Ehara te toka i Ākiha
He toka whitinga rā
Engari te toka i Māpuna
Tēnā tāu e titiro ai
Ko te ripo kau
The rock at Ākiha is indeed
A rock on which the sun shines
But the rock at Māpuna
That one you will only see
By the merest ripple over it1
This pepeha refers to two rocks near the mouth of the Hokianga harbour. As the pepeha indicates, Ākiha is easily seen, whereas Māpuna lies beneath the surface of the water and only a ripple indicates its presence.2 Thus, while Ākiha was easily avoided by waka, those who were unfamiliar with the harbour would sometimes collide with Māpuna, causing the waka to overturn, throwing those on board into the ocean. One interpretation of this pepeha is that hapū should base their fighting strategy on Māpuna, unseen and unpredictable, rather than Ākiha, which is easily seen and can thus be avoided or countered.3
This ethos was present in conflict throughout Te Tai Tokerau: many of the strategies employed in inter-hapū battles, and in war with British soldiers, are a testament to how innovative rangatira and hapū were. In most cases it was the underdog who was the most innovative, compelled by unfavourable circumstances to use guile and strategy to overcome or escape their enemies. The notion of punching above one’s weight is captured in the following NgāiTakoto and Patukoraha pepeha:
He iti pioke nō Rangaunu, he au tōna
Although it is only a small shark from Rangaunu, beware, it has a wake*
This pepeha refers to the small dogfish shark, which grows to just longer than a metre. Although small, the pioke are a powerful force when swimming in a school.4 The pepeha serves as a warning to larger hapū that although NgāiTakoto are small, they are still formidable and influential in the north.5
* Also translated: ‘As the tides flow wildly from Rangaunu, the small dogfish makes its own current’ (D. U. Cloher & M. Penfold, 2002, p. xii).
Papatahuri was a Ngāti Kurī rangatira who also had whakapapa links to Ngāti Awa. In terms of guile and tactics, it is difficult to find a story that matches that of Ngāti Kurī’s conflict with Te Aupōuri.*
The conflict started after Papatahuri’s younger brother was killed by Te Aupōuri.† In an attempt to avenge the loss of Papatahuri’s brother, Ngāti Kurī went into battle with Te Aupōuri, but were heavily defeated. The defeat was so disastrous for Ngāti Kurī that the battle site on Te Tauroa promontory, just south of Ahipara, was called Te Parekura (the battlefield).6 Ngāti Kurī were forced to retreat to Rotokākahi, inland from Whangapē, where the surviving warriors were able to fight off the warriors from Te Aupōuri who had followed them. Ngāti Kurī spent some years in Rotokākahi; they established pā and gardens there, and rebuilt their forces.7 Meanwhile, Papatahuri spent his time coming up with a plan to defeat his enemies,8 who by now had retreated to a heavily fortified pā at the mountain‡ today known as Whangatauātia.9 Given the nature of Te Aupōuri’s pā, Papatahuri knew that direct assault would be disastrous for Ngāti Kurī, and would end in a defeat worse than their first battle. He proposed a plan that would ensure revenge with almost no loss of life for Ngāti Kurī.10
After many years, Ngāti Kurī forces had grown to a size that allowed Papatahuri to start putting his plan into action. Intriguingly, while Ngāti Kurī forces had been regenerating, Papatahuri and his people had also been breeding dogs. Now, with a heavy heart, Papatahuri said that a number of the dogs would need to be sacrificed to realise his plan. This sacrifice was immense for Ngāti Kurī, as the dogs were not only companions but also valuable from an economic and cultural perspective.* Nevertheless, they were sacrificed and carefully skinned. The skins were then sewn together and stuffed with fern and grass to create something that resembled a whale.11
With this part of his plan finished, Ngāti Kurī travelled north to Te Kōhanga (Shipwreck Bay) south of Ahipara, just a few kilometres away from the Te Aupōuri pā. Some of Papatahuri’s hapū set about catching a number of snapper, which they cut open and tied to the whale. Soon flocks of seagulls flew above the whale, landing on it and ripping chunks out of the freshly caught snapper. From a distance, the seagulls appeared to be feasting on the whale. With this final touch, Papatahuri’s creation was complete. Under the cloak of darkness – using the soft sands to muffle the sound of their footsteps – they launched the whale into the sea, in a place where the sentries within Te Aupōuri’s pā could not miss it. With that, Ngāti Kurī retreated to a nearby location and readied their weapons.12
As the sun rose and light was thrown across Te Kōhanga beach, sentries within the Te Aupōuri pā spotted the whale with the accompanying flock of seagulls.† They quickly grabbed their matā tuatini (a type of knife made with shark’s teeth designed for cutting whale) and headed down to the beach. As Te Aupōuri got closer to the whale they sensed that something was wrong. Just a few metres closer still, they saw that they had been tricked. Frantically, the group turned around to return to the safety of the pā – but standing in between them and their pā were the heavily armed Ngāti Kurī warriors. Te Aupōuri, unarmed apart from the small knives, were no match for Ngāti Kurī, despite the fact that Ngāti Kurī’s war party was much smaller. Papatahuri’s patience and ingenuity meant that Ngāti Kurī finally avenged the killing of his brother and the heavy defeat in Te Parekura years before. This story gave rise to the following whakataukī, emphasising the importance of being astute and discerning:
Taihoa te tohatoha, kia whakaūngia rā anō te tohoraha ki uta*
Leave the talk of apportioning the prize until the whale is safely hauled ashore13
According to many sources, the sacrifice of the dogs to achieve revenge led to the name Ngāti Kurī (dog in te reo Māori is kurī).14
* Some versions of this story state that the other party were Te Aupōuri or Ngāti Ruanui (which became Te Aupōuri) (Waitangi Tribunal, 1988, p. 256; M. Kawharu, 2008, p. 148) while another account states that it was Ngāti Miru (D. U. Cloher & M. Penfold, 2002, p. 22).
† There are varying accounts as to who Papatahuri’s younger brother was. In some of the more recent versions, his brother is named as Pakewa (Waitangi Tribunal, 1988, p. 256; D. U. Cloher & M. Penfold, 2002, p. 22). However, in an 1895 version by C. F. Maxwell – whose information came from Peri Te Huhu and Kīngi Hōri – Pakewa is named as the person who killed Papatahuri’s brother. In this version, Pakewa escapes after Papatahuri’s plan with the whale and climbs up a leafy karaka to escape. Unfortunately for Pakewa, the sunlight reflected off his patu parāoa, and he was spotted and killed, thus completing Papatahuri’s revenge (C. F. Maxwell, 1875, p. 186).
‡ Some claim that the pā was not present-day Whangatauātia, but instead Waitaha, between Herekino and Ahipara (C. F. Maxwell, 1875, p. 185).
* Dogs were eaten as an alternative to fish and birds; their skins were used to make mats and kahu waero (dogskin cloaks) of the most valuable kind; and their hair was used to adorn taiaha (C. F. Maxwell, 1895, p. 184; W. Norman, 1996, p. 38).
† Whales were valuable for hapū, particularly for their meat and blubber, their bone (which was used for weapons, utensils, and adornment), and their oil (which was used for lamps; mixed with clay for kōkōwai; and for massage) (C.F. Maxwell, 1895, p. 184; T. Munro, n.d, p. 4).
* Another story of the whakataukī’s origin is that a whale harpooned by Te Aupōuri escaped into NgāiTakoto waters, where they claimed it (Waitangi Tribunal, 1988, p. 60).
This story begins with a conflict between Ngāti Kurī and a Ngāpuhi and Te Rarawa war party. After a relentless period of fighting elsewhere, Tūmatahina, one of Ngāti Kurī’s paramount rangatira, decided to retreat to their island pā, Murimotu.15 In preparation for a possible attack, Ngāti Kurī sentries dotted the landscape leading towards Murimotu. From well-hidden locations they listened carefully for a very particular sound that only they knew the significance of – the squeal emitted by the pūpū kōrari whakarongo taua (the flax snail).* Ngāti Kurī were accustomed to avoiding standing on the snails, but other hapū were less used to dodging them. The presence of unwelcome invaders would be clearly indicated by the squeals of the snails they stepped on as they travelled through the forest.16
Having been warned that the Ngāpuhi/Te Rarawa war party were hot on their trail, Ngāti Kurī crossed over to Murimotu at low tide, using the distinctive rocks that sit below the surface of the water, acting like a stone bridge, that only they knew about. When the war party arrived, the tide had risen and, although they could have attempted to swim across, they knew that they would be helpless in the water and could easily be picked off by the Ngāti Kurī warriors. They chose to wait until the tidal conditions were favourable and, in the meantime, they set up camp on the mainland, surrounding the island pā.
As rangatira of the pā, Tūmatahina immediately hatched a plan to save Ngāti Kurī. Working with a short amount of time, he established a strategy of escape that many Ngāti Kurī will claim is unrivalled in its bold, daring nature. The first stage of his plan commenced that night as, under the cloak of darkness, two warriors swam quietly across to the mainland and started cutting and bundling flax. When they had all the flax they could carry they swam back to the island, towing the bundles behind them.
The next stage of the plan involved all of Ngāti Kurī, who set about plaiting the flax into a long rope. Meanwhile, Tūmatahina and a group of warriors created a distraction, dressing up wīwī (a small bush that grows in a stiff, rush-like clump) to look like warriors. He then lit a fire behind them, and his group commenced a haka, standing among the wīwī.17 From the mainland the wīwī looked like a large contingent of Ngāti Kurī warriors, and there was no question that any of the Ngāpuhi/Te Rawara warriors would risk swimming across and disturbing Ngāti Kurī as they plaited the rope.
Behind the scenes, the rope was near completion; over a hundred metres in length. Once it was finished, it was fastened to a point on Murimotu called Hākaro.* A group of warriors then took the other end across to the mainland, where it was fastened to a promontory called Te Ūnga Kawau (the landing place of shags). Te Ūnga Kawau could be spotted in the dark because it was covered in luminescent white guano from the kawau.18 A small group of warriors, including Tūmatahina, crossed over to the mainland: they were prepared to put their lives at risk if the war party spotted them. However, those of the war party who were not asleep kept their eyes fixed on the group of warriors that stood across from them on the island, silhouetted by the fire that still burnt. With the news that the crossing was as safe as it would ever be, final preparations were made. The adults explained to the children the importance of remaining silent. Babies were fed and comforted and a strip of soft muka was placed over their mouths to keep them quiet when they entered the cold water.19
Meanwhile, Tūmatahina was waiting on the mainland. He watched as one by one Ngāti Kurī used the rope to help them cross over to the mainland, carrying the babies and younger children on their backs. As the group on the mainland grew, Tūmatahina softly chanted the following words:
Opea, opea,
Whiria, whiria
Tahia, tahia
Kia hemo atu te kākoa
Kia herea mai ki te kawau korokī
E tātākī mai ana i roto i tana pūkoro whaikoro
He kūaka mārangaranga
Kotahi i tau atu, tau atu
Ko taku ika rā
E whai takoto ana te apunga*
Scatter, scatter
Group together, group together
Weave, weave
Sweep on, sweep on
To pass along on the hard fibres
To be bound to the chatter of the shag
Which is caught inside his protected hollow
There the restless godwits
One lands on the sandbank, then another
There is my band
Formed together in a group20
In this mataara (song composed by a sentry), Tūmatahina compared his people to the kuaka (bartailed godwit), the Muriwhenua kaitiaki, who are known for flying in a distinctive formation that typifies the values of solidarity and cooperation.21
The last person to leave Murimotu, one of the strong swimmers, untied the rope at both ends and let it drift away in the ocean current. As it drifted off, Ngāti Kurī wasted no time in putting distance between themselves and the war party. They walked to Maungawhiriwhiri (whiriwhiri means to decide or negotiate), which was named after Tūmatahina finalised the next stage of their escape. He knew that Ngāti Kurī had to walk down the sandy beach of Waikūkū to get to the refuge of the caves at Whareana. He also knew that to walk down the beach would mean leaving their footprints behind, which could easily be followed. He formulated a plan that would enable them to get away from their enemies without leaving any clear sign of where they had gone.
Eventually, when Ngāti Kurī were rested, Tūmatahina called a meeting to explain the next phase of his plan. One by one, they left Maungawhiriwhiri and trailed down Waikūkū in single file, each person treading in the footprints of those walking in front of them. Tūmatahina was a person of immense height and size, known to some as Tūmatahinawaewaenui. When the last person had left Maungawhiriwhiri, he too walked down Waikūkū beach, placing his own footprints over the top of the trail of prints left by those before him. Looking back as he walked, he was satisfied to see the impression they had created – a single set of footprints trailing behind them, as if only one person had walked along the beach.22
When the war party woke the next day, they were bewildered to see no one on the island. They crossed over and confirmed that not one person had remained on Morimotu. Not only that, but they discovered the wīwī dummies and understood that they had been tricked. They searched the coastline for any evidence that might indicate where Ngāti Kurī had gone. Eventually, they found the single set of footprints trailing from Maungawhirwhiri down Waikūkū beach. They wondered: why had one person split up from the rest of the hapū, and where was the rest of the hapū? Who was this giant who had left such large footprints in the sand? They had little option but to follow the footprints, and they too set off along Waikūkū towards Whareana where Ngāti Kurī were hiding inside the caves.*
When they arrived at the cave’s entrance, the Ngāpuhi/Te Rarawa war party called into it for the person they had been following to come out. This was part of Tūmatahina’s plan.* He signalled to his hapū to remain completely quiet and, despite the hushed pleas of his people, he went to the cave entrance and emerged. The war party saw the giant rangatira come outside, and agreed that this must be the person whose footprints had trailed down Waikūkū. They advanced towards Tūmatahina but, just as they closed in on him, he burst through an opening and raced off, the warriors speeding after him. To their annoyance, he would appear at the top of a mountain but, as they closed in on his position at the summit, he would disappear before appearing at the top of another mountain further away. Unbeknownst to Ngāpuhi/Te Rarawa, Tūmatahina was leading them further and further away from Ngāti Kurī.23 Finally, with a large contingent of warriors chasing after him, Tūmatahina was caught and killed. However, Tūmatahina’s death was the final part of his plan: he knew that he would have to sacrifice his own life to ensure the survival of his beloved people of Ngāti Kurī.24
* The flax snail is also known as pūpū harakeke; however, in Ngāti Kurī dialect it is known as pūpū kōrari whakarongo taua (H. Rōmana, 2020).
* In other retellings, Hākaro is the name of the promontory on the mainland (W. Norman, 1987, p. 25; W. Norman, 1996, p. 44).
* This is one version of Tūmatahina’s mataara. There are many variations of this mataara – also referred to as a whakatauākī and a tauparapara. The mataara is commonly used by speakers from Muriwhenua (M. Kawharu, 2008, p. 143; W. Te Paa, 1912, p. 117). There is also a well-known waiata that pays homage to Tūmatahina and this event, called ‘He Kūaka Mārangaranga’.
* Some retellings state that Ngāti Kurī were not in the caves, but were inside their pā called Wharekawa, situated above Whareana (Ngāti Kuri and The Crown, 2014, p. 72).
* Another version of what happened when the Ngāpuhi/Te Rarawa party arrived at Whareana states that Tūmatahina did not emerge from the cave. In this version, the war party entered the cave to find the person; instead, they found over two hundred people inside. Furthermore, Ngāti Kurī were well acquainted with every nook and cranny of Whareana, and had ropes that hung from the walls and ceilings of the cave. In this version, Ngāti Kurī launched themselves on the completely unprepared war party and, instead of Tūmatahina, it was the war party who were killed on that day (D. U. Cloher & M. Penfold, 2002, p. 28).
After the arrival of the British with their muskets, cannons, and rockets, pā needed to be redesigned. Te Tai Tokerau rangatira showed exceptional innovation in redesigning pā: they retained some of the old practices and developed new ones. Approximately five years after the signing of Te Tiriti o Waitangi in 1840, Hone Heke Pōkai, Te Ruki Kawiti (who, remarkably, was now estimated to be in his seventies), and many others were at war with the Crown. During this campaign, Kawiti – who had extensive knowledge in terms of designing pā – implemented modifications that meant his pā could repel British forces and their military technology.25
Kawiti had honed his architectural skills throughout his life. When he was young, he had been admitted into whare wānanga where he had acquired comprehensive knowledge about military strategy and warfare – as well as learning about negotiation, arts, and whakapapa. Generations of his ancestors had held the skills of architecture and military knowledge. His grandfather Moeahu is celebrated as a great leader and pā builder. He constructed his own pā, which he called Korokī. The pā had the following whakatauākī attached to it, whereby Moeahu likened himself to a chattering bird in the day, and a ruru calling at night (issuing instructions day and night):
Korokī te manu i te ata, korokī te manu i te pō
The birds chatter in the morning, the birds chatter at night26
Much of Kawiti’s theoretical knowledge was supplemented by nearly a decade of practical knowledge as he fought alongside Hongi Hika in battles such as Moremonui, and he became well practised in musket warfare.27
One of the pā that Kawiti constructed during the 1845–46 battle with the British and their allies was called Ōhaeawai: it belonged to Pene Taui of Ngāti Rangi.28 Kawiti had converted Ōhaeawai into a pā that could withstand the technology and military strategies that the British brought. This led many to refer to it as the ‘perfect’ pā, given it was never breached while under Kawiti’s occupation. The British suffered a resounding defeat at that battle, despite the fact that they had a much larger army – the largest British army to assemble in Aotearoa, although this would soon be superseded at Ruapekapeka in 1846.29
Ōhaeawai had three palisades,30 each of which had a specific purpose. The pekerangi was the outer palisade. Kawiti used hardwood – often whole trees – for the posts that were set into the ground at regular intervals. In between the posts, Kawiti placed smaller saplings and split wood, lashed tightly with torotoro (bush vines) and crossbeams.31 Kawiti made a number of innovative modifications to the pekerangi. The first was that the sapling and split-wood infill was raised 30 cm off the ground, so that the pā defenders could fire at the enemy troops from behind the second palisade. Second, freshly cut flax was tied together in tight bundles and lashed to the pekerangi: this was very effective in deadening the impact of bullets and cannonballs.32 Kawiti also carefully designed the shape of the pekerangi, in the event that the British troops stormed the pā. The pekerangi’s distinctive design meant that once the British troops neared the outer fence, pā defenders could shoot at them with both enfilade and defilade fire (that is, shoot them both front-on and on the flank). In these flanking angles, Kawiti placed four large ship’s cannons, which were the latest addition to their arsenal: Heke and Kawiti had commandeered a number of these cannons when they drove the British out of Kororāreka (Russell).33
The kiritangata or second palisade was set slightly less than a metre behind the pekerangi. It was the strongest palisade in the whole pā. Kawiti used hardwood for the palisade, mainly pūriri, because it was less prone to splintering under heavy artillery attack. He used posts, often whole pūriri trees, set close together and dug approximately two metres into the ground. These posts were so large that they required thirty people using ropes to move them.34 Like the pekerangi, Kawiti modified the kiritangata in preparation for the arrival of the British. At ground level and at regular intervals, V-shaped loopholes were cut into the kiritangata. This enabled pā defenders to shoot through the kiritangata, under the elevated pekerangi, without getting shot themselves by enemy fire.35
Another innovation was digging trenches, approximately two metres deep, on the inner side of the kiritangata. In these trenches, raised platforms sitting on mounded earth were built at regular intervals, where armed warriors could crouch. If they wanted to move to another position in the pā, they could climb from the platform into the trench and walk around the whole kiritangata without being exposed to enemy fire.36 These trenches also ensured that messages could be easily communicated throughout the pā. The ease with which people could move safely around the pā was recalled by Rihara Kou, who was around twelve when he helped with the defence of Ōhaeawai;37 he said that the pā defenders could ‘haere kōpikopiko ana’ (meander along).38 Kawiti ensured his people were protected from above – from rocket and mortar fire – by covering the trenches with roofs made of logs strung together with earth heaped on top.39
The trenches are one of the most famous innovations at Ōhaeawai and they are something that Kawiti continued to develop and refine over the campaign. He had expert knowledge of puru tuna or ruawai (underground wetlands), which are the homes of eels and are used by them for migration and hibernation. His knowledge of puru tuna influenced the trench systems in Ōhaeawai (and later in Ruapekapeka). Puru tuna – a technique that became known as trench warfare – allowed the pā defenders to safely travel underground and surface in different places throughout the pā.40
Finally, Kawiti erected a third palisade behind the kiritangata. This palisade was over three metres high, and the outer side was fortified with soil excavated from the trenches. Within the third palisade were the living quarters. Shell-proof shelters were constructed, two metres deep, covered with roofs like the kiritangata trench. Safely underground, fires fuelled with mānuka and gum kept the people warm and dry (while the British troops were suffering in their leaking tents). A contingent of the hapū were kept busy preparing food and water and melting down lead for bullets.41 Within this palisade, Kawiti constructed an observation platform that gave a view of the enemy camp and any movements they made.
Ōhaeawai withstood six days of cannon bombardment. Most of the Crown’s efforts were largely ineffectual. The flax-cloaked palisades proved to be an ingenious move, softening the impact of the shots to such an extent that the British could not tell if they were making any progress at all. The only casualties were British troops, as Kawiti’s warriors were able to shoot at will at those operating the cannons.42 The minimal damage that the cannons did was quickly repaired by Kawiti’s people.43
Finally, one of the British military leaders, Colonel Despard, was forced to request heavier artillery (a 32-pounder), which started to show signs of breaking the palisades. Kawiti was completely outnumbered, especially as an injured Heke had been forced to retreat with his people to Tautoro earlier in the campaign.44 Concerned about the damage the 32-pounder was doing to the palisades, Kawiti decided to try and bait the British into full-scale attack while the pā remained intact. Acting on his instructions, a small party snuck into the British camp and dealt to a few soldiers who were there.* They commandeered a six-pounder and hauled down the Union Jack; on their return to the pā, Kawiti flew it upside down below a Māori flag.45
As Kawiti had hoped, his raid infuriated Despard and provoked his decision to storm the pā. Despard’s plan was strongly criticised by his ally Tāmati Wāka Nene and some of Despard’s juniors, but he had made up his mind. As the British men charged Ōhaeawai pā, the warriors behind the kiritangata were able to poke their muskets through the pekerangi and fire at will on the charging troops. To make matters worse for the British, they soon saw first-hand how the pekerangi allowed Kawiti and his warriors to flank the charging troops.46 Despard’s troops stood no chance; they could not even see the pā defenders, let alone shoot at them.
While the result was a disaster for the British, it was a success for Heke and Kawiti’s alliance, despite being outnumbered six to one.47 Their success prompted a message to spread like wildfire from pā to pā in Te Tai Tokerau: that ‘one wing of England is broken, and hangs dangling on the ground’.48 Heke (still suffering from the injuries that he had sustained) considered negotiating peace with Governor Robert FitzRoy, but Kawiti is said to have convinced him otherwise, by saying:
I mea au i tū ai koe ki te riri kia taea te ika o te kōpua, kāhore, i te pātihitihi nei anō, kua karanga koe kāti†
I expected when you took up arms that you would go out to catch the fish of the deep; now, only in the shallows, you are calling out for peace49
The battle culminated at the third pā, called Ruapekapeka (the bat’s nest), named after the innovative trench system that Kawiti developed. Like Ōhaeawai, Ruapekapeka was an ingenious construction, and required a combined force of over 1600 British troops and Māori supporters, armed with muskets, large cannons, and rockets to break into.50 When the British and their supporters finally did break in after about two weeks, they found the pā almost empty of defenders;* the majority of them had already retreated into the nearby forest, where a strong defensive position had been prepared.51 Heke is known to have said that retreating into the forest would neutralise the advantage of the British cannons that had helped them break into Ruapekapeka, and this would mean that the alliance could pick off the British and their supporters like kūkupa (New Zealand pigeon).52 Breaking into the pā was hardly a victory for the British, because, as FitzRoy had stated, British soldiers had developed no counter-tactic for fighting in the forest.53
Although Heke and Kawiti’s several hundred warriors were outnumbered by the British and their allies, the British suffered far more casualties throughout the whole campaign. The determination and resilience of those who defended their pā until the end of the campaign at Ruapekapeka is reflected in the following pepeha:
Ehara i te rahi o te kurī i roto i te whawhai, ko te rahi kē o te whawhai i roto i te kurī
It’s not the size of the dog in the fight, but the size of the fight in the dog54
Kawiti and Heke’s superior war tactics, knowledge of the landscape, and their ability to choose where to fight were balanced out by the sheer number of British troops and their limitless supply of guns and ammunition. Considering this, many people have argued that the battle is best seen as a draw.55 Kawiti’s reputation as a military leader during this campaign certainly reinforced his reputation as Te Ruki, ‘the duke’;56 he had taken on this name after being compared to the Duke of Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, most famous for his victory over Napoleon.57
After the campaign ended and relative peace had been established, the British sent military engineers to study and build a scale model of Ruapekapeka. They collected information about the many features of the pā that had been pivotal to Kawiti and Heke’s success in these conflicts. Kawiti was one of the first people in the world to use underground anti-artillery bunkers58 and Ruapekapeka was one of the most advanced fortifications ever constructed with the resources available. Detailed drawings and two models were constructed. The first model was used as a basis for study in the Royal United Services Institute in London, which had been set up in 1831 to study naval and military science and to further British military technology. The second model received global exposure when visitors travelled from all over the globe to attend the 1851 Great Exhibition of World Industry. This worldwide exposure has led to speculation that Kawiti’s pā influenced military tactics around the globe.59 Kawiti’s military knowledge and innovation influenced the British in the Battle of Crimea in 1853, and the Allies, who used trench warfare as a response to the invention of machine guns in World War One.60
* This section of the camp was usually occupied by Tāmati Wāka Nene, however he and his warriors were away at the time (F. Keene, 1992, p. 88).
† Another variation of Kawiti’s words to Heke is as follows: ‘Kāti ki a koe me tōu takiwā. Tukua mai ki a au ki runga ki tōku takiwā. I mea ahau i ruku ai koe i te moana kia mau i a koe te ika o te kōpua ki tō kupenga; ko tēnei nā, i te ekenga o te wai ki ōu turi, kua hē tō manawa.’ The translation of this version reads: ‘You and your territory have done enough. This time let me have them [the British]. I warned you that the water was too deep for you alone to net the big fish, but you would not listen. Now the water just barely reaches your knees and you cry, enough!’ (K. H. T. Martin, 1990).
* Although the majority of people had left the pā, some accounts say that a small group remained inside, including Kawiti himself. When they heard that the pā had been breached, they snuck out the back to rejoin the rest in the forest (T. Kawiti, 1956, p. 43; K. H. T. Martin, 1990).