “Claire Tankel: An Oral History Interview Conducted for the GVSHP Preservation Archives,” Mar. 1, 1997 and Feb. 20, 1998, 34, 54–55.
79. “Greenwich Village Study Wants More Housing, No Projects, Traffic to Bypass Square,” VV (Nov. 20, 1957), 1; “DeSapio Supports Study on Village; Advocates ‘Minimal Through Roadway’ in Washington Sq., Not Expressway,” NYT (Dec. 20, 1957), 29; Daniel Wolf, “Washington Square: Study Calls It Major Asset; DeSapio Stand Causes??? [sic], “ VV (Dec. 25, 1957), 1; Kent, “Jane Jacobs: An Oral History,” passim.
80. “Greenwich Village Study,” 1, 3; “Washington Square,” 1.
81. Douglas Haskell, memo to Joe Hazen, Lawrence Lessing, Paul Grotz, and Del Paine, Nov. 21, 1957 (Haskell Papers, 79:6). Jacobs later stated that Holly Whyte asked her to write the article for Fortune. However, it is as likely that she pitched the article to both Whyte and Haskell. See Jacobs, letter to Ms. Talmey, Nov. 22, 1961, 2.
82. Haskell, memo to Hazen et al. Nov. 21, 1957.
83. [Jane Jacobs], “Redevelopment Today,” AF 108 (Apr. 1958), 108–13. The redevelopment projects included by Jacobs were only a certain subset of redevelopment projects related to the U.S. Housing Act of 1949. Her list did not include earlier redevelopment projects like Stuyvesant Town, many locally funded housing projects, or Pittsburgh’s Gateway Center, for example. Martin Anderson later confirmed the relatively small number of completed projects in 1958 and through 1962 in Federal Bulldozer (43).
84. Haskell, memo to Hazen et al., Nov. 21, 1957.
85. Lawrence Lessing, memo to Douglas Haskell, Edgar Smith, Joe Hazen, and Paul Grotz, Jan. 24, 1958 (Haskell Papers, 80:1).
The epigraph for this chapter is from Jane Jacobs, letter to Chadbourne Gilpatric, Jul. 23, 1959 (RF RG 1.2, Series series 200, 390:3381, RAC), 3.
1. Catherine Bauer, letter to Jane Jacobs, Apr. 27, 1958 (Bauer Papers, MS 774/163c).
2. Jane Jacobs, letter to Catherine Bauer, Apr. 29, 1958 (Bauer Papers, MS 774/163c).
3. Fred Kaplan, 1959: The Year Everything Changed (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2009), 1; Kevin Lynch, “The Form of Cities,” Scientific American (Apr. 1954), 55–63; Ian McHarg, “The Humane City: Must the Man of Distinction Always Move to the Suburbs?” Landscape Architecture 48 (Jan. 1958), 101–7; “Lewis Mumford, City Planning Expert and Author Urges Washington Square Park Closed to Traffic,” press release of the Joint Emergency Committee to Close Washington Square Park to Traffic, Mar. 1958 (Hayes Papers, 4:6); Ian McHarg, letter to Grady Clay, Apr. 8, 1958 (personal papers of Grady Clay). In “Metropolis Regained,” published in Horizon magazine in July 1959, Clay criticized such influential conceptions of “the city of the future as Norman Bel Geddes and General Motors “Futurama, as well as Ebenezer Howard’s Garden Cities movement and less theoretical motivations for decentralization and suburbanization. He described the essay as a direct result of the Penn Conference on Urban Design Criticism. In Wrestling with Moses, Anthony Flint discusses the battles for Washington Square at some length (76–88). For much more on the backlash to Moses in the 1950s and 1960s, see also Joel Schwartz, The New York Approach: Robert Moses, Urban Liberals, and Redevelopment of the Inner City (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1993); Robert Stern, Thomas Mellins, and David Fishman, New York 1960 (New York: Monacelli, 1995); Robert Fishman, “Revolt of the Urbs: Robert Moses and His Critics,” in Robert Moses and the Modern City: The Transformation of New York, ed. H. Ballon and K. Jackson (New York: W. W. Norton, 2007), 122–29; and Gratz, Battle for Gotham.
4. James Sterling, “Ronchamp: Le Corbusier’s Chapel and the Crisis of Rationalism,” AR 119 (Mar. 1956), 155–61; Newman, CIAM ‘59 in Otterlo, 10, 21, 26. See also my essay “Modern (or Contemporary) Architecture circa 1959,” 11.
5. Newman, CIAM ‘59 in Otterlo, 10, 12, 68, 77; Reyner Banham, The New Brutalism: Ethic or Aesthetic? (New York: Reinhold, 1966), 72; Alison and Peter Smithson, “The Built World: Urban Re-Identification,” Architectural Design (June 1955). See also Jacob Bakema et al., “Doorn Manifesto,” in Architecture Culture 1943–1968, 181–83.
6. William “Holly” Whyte Jr. and Jacobs were contemporaries, almost the same age, although Whyte joined Fortune and Time, Inc., in 1946 and was senior to her within the organization by six years. As described in this chapter, Whyte’s support was important to Jacobs’s career. However, he later overstated his influence on her. In the preface to the second edition of The Exploding Metropolis, he stated that when he met Jacobs, her work at Forum ‘‘consisted mainly of writing captions” (xv).
7. William H. Whyte and Ruth Kammler, “Selection of Letters Received in March and April 1958 by Fortune Magazine Letters Dept. re ‘Downtown Is for People’ by Jane Jacobs” (RF RG 1.2, series 200R, 390:3380, RAC). Contributions to the article by Nairn and Clay were likely at Jacobs’s suggestion, because she knew them better than Whyte. However, Fortune underwrote Nairn’s travel to six U.S. cities for his contribution and Clay’s tour of eleven cities for his. In the course of these travels, Jacobs hosted Nairn during his visit to New York, and Clay hosted him in Louisville, Kentucky. Clay later complained that his essay had been cut to two thousand words from twelve thousand, but he published a series of articles on his travels in Louisville newspapers and magazines.
8. Douglas Haskell, telegram to Catherine Bauer, Oct. 19, 1957 (Bauer Papers, Correspondence); Douglas Haskell, letter to Ian Nairn, May 7, 1958, letter to the editors [AR], Jan. 7, 1959 (Haskell Papers, 2:3).
9. Jane Jacobs, “Downtown Is for People,” 134, 138–39, 241–42.
10. Chadbourne Gilpatric, interview with Douglas Haskell, Feb. 22, 1958 (RF RG 1.2, series 200R, 390:3380, RAC).
11. MIT School of Architecture and Planning Visiting Committee, Meeting of the Visiting Committee to the School of Architecture and Planning, MIT, Apr. 7,1952 (Haskell Papers, 34:5), 2. Haskell, then Jacobs’s new supervisor, was also a member of MIT’s Visiting Committee. In one of the earlier conversations about the Rockefeller Foundation’s support for urban design, Stein and Stephenson sought support for Town Planning Review, which was then struggling. They explained that the publication, which was the only one at the time that published articles on urban history, was of particular importance to the field. See Charles Fahs, interview with John Burchard, Clarence Stein, and Frederick Adams, Jan. 6, 1953 (RF RG 1.2, MIT City Planning, series 200R, 375:3330.30, RAC).
12. See John Ely Burchard, “My Worries About the Education of Architects,” Journal of Architectural Education 10 (Spring 1955), 5. Another aspect of Burchard’s influence on architectural education was his service on the Harvard and Princeton Visiting Committees. See Leland Devinney and Edward D’Arms, interview with MIT Architecture and Planning Faculty [Pietro Belluschi, Lawrence Anderson, Louis Wetmore, Gyorgy Kepes, Lloyd Rodwin, Kevin Lynch, and Walter Isard], Feb. 17, 1954 (RF RG 1.2, MIT City Planning, series 200R, 375:3330.30, RAC), 6; John Ely Burchard, “Metropolis in Ferment: The Urban Aesthetic,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 314 (Nov. 1957), 112–22; and Charles B. Fahs, interview with John Burchard, July 24, 1953 (RF RG 1.2, MIT City Planning, series 200R, 375:3330.30, RAC).
13. Frederick Adams described his studies of education in the field of city planning, and details of the twenty-three U.S. degree programs, the majority of them new, including their disciplinary foundations (ten developed out of architecture programs, five out of social sciences, four out of landscape architecture, one out of engineering, and so on). Charles B. Fahs, interview with Dr. John Burchard et al., Jan. 6, 1953; Devinney and D’Arms, interview, 1.
14. Charles B. Fahs, interview with John Burchard, Lawrence Anderson, Louis Wetmore, Frederick Adams, and Gordon Stephenson, Sept. 18, 1953 (RF RG 1.2, MIT City Planning, series 200R, 375:3330.30, RAC). MIT’s Center for Urban and Regional Studies, with Wetmore as inaugural director, preceded the establishment of similar research institutes at Harvard and Penn. As compared to a more “humanistic” direction proposed by the Rockefeller Foundation and Burchard, Wetmore’s research focused on urban economics and the “problems of intra-regional industrial location.” He left MIT for the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1955. (Cf. Wetmore Papers, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.) In 1953, Gordon Stephenson was tapped to succeed Frederick Adams, his former instructor, as chair of the city planning department. However, he was denied a permanent visa, ostensibly because of suspicions aroused by his work for Le Corbusier on the Palace of the Soviets and subsequent trips to the Soviet Union during the 1930s. Gordon Stephenson, On a Human Scale: A Life in City Design (South Fremantle, Australia: Fremantle Arts Center Press, 1992), 108, 155.
15. Devinney and D’Arms, interview, 3.
16. MIT Center for Urban and Regional Studies, “The Three-Dimensional Urban Environment,” draft research proposal, Oct. 7, 1953 (RF RG 1.2, MIT City Planning, series 200R, 375:3330.30, RAC), 1–2; Fahs, interview with J. Burchard et al., Sept. 18, 1953, 2. The first MIT proposal, an amalgamation of research interests, was submitted by the Center for Urban and Regional Studies while Kevin Lynch was in Florence, Italy, studying city form and the experience of the city. Lynch and Kepes were also not present at some of the early meetings. It appears, however, that their research agenda was presented by the Center for Urban and Regional Studies.
17. MIT Center for Urban and Regional Studies, Kevin Lynch, and Gyorgy Kepes, “Proposed Study: The Perceptual Forms of Cities,” Dec. 23, 1953 (RF RG 1.2, MIT City Planning, series 200R, 375:3330.30, RAC), 1. To understand “psychological reactions to the city,” Lynch and Kepes indicated that they would consult with a social psychologist about interviewing a “well-selected but relatively small sample, perhaps twenty to thirty persons, in order to investigate their attitudes toward the city, their perception and grasp of it, the elements most important in giving them pleasure or displeasure, and their history and memories in relation to the city.” This aspect of the research, more so than their critical theories, eventually dominated the analytical and objective sensibility of Lynch’s book Image of the City. See Devinney and D’Arms, interview, 3.
18. MIT Center for Urban and Regional Studies, “The Three-Dimensional Urban Environment,” 2, 4, 10; Rockefeller Foundation Humanities Division, grant report for MIT Lynch-Kepes city planning study (RF 54034), Apr. 7, 1954 (RF RG 1.2, MIT City Planning, series 200R, 375:3330.30, RAC), 2.
19. Edward F. D’Arms, interview with University of Pennsylvania School of Fine Arts Faculty, Mar. 16, 1956 (RF RG 1.2, University of Pennsylvania—Community Planning, series 200, 456:3899, RAC); Edward F. D’Arms, memo to Humanities Officers of the Rockefeller Foundation, Oct. 19, 1955 (RF RG 1.2, University of Pennsylvania—Community Planning, series 200, 456:3899, RAC).
20. Gutkind’s research project was believed to be an opportunity to balance the “social science or social engineering” direction of Penn’s School of Fine Arts. The Gutkind project, he wrote, “will tend to balance this tendency and at the same time to provide materials which will make it possible to introduce historical perspectives and materials into the field of urban studies”; to “restore a humanistic balance to the program of the School of Fine Arts”; and to build “historical depth into the school.” The first Penn grant also included a smaller amount for Ian McHarg’s research on pedagogy in the field of landscape architecture. D’Arms, interview, Mar. 16, 1965; D’Arms, memo to Humanities Directors of the Rockefeller Foundation, Apr. 6, 1956 (RF RG 1.2, University of Pennsylvania—Community Planning, series 200, 456:3899, RAC).
21. William L. C. Wheaton and the University of Pennsylvania Institute for Urban Studies, “A Proposal to the Rockefeller Foundation for a Conference on Criticism in Urban Design,” Jun. 12, 1958 (RF RG 1.2, University of Pennsylvania—Community Planning, series 200, 457:3904, RAC).
22. Lynch published parts of his research prior to the publication of The Image of the City in 1960, including “Some Childhood Memories of the City,” Journal of the American Institute of Planners 22 (1956), 142–52, with Alvin K. Lukashok. However, an early version of “The Image of the City” was circulated in February 1958, and this is likely what she was referring to in “Downtown Is for People.” See Wheaton et al., “Proposal to the Rockefeller Foundation”; Chadbourne Gilpatric, “Critical Viewpoints in City Design,” visit to Institute for Urban Studies, University of Pennsylvania, May 7, 1958 (RF RG 1.2, University of Pennsylvania—Community Planning, series 200, 456:3900, RAC); Chadbourne Gilpatric, interview visit to Institute for Urban Studies, University of Pennsylvania, May 7, 1958 (RF RG 1.2, University of Pennsylvania—Community Planning, series 200, 456:3900, RAC).
23. “Excerpts from a Speech by Jane Jacobs,” New School for Social Research, Apr. 17, 1958 (Hayes Papers, 4:6).
24. Ibid.
25. Lewis Mumford, letter to Jane Jacobs, May 3, 1958 (Jacobs Papers, 13:11).
26. Chadbourne Gilpatric, interview with Jane Jacobs, May 9, 1958 (RF RG 1.2, series 200R, 390:3380, RAC); Jane Jacobs, “New Heart for Baltimore,” AF (Jun. 1958), 88–90. The Charles Center project director, George Kostritsky, was later the “K” in the architectural firm RTKL. Jacobs cited him and her friend Penny Kostritsky in D&L. Before the Charles Center, Baltimore had pursued a less destructive approach than seen, for example, in New York. Although Moses had been hired by the city in 1944 to recommend a route for a downtown expressway, opposition was immediate: “Baltimoreans made it clear that they weren’t going to have their communities plowed under for a Moses-type expressway. They were speaking Jane Jacobs’ thoughts before she wrote them down.” Gwinn Owens, “How the Great Moses Was Wiped Out by Jane Jacobs,” Baltimore Sun, Aug. 6, 1981 (reprinted in ITM, 99).
27. Gilpatric, interview with Jacobs, May 9, 1958.
28. Ibid. Jacobs also offered that the New School for Social Research would likely host her and administer a foundation grant; she knew that Arthur Swift, the school’s dean, whom she knew from the Union Settlement’s board of directors, would be interested in such research.
29. Gilpatric, interview with Jacobs, Jun. 4, 1958.
30. Jane Jacobs, letter to Chadbourne Gilpatric, Jun. 14, 1958 (RF RG 1.2, series 200R, 390:3380, RAC).
31. Ibid.
32. Ibid.
33. Ibid.
34. Ibid.
35. Jane Jacobs, letter to Lewis Mumford, Jun. 17, 1958 (unlocated). Jacobs referred to Mumford’s April 1958 article “The Highway and the City” in D&L (358). The article was republished in Mumford’s book The Urban Prospect (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1968), 92–107. See also Lewis Mumford, letter to Jane Jacobs, Jun. 18, 1958 (Jacobs Papers, 13:11).
36. Chadbourne Gilpatric, interview with Jane Jacobs, Jun. 26, 1958 (RF RG 1.2, series 200R, 390:3380, RAC). Later that year, Jason Epstein and his editorial staff moved to Random House, which published The Death and Life of Great American Cities. Epstein was Jacobs’s longtime editor. She dedicated Cities and the Wealth of Nations: Principles of Economic Life (1984), her fourth major book, to him.
37. [Jane Jacobs], “What Is a City?” AF (Jul. 1958), 63; Harrison Salisbury, “‘Shook’ Youngsters Spring from the Housing Jungles,” NYT (Mar. 26, 1958), 1.
38. [Jacobs], “What Is a City?”; Salisbury, “‘Shook’ Youngsters,” 1; D&L, 137.
39. [Jacobs],”What Is a City?”
40. Jane Jacobs, letter to Chadbourne Gilpatric, Jul. 1, 1958 (Jacobs Papers, 13:11).
41. Ibid.
42. Ibid.
43. Ibid.
44. Letters from Lewis Mumford, Catherine Bauer, William Whyte, Jason Epstein, Martin Meyerson, and G. Holmes Perkins to Chadbourne Gilpatric, Aug. 1958 (RF RG 1.2, series 200R, 390:3380, RAC).
45. Christopher Tunnard, letter to Chadbourne Gilpatric, Aug. 1958 (RF RG 1.2, series 200R, 390:3380, RAC). Tunnard’s work was supported by the third major grant in the foundation’s urban design research initiative to Yale’s Graduate Program in City Planning, in 1957, for a multiyear research project on city planning and the built environment. With a title that referred to his Townscape contribution of 1950 (some called it “Outrage, U.S. Version”), the result of his foundation-supported research was Man-Made America: Chaos or Control? An Inquiry into Selected Problems of Design in the Urbanized Landscape (1963), coauthored with Boris Pushkarev.
46. RF GA HUM 5862, grant-in-aid to New School for Social Research and Jane Jacobs through Oct. 1959, Sept. 8, 1958 (RF RG 1.2, series 200R, 390:3380, RAC); Rockefeller Foundation, 1958 Annual Report, 291.
47. Gilpatric, interview with Jacobs, Jun. 4, 1958.
48. Those considered for participation in the “Urban Design Criticism” conference by Jacobs, Wheaton, and Gilpatric included Victor Gruen, William Whyte, Joseph Hudnut, Aline Saarinen, Joseph Guess, Harrison Salisbury, Fritz Gutheim, J. M. Richards, Nikolaus Pevsner, and James M. Fitch. Chadbourne Gilpatric, interview with William Wheaton et al., May 7, 1958 (UPenn—Community Planning, 456:3900, RAC); conference schedule (UPenn— Community Planning, 457:3905, RAC).
49. Memorandum, n.d. (Jacobs Papers, 19:3).
50. Chadbourne Gilpatric, interview with Jane Jacobs, Oct. 17, 1958 (RF RG 1.2, series 200R, 390:3380, RAC). The participants of a May 1960 conversation included Ada Louise Huxtable, Epstein, William Kirk, the architect William Conklin, Salisbury, Tankel, and Whyte. “Luncheon on Civic Design” (RG 1.2, series 200, 390:3391, RAC).
51. It is worth noting that Jacobs did not single William Slayton out for criticism in D&L just because he was closely involved with urban renewal. As commissioner for the Urban Renewal Administration, Slayton was popular, a champion of cities, an advocate of design, and an activist against racial discrimination in housing, all qualities that would have appealed to her. Cf. Eric Pace, “William Slayton, 82, Official Who Aided Urban Renewal,” NYT (Aug. 11, 1999), C23.
52. Daniel Wolf, “Villagers Win Major Victory; Road Thru Square Shrinking,” VV (Sept. 24, 1958), 1–3; Jane Jacobs, “Downtown Planning, Solving Traffic Problems,” Vital Speeches of the Day 25 (Jan. 1, 1959), 190–92.
53. “A Human Victory,” AF (Dec. 1958), 79.
54. The September 9, 1958, conference was sponsored by the Cincinnati Enquirer. Murray Seeger, “Experts Advise Linking Cities with Suburbs,” Cleveland Plain Dealer (Sept. 10, 1959), 17. Also see Grady Clay, letter to Jane Jacobs, Christmas 1958, courtesy of Grady Clay. While in Boston, Jacobs had wanted to meet with Lynch and Kepes at MIT, but she ran out of time. However, she met with Martin Meyerson at the Joint Center for Urban Studies, and he suggested that she pursue a less ambitious project than a book on urban renewal and American cities. In April and May 1999, when I met with Jacobs and had a number of phone conversations with her, she said she had felt like Meyerson was trying to talk her out of writing the book.
55. Chadbourne Gilpatric, interview with Jane Jacobs, Dec. 2, 1958 (RF RG 1.2, series 200R, 390:3380, RAC). Also influential for Jacobs was the sociologist Herbert Gans’s article on Boston’s West End and North End, “The Human Implications of Current Redevelopment and Relocation Planning,” Journal of the American Institute of Planners 25 (Feb. 1959), 15–25, which she cited in D&L. The article was an early version of ch. 14 of Gans’s The Urban Villagers: Group and Class in the Life of Italian-Americans (New York: Free Press, 1962). Before Gans and Jacobs, the North End and Italian-American communities residing in Boston were of interest to the sociologist William Foote Whyte. Whyte’s book Street Corner Society was the result of living in the North End, aka “Cornerville,” first with a local family and then with this wife, in the late 1940s. See Street Corner Society: The Social Structure of an Italian Slum (1943; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993).
56. Jane Jacobs, letter to Catherine Bauer, Jan. 2, 1959 (Bauer Papers, Correspondence).
57. Ibid.
58. United Neighborhood Houses of NY, Meeting of the UNH Housing Committee, Dec. 4, 1958 (United Neighborhood Houses of New York Records, Elmer L. Andersen Library, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis).
59. “Description of and Problems Raised by the DeWitt Clinton Housing Project,” n.d. (USAR, 35:7).
60. Ellen Lurie, “Tenant Leaders Meeting re New Design for Clinton Houses,” Feb. 12, 1959 (USAR, 35:8); “DeWitt Clinton Housing Study,” Jan. 8, 1959 (USAR, 35:8).
61. Final draft of report to Housing Authority on DeWitt Clinton, Feb. 3, 1959 (USAR, 35:8).
62. “Initial Draft of Some of the Material in Jane Jacobs’ Presentation to the Housing Authority on DeWitt Clinton,” Jan. 1959 (USAR, 35:8).
63. Final draft of report to Housing Authority on DeWitt Clinton.
64. Draft press release, Feb. 15, 1959 (USAR, 35:8). Copy given to Ellen Lurie by Jane Jacobs.
65. Richard A. Miller, “Public Housing … for People,” AF (Apr. 1959), 134–37. Samuel Zipp has also written about the DeWitt Clinton housing project in Manhattan Projects, 327–31.
66. D&L, 397. Jacobs remained involved in redevelopment and housing matters in East Harlem into the early 1960s, and she shared information with Gilpatric about her activities during the course of their correspondence in order to encourage foundation interest and support.
67. Jane Jacobs, letter to Grady Clay, Feb. 20, 1959. Courtesy of Grady Clay. Jacobs’s “hide-out” was at 224 West 4th Street.
68. Ibid.
69. Jane Jacobs, letter to Grady Clay, Mar. 3, 1959. Courtesy of Grady Clay.
70. Ibid.
71. Chadbourne Gilpatric, memo, Jun. 10, 1959 (RF RG 1.2, series 200, 390:3381, RAC); Jane Jacobs, letter to Chadbourne Gilpatric, Jun. 15, 1959 (RF RG 1.2, series 200, 390:3381, RAC).
72. Jane Jacobs, letter to Chadbourne Gilpatric, Jul. 17, 1959 (RF RG 1.2, series 200, 390:3381, RAC). It was around this time that Jacobs hired Ellen Perry (Berkeley), listed in D&L’s acknowledgments, as a part-time research assistant. Perry helped Jacobs confirm various ideas about city dynamics by counting the number of people sitting on stoops and their locations; inventorying mom-and-pop stores; and similar data-gathering tasks that informed D&L’s first three chapters (telephone conversation with Ellen Perry Berkeley, Jul. 20, 2014). Soon thereafter, with the help of Jacobs’ s recommendation, Berkeley was hired as an associate editor at Progressive Architecture and later as a senior editor at AF. Berkeley also helped to found the Women ‘s School of Planning and Architecture in 1972.
73. Ibid.
74. “Woman Says Planners Look Back, Not Ahead; Urges Traffic-less Downtowns,” Flint Michigan Journal, May 4, 1959, n.p.; “Woman Fights to Save Downtowns,” Times-Picayune (New Orleans), May 10, 1959, 13. The latter syndicated newspaper article was published throughout the country. See also Kent, “Jane Jacobs: An Oral History, 16–17; and Flint, Wrestling with Moses, 88.
75. Jacobs, letter to Gilpatric, Jul. 23, 1959.
76. Ibid.
77. Ibid.
78. William Whyte, letter to Chadbourne Gilpatric, Aug. 1, 1959 (RF RG 1.2, series 200, 390:3381, RAC).
79. William Kirk, Eric Larrabee, and W. N. Seymour, letters to Chadbourne Gilpatric, Aug. 3, 11, and 17, 1959 (RF RG 1.2, series 200, 390:3381, RAC); Charles Fahs, interview with Charles Farnsley, Jun. 15, 1959 (RF RG 1.2, series 200, 390:3380, RAC); Barclay Jones, report, Jun. 8, 1959 (RF RG 1.2, series 200, University of California, Jones & Jacobs, 433:3724, RAC).
80. Wayne Phillips, “Title I Slum Clearance Proves Spur to Cooperative Housing in City,” NYT (Jul. 2, 1959), 13; Douglas Haskell, memo to Jane Jacobs, Jul. 2, 1959 (Haskell Papers, 79:6).
81. Jane Jacobs, letter to Chadbourne Gilpatric, Oct. 29, 1959 (RF RG 1.2, series 200, 390:3381, RAC); Jane Jacobs, letter to Saul Alinsky, Aug. 18, 1959 (Alinsky Papers, correspondence, Briscoe).
82. Jane Jacobs, letter to Chadbourne Gilpatric, May 6, 1961 (RF RG 1.2, series 200, 390:3381, RAC).
83. Chadbourne Gilpatric, letter to Jane Jacobs, May 19, 1960 (RF RG 1.2, series 200, 390:3381, RAC). The first line from White’s Here Is New York is “On any person who desires such queer prizes, New York will bestow the gift of loneliness and the gift of privacy.” Jacobs declined the suggestion.
84. Jane Jacobs, letter to Chadbourne Gilpatric, Aug. 2, 1960 (RF RG 1.2, series 200, 390:3381, RAC).
85. Jane Jacobs, letter to Chadbourne Gilpatric, May 11, 1960 (RF RG 1.2, series 200, 390:3381, RAC); D&L, 376 (emphasis in the original).
86. Jane Jacobs, letter to Chadbourne Gilpatric, Sept. 29, 1960 (RF RG 1.2, series 200, 390:3381, RAC); D&L, 376.
87. Chadbourne Gilpatric, letter to Jane Jacobs, Mar. 27, 1961 (RF RG 1.2, series 200, 390:3381, RAC).
88. Jacobs, letter to Gilpatric, May 6, 1961.
89. D&L, 429; Laurence, “Complexities and Contradictions,” 49–60. A previous reference to Weaver’s concept of organized complexity was made by the architect Richard Llewelyn-Davies in “Human Sciences, AR 127 (Mar. 1960), 190. Jacobs had likely read the article.
90. Jane Jacobs, letter to Chadbourne Gilpatric, Oct. 27, 1961 (RF RG 1.2, series 200R, 390:3381, RAC).
The epigraph for this chapter is from Jane Jacobs, letter to Chadbourne Gilpatric, Jul. 1, 1958, 3.
01. “Two Blighted Downtown Areas Are Chosen for Urban Renewal,” NYT (Feb. 21, 1961), 37.
02. Ibid.; “Angry ‘Villagers’ to Fight Project,” NYT (Feb. 27, 1961), 29. Jacobs discussed the fight to save the West Village in detail; see Kent, “Jane Jacobs: An Oral History,” 18–47. Glenna Lang, Alice Alexiou Sparberg, and Anthony Flint also tell the story in different ways in their books (respectively, Genius of Common Sense; Jane Jacobs: Urban Visionary; and Wrestling with Moses).
03. Kent, “Jane Jacobs: An Oral History,” 27, 36–37. Leticia Kent, a journalist and longtime friend of Jacobs, was a member of the Committee to Save the West Village. The committee later convinced a group of “dissident” members of Mi-Cove to place a newspaper advertisement indicating their opposition to the West Village renewal proposal. See “Micove Is Attacked on Housing Stand,” NYT (Apr. 14, 1961), 20; Edith E. Asbury, “Village Project Backed in Fight,” NYT (Oct. 21, 1961), 24; Roger Starr, “Adventure in Mooritania,” Newsletter of the Citizens’ Housing and Planning Council of NY (reprinted in ITM, 53–54).
04. “Village Housing Study Fund Plea Is Put Off,” NYT (Feb. 24, 1961), 31; “Villagers Seek to Halt Renewal,” NYT (Mar. 4, 1961), 11; William Kirk, letter to the editor, NYT (Mar. 7, 1961), 34; “Dudley Asks for Delay on Renewal Study,” NYT (Mar. 16, 1961), 39; “Dudley Predicts Wider Renewal, Says All of Manhattan May Be Studied,” NYT (Mar. 19, 1961), 44; “Ten Big Housing Projects Approved by City Board,” NYT (Mar. 24, 1961), 1; “Civic Groups Score Village Project,” NYT (Mar. 28, 1961), 40. Apart from Kirk, Jacobs enlisted the support of Nathan Glazer, one of many signatories to a March 1961 statement of protest.
05. “Village Housing a Complex Issue, City’s Plan Extends Only to Survey,” NYT (Mar. 23, 1961), 35; Kent, “Jane Jacobs: An Oral History,” 26–30. Lester Eisner was the father of the former Disney executive Michael Eisner.
06. “City Ready to Act in US Slum Plan, Mayor Prepares for Quick Moves on New Projects If Congress Widens Aid,” NYT (Apr. 4, 1961), 1. See also “Davies Disputes Foes of Village Survey,” NYT (Apr. 15, 1961), 15.
07. “Village Group Wins Court Stay,” NYT (Apr. 28, 1961), 34.
08. “Village Housing Defended by Felt,” NYT (May 8, 1961), 40; “Felt Sees Change in Renewal View,” NYT (May 9, 1961), 36; “Felt Bids Council Support Renewal,” NYT (May 10, 1961), 34; John Sibley, “New Housing Idea to Get Test Here,” NYT (May 23, 1961), 25. Roberta Brandes Gratz discusses the 1965 Landmarks Preservation Law in Battle for Gotham, 38–43.
09. Charles Bennett, “City Gives Up Plan for West Village,” NYT (Feb. 1, 1962), 30; Erik Wensberg, letter to the editor, NYT (May 12, 1961), 28; Kent, “Jane Jacobs: An Oral History,” 2–3, 18, 21–22, passim. Erik Wensberg was a cofounder of the Save the West Village Committee. Wensberg, who was editor of The Columbia Forum at this time, read early drafts of D&L and later worked with Jacobs on the West Village Houses project and on the fight against the Lower Manhattan Expressway. See Albert Amateau, “Wensberg, Editor/Writer, Key Jacobs Ally, 79,” The Villager 80 (Jul. 7–10, 2010), accessed online.
10. John Sibley, “Ouster of Davies and Felt Sought,” NYT (Jun. 8, 1961), 71; “Wagner Opposes Village Change,” NYT (Aug. 18, 1961), 23; Charles Bennett, “Mayor Abandons Village Project,” NYT (Sept. 7, 1961), 31.
11. “Report of the City Planning Commission on the Designation of the West Village Area,” Oct. 18, 1961, CP-16478, 9.
12. Jane Jacobs, “How City Planners Hurt Cities,” Saturday Evening Post (Oct. 14, 1961), 12–14. “Report of the City Planning Commission on the Designation of the West Village,” 7–9, 12–13.
13. Edith Asbury, “Plan Board Votes Village Project, Crowd in Uproar,” NYT (Oct. 19, 1961), 1.
14. Ibid.
15. Edith Asbury, “Deceit Charged in Village Plan,” NYT (Oct. 20, 1961), 68; Kent, “Jane Jacobs: An Oral History,” 38–40, 44–45; Jane Jacobs, letter to Arnold Nicholson, Oct. 23, 1961 (Jacobs Papers, 11:6).
16. The excerpt in Harper’s Magazine, “Violence in the City Streets,” published on November 4, was acknowledged as being from the first edition of Death and Life, and this coincided with the book’s release. Jacobs, letter to Gilpatric, Oct. 27, 1961.
17. Martin Arnold, “Felt Set to Yield in Village Fight,” NYT (Jan. 17, 1962), 33. A few days after Wagner leaked his letters with Felt, Wagner forced the Housing and Redevelopment Board chair Clarence Davies out of office, publicly blaming him for mishandling the West Village redevelopment proposal. See Martin Arnold, “Davies Reported Ready to Quit as Head of City Housing Board,” NYT (Jan. 19, 1962), 1; Bennett, “City Gives Up Plan for West Village, 35.
18. Reyner Banham wrote about the Washington Square and West Village battles in “Counter-Attack, NY,” a reference to The Architectural Review’s “Counter-Attack” issue (Architects’ Journal, May 4, 1961, 629–30). See also Jane Jacobs, “The Citizen in Urban Renewal: Participation or Manipulation? “ Feb. 21, 1962 (Jacobs Papers, 1:1).
19. Jacobs, “Citizen in Urban Renewal, passim.
20. William F. Buckley Jr., letter to Jane Jacobs, Dec. 27, 1961 (Jacobs Papers, 13:10); Ernest van den Haag, “Loss of Urbanity,” National Review (Dec. 30, 1961), 455–56; Eric Larrabee, “In Print: Jane Jacobs,” Horizon (Summer 1962); Eric Larrabee, “Book Review: Death and Life” (reprinted in ITM, 49–51).
21. Leticia Kent, “Jane Jacobs: Against Urban Renewal, for Urban Life, NYT Magazine (May 23, 1969) (reprinted in ITM, 20). See also Charles Abrams in “Abattoir for Sacred Cows: Reviews of The Death and Life of Great American Cities,” Progressive Architecture (Apr. 1962), 196, 202; Marshall Berman, All That Is Solid Melts into Air: The Experience of Modernity (New York: Penguin, 1982), 314; and Fredric Jameson, “City Theory in Jacobs and Heidegger, “ in Anywise (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996), 35. For Jacobs’s criticism of chain stores, which she associated socially with suburbanism and economically with monopolies, see, for example, D&L, 4, 147, 188, 190–92. As Jacobs discussed in Economy of Cities, cities grew through import replacement (i.e., local economic development and the creation of exports) and therefore would tend to shrink by replacing local production with imports (146).
22. Percival Goodman in “Abattoir for Sacred Cows, 196, 202.
23. Percival Goodman and Paul Goodman, Communitas: Means of Livelihood and Ways of Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947), 16, 29, 31–32, 92, 99; Percival Goodman and Paul Goodman, Communitas, 2nd ed. (New York: Vintage, 1960), 52–54, 164, 174–75.
24. Percival Goodman, “What Can We Do with the City?” Dissent (Spring 1962), 194–98.
25. L. Mumford, “Mother Jacobs Home Remedies, 167–68, 178.
26. Melvin Webber, “Order in Diversity: Community Without Propinquity, in Cities and Space: The Future Use of Urban Land, ed. L. Wingo Jr. (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1963), 23, 25, 34, 40, 41, 54.
27. Reyner Banham, Paul Barker, Peter Hall, and Cedric Price, “Non-Plan: An Experiment in Freedom, “ New Society (Mar. 20, 1969), reproduced in Non-Plan: Essays on Freedom, Participation, and Change in Modern Architecture and Urbanism, ed. Jonathan Hughes and Simon Sadler, introd. Paul Barker (Woburn, MA: Architectural Press, 2000), 16–21. In Non-Plan, see also Ben Franks’s “New Right/New Left: An Alternative Experiment in Freedom” (32–43) and Hughes’s essay “After Non-Plan, Retrenchment and Reassertion” (174–76). For another trailblazing history of the nonplanning/nondesign movement, see Anthony Fontenot, “Non-Design and the Non-Planned City” (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 2013). See also Robert Venturi, Denise Scott Brown, and Steven Izenour, Learning from Las Vegas: The Forgotten Symbolism of Architectural Form (1972; Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1993).
28. The Road to Serfdom, written during World War II, was an antitotalitarian treatise in which Hayek attacked fascism and various forms of collectivism (e.g., communism and Marxism), as well as nationalism, racism, corporatism, conservatism, and paternalism, as steppingstones toward social control and coercion. While also attacking socialism, particularly the Nazis’ National Socialism, Hayek explained in the foreword to the 1976 edition that the meaning of socialism changed after World War II, leading him to observe that “Sweden, for instance, is today very much less socialistically organized than Great Britain or Austria, though Sweden is commonly regarded as much more socialistic.” In The Constitution of Liberty, he declared that socialism was dead in the Western world but that it had taken the form of the welfare state and its ideas about social justice. In contrast to expectations, however, in The Road to Serfdom, he had argued against the “dogmatic laissez faire attitude,” and he wrote, “There is no reason why in a society which has reached the general level of wealth which ours has attained the first kind of security should not be guaranteed to all without endangering general freedom. … [T]here can be no doubt that some minimum of food, shelter, and clothing, sufficient to preserve health and capacity to work, can be assured to everybody.” F. A. Hayek, The Road to Serfdom: Text and Documents, ed. Bruce Caldwell (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 49, 54, 148. See also “Engineers and Planners,” ch. 10 of Hayek’s The Counter-Revolution of Science: Studies on the Abuse of Reason (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1952), 94–102, in which he discusses the failure of statistics to account for the particular conditions of time and place.
29. Hayek cited Warren Weaver on the nature of scientific knowledge (not his work on complexity science) in The Constitution of Liberty, The Definitive Edition, ed. Ronald Hamowy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011), 77, and again in “The Theory of Complex Phenomena,” in The Critical Approach to Science and Philosophy, ed. Mario Bunge (London: Free Press, 1964), 348–49. For Hayek’s discussion of “the knowledge of the particular circumstances of time and place,” which was ultimately an argument for the price mechanism, see “The Uses of Knowledge in Society,” American Economic Review 35 (Sept. 1945), 519–30.
30. Hayek, Constitution of Liberty, 466–67, 475–76, 480. The latest edition of this book cites Death and Life on p. 467. See also Jane Jacobs, “Performance Zoning as an Alternative to Use Zoning” (Jacobs Papers, 8:10).
31. For Jacobs on the subject of the automobile and public transportation, see D&L, ch. 18, and, for a more recent discussion on the topic, her interview with Bill Steigerwald in Reason magazine, Jun. 2001, reason.com. The quotation concerning “atomistic competition” comes from Anthony O’Hear, “Hayek and Popper: The Road to Serfdom and the Open Society,” in The Cambridge Companion to Hayek, ed. E. Feser (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 134. O’Hear wrote, “We should surely heed Hayek’s warning of the treacherousness of the apparently reasonable proposition that there is a ‘middle way’ between ‘atomistic’ competition and central direction.” This slippery-slope argument for atomistic competition is at odds with Hayek’s admission of the need for social services and what is actually required to create a socially “level playing field” and with such admissions as that Sweden was socialistic, but not so socialistic as some nonsocialistic societies.
32. D&L, 71.
33. D&L, 130, 241, 248, 401; Jane Jacobs, “America and the Americans,” Feb. 1945 (Jacobs Papers, 12:4), 7. In contrast, Hayek had little to say about race. While he was aware of the oppression of minorities under Nazism and totalitarian regimes, his only reference to racial segregation in America in his books on “serfdom” (slavery in de Tocqueville’s context) and the virtues of American constitutionalism was to support a point about the flaws of public education. He also made abstract arguments against suffrage, observing that, “in the oldest and most successful of European democracies, Switzerland, women are still excluded from the vote” (Constitution of Liberty, 169). He argued that “if in the Western world universal adult suffrage seems the best arrangement, this does not prove that it is required by some basic principle” (170). Regardless of any ideas Jacobs may have shared with Hayek, she did not share these.
Hayek preferred the term “Whiggism” to “libertarianism,” but he recognized it as an odd one. However, it indeed seems fitting insofar as his concerns appear rather similar to those of an old privileged class that opposed the monarchy in the seventeenth century (531). His form of libertarianism, he explained, “is concerned mainly with limiting the coercive powers of all government, whether democratic or not” (166). A reason for this is that he associated the defense of minority views and initially unpopular causes like the abolition of slavery with the “idle rich” (193).
34. See Paul Goodman, “The Anarchist Principle,” originally published in Anarchy 62 (Apr. 1966) and reprinted in The Paul Goodman Reader, ed. T. Stoehr (Oakland, CA: PM Press, 2011), 29; Fred Lawrence, Ethics in Making a Living: The Jane Jacobs Conference (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press and Boston College, 1989), 199.
35. D&L, 138, 167, 244–46, 251–56, 313–14. Discussing feedback processes, on p. 252, Jacobs quoted from Robert K. Plumb, “New Light Is Shed on Heredity Role; Neither It nor Environment, but Combination Is Vital,” NYT (Sept. 14, 1960), 45. The term “gentrification” was coined by the British sociologist Ruth Glass in 1964, so Jacobs did not use it in Death and Life. However, she understood the issue in both its public (i.e., government funding for middle-class housing) and market-driven dimensions.
36. For the context of antigentrification efforts in Greenwich Village, see “Luxury Housing Gains in Village; More than 20 Structures Under Way as Boom Moves Downtown; West Village Expands,” NYT (Mar. 12, 1961), R1. Through Jacobs’s efforts, West Village Houses was supported by the New York State Mitchell-Lama housing program to allow a third of the units to be rented at a low-income rate. Jacobs and the Committee to Save the West Village sought federal subsidies to bring the remainder of the units to a similar level. See Peter Freiberg, “Village Wins 10-Year Fight for $23M Housing Project,” New York Post (Apr. 21, 1972), 10. See also Lawrence, Ethics in Making a Living, 18–19. In the same conversation about those who saw her as a libertarian, Jacobs reacted to a comment that she would “do fine in Margaret Thatcher’s government” by stating that “Margaret Thatcher’s government appalls” her. (Thatcherism was sometimes associated with Hayek’s economic theories and libertarianism.) See also Pierre Desrochers, “The Death of a Reluctant Urban Icon,” Journal of Libertarian Studies 21 (Fall 2007), 115–36; and Jeff Riggenbach, “Jane Jacobs: Libertarian Outsider,” Apr. 28, 2011, mises.org.
37. See Karl Popper, “Aestheticism, Perfectionism, Utopianism,” in The Open Society and Its Enemies (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), 147–57; Karl Popper, “Piecemeal vs. Utopian Engineering,” in The Poverty of Historicism (London: Routledge, 1997), 64–70; D&L, 363; O’Hear, “Hayek and Popper,” 141; Fontenot, “Non-Design, “ 341; Gerald Gaus, “Hayek on the Evolution of Society and Mind,” in Feser, Cambridge Companion to Hayek, 238–39; EOC, 19–21; Jane Jacobs, “Pedaling Together,” 1988 Spokespeople Conference, in ITM, 124.
38. Michael Harrington, “Review of The Economy of Cities,” VV (Jun. 12, 1969) (reprinted in ITM, 102–4); D&L, 407. See also Saul D. Alinsky, Reveille for Radicals (1946; New York: Vintage, 1989) and Chester Hartman, Between Eminence & Notoriety: Four Decades of Radical Urban Planning (New Brunswick, NJ: Center for Urban Policy Research, 2002).
39. D&L, 406–8.
40. Ibid., 408–18.
41. Ibid., 425–27.
42. Ibid., 427.
43. Ibid., 408, 438–39; Jacobs, letter to Ms. Talmey, Nov. 22, 1961, in ITM, 4. As noted in Chapter 7, Richard Llewelyn-Davies wrote about Warren Weaver ‘s complexity theories in March 1960, and he made the similar observation about the differences in knowledge in the 1920s and around 1960 (“Human Sciences, “ 190). Given her keen interest in science, Jacobs may have been referring to this article. In contrast to a strictly scientific approach, David Seamon has offered that Jacobs can be described as “a phenomenologist of urban place. See David Season, “Jane Jacobs’ s Death and Life of Great American Cities as a Phenomenology of Urban Place,” Journal of Space Syntax 3 (Aug. 2012), 139–49.
44. Kent, “Jane Jacobs,” 22.
45. C. Gerald Fraser, “Writers and Editors to Protest War by Defying Tax,” NYT (Jan. 31, 1968), in ITM, 180; Lang, Genius of Common Sense, 109.
46. Clark Whelton, “Won ‘t You Come Home, Jane Jacobs?” VV (Jul. 6, 1972), 28.
47. SOS, 31, 214; EOC, ix.