A Pilgrim with No Name Italy
ca. 1575
Some moved by devotion, and some for traffic’s sake, and some to pass away the time.
—Anonymous
Sometime around 1575, a highly observant European attached himself to the Cairo-Sinai-Mecca caravan. His report of the journey runs to thirty-five pages in Elizabethan English. Composed in the third person, it is usually classed as a geographic essay. It does not read like geography. The author shows no interest in measuring distances between oases, and his treatment of social detail and human behavior is too vivid. The account appears in Richard Hakluyt’s The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the English Nation (1599), an extensive collection of reports by Tudor explorers. It appears to be a translation from Italian.
Varthema en route to Mecca seems half-informed compared with this traveler. Before the caravan gets under way, we have a clear portrait of international Alexandria, where Venetians, Frenchmen, Portuguese, and Genoese outnumber Arabs and live at peace in their own gated quarter. In Cairo, the pyramids lead to talk of grave robbers, medicines made of mummy dust, and a view of the long-neglected Sphinx, with just its head and neck above the sand. Farther upriver, we come to mammoth statues on a site that sounds very much like Abu Simbel, although Abu Simbel will not be “discovered” for two more centuries.73
As the caravan sets out, the narration becomes participatory, placing us front and center on the Hajj. By now, the Ottoman Sultan enthroned in Istanbul had wrested control of the Mamluk caravan and was busy expanding it into the foremost engine of travel and trade in the region. Its dimensions in 1575 were those of a large metropolis on the move. The narration surveys this machine from every angle. The order of march and pace of travel are clearly established. Levels of leadership are described, the makeup of the transient population, the tax-free status of its goods. As the train departs Cairo for Suez, it is thronged by thousands of well-wishers throwing flowers. At its head rides the camel-mounted ark, or mahmal, a Hajj symbol of sovereignty since the thirteenth century. Behind rides the kiswa, the Kaʿba’s woven cover that must be annually renewed. Steeped in tradition, depicted at length, the caravan has all the complexity of a trade fair crossed with a military campaign. Great stores of goods are packed off to sell in Mecca during this season, and a substantial mounted guard rides along to repel attacks by Bedouin raiders. A few pages later, we find the caravan’s Amir bribing clan leaders for safe passage. We also watch the governor of Mecca in his tent, acknowledging the authority of Cairo. We see uniforms, equipment, the colors of the guard.
The Hajj rites receive close treatment, too. Readers who have had difficulty grasping their shape and sequence until now will see them more clearly after reading this account. It contains a good description of the mosque, with its outermost walls half a mile long on all sides, and each of the ritual sites is well presented. The procession from Mecca to Arafat receives special care. We see each stage of its complicated passage through Mina Valley. The depiction of the Arafat vigil, the precise arrangement of the caravans, the message of the sermon, even the mood and movement of the crowd, are documented. We hear legends, too, of a more completely Muslim content than Varthema’s. The stories related here, of the Black Stone and Mount Mercy, are the same ones pilgrims hear today. The flavor and feel of pilgrimage run through this record. It is the focused work of an observer who missed nothing, who saw the Hajj whole and makes his readers see it, too.
from A Description of the Yearly Voyage or Pilgrimage of the Muslims, Turks, and Moors unto Arabia
OF THE PREPARATION OF THE CARAVAN TO GO TO MECCA The Muslims observe a kind of Lent continuing one whole moon and being a movable ceremony which sometimes falls high, sometimes low in the year. It is called Ramadan, and their feast is called Seker Bayrami.74 During this time of Lent all those who intend to go to Mecca resort to Cairo; twenty days after the feast the caravan is ready to depart on the voyage. Then thither come a great multitude of people from Asia, Greece, and Barbary to go on this voyage, some moved by devotion, and some for traffic’s sake, and some to pass away the time.
Now [a] few days after the feast they who go on the voyage depart out of the city two leagues to a place called Birca, where they expect the Captain of the caravan. This place has a great pond caused by the inundation of [the] Nile, and so made that the camels and other beasts may drink therein. . . . Of mules, camels, and dromedaries there are at least forty thousand, and the people who follow the caravan every year are about fifty thousand, [a] few more or less, according to the times. Moreover, every three years they appoint a new Captain, called the Amir al-Hajj, to whom the Pasha gives every voyage eighteen purses containing each of them 625 ducats of gold . . . for the [benefit] of the caravan and also to distribute as alms to the needful pilgrims.
This Captain, besides other serving men who follow him, has four chausi [officers] to serve him. Likewise he has with him for the security of the caravan four hundred soldiers: two hundred spachi or cavalry mounted on dromedaries and two hundred janissaries riding camels. The chausi and the spachi are at the charge of the Captain, but the janissaries not so, for their provision is made them from Cairo. The spachi wear caps or bonnets like the caps of sergeants, but the janissaries [dress] after another sort, with a lap falling down behind like a French hood, and having before a great piece of wrought silver on their heads. The charge of these is to cause the caravan to march in good array when need requires; they are not at the commandment of any but the Captain of the caravan. Moreover, the Captain has for his guide eight pilots, whose office is always stable and firm from year to year, and these go before, guiding the caravan and showing the way, being well experienced in the place. In the night they govern them as the mariners [do], by the stars. These also . . . send before [the caravan] four or five men carrying pieces of dry wood which give light, so that they do not stray. And if at any time through their ill hap [the caravan should] wander astray out of the way, they are cast down and beaten with many bastinadoes on the soles of their feet, to serve them as a perpetual remembrance.
The Captain of the caravan has his lieutenant accompanied continually by fifteen spachi. He has the charge to set the caravan in order and to cause them to depart on their journey when need requires. The caravan carries with it six pieces of ordnance drawn by twelve camels, which serve to terrify the Arabians and also to make triumph at Mecca and other places. The merchants which follow the caravan . . . carry cloth of silk, some coral, some tin, others wheat, rice, and all sorts of grain. Some sell by the way, some at Mecca, so that everyone brings something to gain by, because merchandize that goes by land pays no custom, but that which goes by sea is bound to pay 10 percent.
THE BEGINNING OF THE VOYAGE The Captain and all his retinue and officers resort to the castle of Cairo [to stand] before the Pasha, who gives to every man a garment. That of the Captain is wrought with gold and the others are served according to their degree. Moreover, he delivers to them the Kiswa al-Nabi, which signifies in the Arabian tongue the Garment of the Prophet. This vestment is of silk, wrought in the midst with letters of gold which read, La ilaha il-Allah, Muhammad al-Rasu’allah, that is to say, “There are no gods but God, and his ambassador is Muhammad.” This garment is made to cover from top to bottom a little house in Mecca standing in the midst of the mosque, which they say was built by Abraham or by his son Ishmael. After this, he delivers to him a gate made for the House of Abraham wrought all with fine gold, of excellent workmanship, a thing of great value. Besides, he delivers to him a covering of green velvet made in [the] manner of a pyramid, about nine palms high and artificially wrought with most fine gold. This is to cover the tomb of their Prophet within Medina, which is built [somewhat] in the shape of a pyramid. Besides that covering there are brought many others of gold and silk, to ornament the tomb.
Which things consigned, the Pasha does not depart his place, but the Captain of the caravan takes his leave with his officers and soldiers and departs accompanied with all the people of Cairo in an orderly procession, with singing, shouting, and a thousand other ceremonies too long to recite.
From the [Pasha’s] castle they go to a gate of Cairo called Bab al-Nasir, beyond which stands a mosque, and there they lay up the vestments very well kept and guarded. . . . The camels which bring the vestments are all adorned with cloth of gold, with many little bells, and passing along the street, you may see the multitude casting upon the vestments thousands of beautiful flowers of diverse colours and sweet water. Others bring towels and fine cloth and touch the vestments, which ever after they keep as relics with great reverence.
After having left the vestments in the mosque, they return again into the city, where they remain for twenty days. Then the Captain departs again with his company and, taking the vestments out of the mosque, carries them to Birca. Here, having pitched his tent with the standard of the Pasha over the gate, and the other principal tents standing about his, he stays some ten days, but no more. In this time all those resort there that mean to follow the caravan in this voyage to Mecca. Here you see certain women who intend to go, accompanied with their parents and friends, mounted upon camels, adorned with many trifles, tassels, and knots, that in beholding them a man cannot refrain from smiling. The last night before their departure they make great feasting and triumph within the caravan, with [fireworks displays called] castles and other infinite devises of fireworks. The janissaries all this time stand round about the tent of the Captain with such shouting and joy that on every side the earth resounds. On this night they discharge all their ordnance from four to six times. At daybreak, upon the sound of a trumpet, they march forward on their way.
WHAT TIME THE CARAVAN TRAVELS AND WHEN IT RESTS From Cairo to Mecca they make forty days’ journey or thereabouts, and the days are long ones. For the custom of the caravan is to travel much and rest little. Ordinarily they journey in this manner: They travel from two o’clock in the morning until the sun rises. Then having rested until noon, they set forward and so continue until night. Then they rest again until two o’clock. They observe this order until the end of the voyage, never changing it, except in some places where for respect of water they rest sometimes a day and a half to refresh themselves. Otherwise both man and beast would die.
IN WHAT ORDER THE CARAVAN TRAVELS The manner and order which the caravan observes in marching is this. It goes divided into three parts—the forward, the main battle, and the rearward.
In the forward go the eight pilots before with a chaus, who has four knaves. Each knave carries the sinew of a bull, [so that] if occasion requires, the bastinado may be given to [those who deserve it]. . . . This chaus is the captain of the forward. He commands the lights carried before when they travel in the night. Also there go in the forward six santones [clergymen] with red turbans upon their heads, who eat and ride at the cost of the caravan Captain. When the caravan arrives at a good lodging, [the moment] they have sighted the place, they cry with a loud voice, saying “Good news, good news! We are near our destination!” For this news the chiefs of the company bestow benevolence upon them. In this forward goes very near the third part of the people of the caravan, behind whom [come] twenty five spachi armed with swords, bows, and arrows to defend them from thieves.
Next to the forward, within a quarter of a mile, follows the main battle. Before it are drawn the six pieces of ordnance with their gunners and fifteen spachi archers. Next comes the chief physician, who is an old man of authority with many medicines, ointments, salves, and other refreshments for the sick. He also has camels with him for the sick to ride on, when they have no horse or beast. Beside him goes one camel alone, the fairest that can be found: for with great industry is sought the greatest and fairest which may be found within the dominions of the Pasha. This camel also is decked with cloth of gold and silk and carries a chest [mahmal ] . . . made in likeness of the ark of the Old Testament, but without gold or any other thing of cost. Within this chest is the Quran all written with great letters of gold, bound between two tablets of massy gold. The chest during their voyage is covered with silk, but at their entering into Mecca it is all covered with cloth of gold and adorned with jewels and the like, as at the entrance into Medina. The camel which carries the chest is compassed about with many Arabian singers and musicians, always singing and playing upon instruments. After this follow fifteen other very fair camels, every one carrying one of the vestments and covered from top to toe in silk. Behind go twenty more camels, which carry the money, apparel, and provision of the Captain. After these follows the royal standard of the Pasha, accompanied continually with the musicians of the Captain, twenty-five spachi archers, and a chaus. About these marvellous things go all the people and camels which follow the caravan.
Behind these less than a mile follow the rearward, whereof the greater part are pilgrims. This is because, while the merchants seek always to be in the forward for the security of their goods, the pilgrims, who have little to lose, care not though they come behind. Behind them always go twenty-five well-armed spachi with a chaus as captain, and forty Arabian archers to guard the rear.
Because the caravan always goes along the Red Sea bank, which in going forth they have on their right hand, the two hundred janissaries divided into three companies go upon their left hand well armed and mounted upon camels bound one to another. For upon that side is all the danger of thieves, and on the other no danger at all. Meanwhile the Captain of the caravan is always going among his people, sometimes on the one side and sometimes on the other, never keeping any firm place. He is continually accompanied with a chaus and twenty-five spachi, armed and mounted upon dromedaries, and eight musicians with viols in their hands, which cease not sounding till the Captain take his rest. They attend upon him until such time as he enters his pavilion, and then ordering all his attendants and followers to depart, they go each man to their lodging.
OF NOTABLE THINGS SEEN ON THIS VOYAGE . . . It is needful and a usual thing that the Captain put his hand to his purse in these places and bestow presents, garments, and turbans upon certain of the chiefs of the Arabians, to the end they may give him and his caravan free passage and promise that their followers likewise shall do no damage to the caravan . . . and [that] by word of mouth, if the caravan be robbed, they will make restitution of such things as are stolen. Notwithstanding the caravan is oftentimes damnified by them, and those who are robbed receive no other restitution at the Arabians’ hands than the sight of their heels as they fly into places where it is impossible to find them.
At length the caravan comes to a place called Jehbir, which is the beginning and border of the state and realm of the sharifian king of Mecca. At their approach the Governor of the land comes out with all his people to receive the caravan, with such shouting and triumph as is impossible to express. They stay one whole day. This place abounds with fresh and clear waters, with streams falling down from the high mountains. Moreover, there are great stores of dates in this place, and meat in great store and very cheap, especially sheep, which they sacrifice.
Rested and refreshed, the caravan departs on its way next day. The first place they arrive worthy of mention is called Bedrihonem, where those little shrubs grow from which balm issues. . . . Arriving here at sunrise, all the pilgrims wash themselves from top to toe, men as well as women. Then all the men who are able to do so leave off their apparel, each one putting on a cloth about their privates and another white cloth upon their shoulders. These are thought to merit more than the others, but those who cannot manage it make a vow to sacrifice a ram. . . .
And so the caravan, marching, comes within two miles of Mecca, where they rest that night. In the morning at the break of day, with all pomp possible, they set forward toward Mecca. Drawing near, the Sharif issues forth from the city with his guard, accompanied with an infinite number of people, shouting and making a great triumph. In a fair field a bow shot outside the city, a great multitude of tents are pitched. In the midst stands the pavilion of the Captain. After meeting with the Sharif, and after salutations on both sides, they light from their horses and enter into the pavilion, where the King of Mecca deprives himself of all authority and power, committing it to the Captain, giving him full license and authority to command, govern, and minister justice during his abode in Mecca with his company. On the other side, the Captain, to requite the King’s liberality towards him, gives him a garment of cloth and gold of great value, with certain jewels and other things. Then, sitting down together upon carpets and hides, they eat together and, rising thence with certain of the chiefs, and taking with them the garment and the gate mentioned before, they go directly to the mosque, attended on by but a few.
Inside, they order the old [covering] to be pulled down and put the new coverture upon the House of Abraham. The old vestment goes to the eunuchs who serve in the mosque, who after sell it to the pilgrims at four or five seraphim per pike’s length. Happy does the man think himself who can acquire ever so little a piece of it, to conserve ever after as a most holy relic. They say that by putting the [cloth] under the head of a man at the hour of his death, all his sins are forgiven through its virtue. Also they take away the old door, setting in its place the new door. The old one by custom they give to the Sharif. After having made their prayers with certain ordinary and wonted ceremonies, the Sharif remains in the city, and the Captain of the pilgrimage returns to his pavilion.
OF THE SHARIF, THE KING OF MECCA The Sharif is descended of the Prophet Muhammad by Fatima, daughter of that good Prophet, and Ali, her husband, the Prophet’s son-in-law. . . . To the eldest son the realm comes by succession. This realm has of royal revenues every year half a million of gold, or a little more. All who are of the Prophet’s kindred, or descended of that blood (which are almost innumerable), are called sharifs, that is to say, lords. These all go clothed in green, or at the least have their turban green, to be known from the others. Neither is it permitted that any of those Christians who dwell or traffic in their country go clothed in green, neither may they have anything of green about them. For they say it is not lawful for unbelievers to wear that color, wherein that great friend and Prophet of God, Muhammad, was wont to be apparelled.
OF THE CITY OF MECCA The city of Mecca in the Arabian town is called Macca. . . . It is environed about with exceeding high and barren mountains, and in the plain between the mountains and the city are many pleasant gardens where grows a great abundance of figs, grapes, apples, and melons. There is also great abundance of good water and meat, but not of bread. This city has no walls about it and contains in circuit five miles. The houses are very handsome and commodious, and are built like the houses of Italy. The palace of the Sharif is sumptuous and gorgeously adorned. . . .
In the midst of the city is the great mosque, with the House of Abraham standing in the very midst thereof. The mosque was built in the time when their Prophet lived. It is four square and so great [now] that it contains two miles in circuit, that is to say, half a mile on each side. It is made in the manner of a cloister. In the midst, separate from the rest, is the House of Abraham. The galleries round about are in the manner of four streets, and the partitions which divide the one street from the other are pillars, some of marble and others of lime and stone. The famous and sumptuous mosque has ninety-nine gates and five steeples, from whence the [muezzins] call the people to the mosque.
OF THE HOUSE OF ABRAHAM The House of Abraham is also four square and made of speckled stone, twenty paces high and forty paces in circuit. And upon one side of this house within the wall there is a stone, a span long and half a span broad, which they say fell down from heaven before this house was built, and at which a voice was heard saying that wherever the stone fell, there should be built the House of God, wherein God will hear sinners. Moreover, they say that when this stone fell from heaven, it was not black as now, but as white as the whitest snow, but because it has so often been kissed by sinners it is therewith become black. All the pilgrims are bound to kiss this stone. . . .
The entrance into the House is very small, made in the manner of a window, and as high from the ground as a man can reach, so that it is difficult to enter. . . . There stand at the entrance two pillars of marble, one on each side. In the midst there are three [pillars] of aloeswood, not very thick, and covered with tiles of India of one thousand colours, which serve to underprop the terrazzo. It is so dark [inside] that they can hardly see within for want of light. Outside the gate five paces is the Well of Zamzam, the blessed well that the angel of the Lord showed to Hagar when she went seeking water for her son, Ishmael, to drink.
OF THE CEREMONIES OF THE PILGRIMS In the beginning we said how the Muslims have two feasts in the year. The one they call Pascha di Ramadan [Id al-Fitr], that is to say, the Feast of Fasting. . . . The other is called the Feast of the Ram [Id al-Adha], wherein all who are able are bound to sacrifice a ram, and this they [also] call Bine Bayram, that is, the Great Feast. Just as the caravan departs from Cairo thirty days after the Little Feast, so likewise they come hither five or six days before the Great Feast, so that the pilgrims may have time before the feast to finish their rites and ceremonies, which are these.
Departing from the caravan, and being guided by such as are experienced in the way, they go to the city twenty or thirty in a company, walking through a street which ascends little by little until they come to a certain gate whereupon is written on each side in marble stone, BAB AL-SALAAM, the Gate of Peace. From this place the interior of the Great Mosque is clearly visible. It surrounds the House of Abraham, which they reverently salute twice, saying, “Peace to thee, ambassador of God.” Proceeding on their way, they find an arch upon their right hand, whereon they ascend five steps, on which is a great void place made of stone: [before them] after descending another five steps and proceeding the space of a flightshot, they find another arch like the first, and this way from the one arch to the other they go and come seven times, saying always some of their prayers, which they say the afflicted Hagar said while she sought and found not water for her son, Ishmael. After this ceremony,75 the pilgrims enter into the mosque and, drawing near to the House of Abraham, they go round about it seven times, always saying “This is the House of God, and of his servant Abraham.” This done, they go to kiss the Black Stone mentioned above. After, they go to the Well of Zamzam and, in their apparel as they be, they wash themselves from head to foot, saying, “Pardon, Lord, pardon, Lord” . . . and in this wise washed and watered, everyone returns to his place of abode. These ceremonies everyone is bound to do once at least. But those who have a mind to outstrip the others, and to go into Paradise before the rest, do the same once a day while the caravan remains there.
WHAT THE CARAVAN DOES AFTER HAVING RESTED AT MECCA [After five days in Mecca], the night before the evening of their feast, the Captain with all his company sets forth towards the Mountain of Pardons, which they call Mount Arafat. This mountain is distant from Mecca fifteen miles. In the mid way there is a place called Mina, the Haven, and [a] little way from there are four great milestones, of which we will speak hereafter. Now first touching the Mountain of Pardons, which rather should be called a little hill: it is low, little, delightful, and pleasant, containing in circuit two miles and surrounded with the goodliest plain that ever with man’s eyes could be seen. The plain likewise is compassed with exceedingly high mountains. This is one of the goodliest situations in the world. It seems Nature has shown all her cunning there, in making the place under the Mountain of Pardons so broad and pleasant.
On the side towards Mecca there are many pipes of water, clear, fair, and fresh, and above all most wholesome, falling down into tanks made for the purpose, where the people refresh and wash themselves and water their animals. The Muslims say that when Adam and Eve were cast out of Paradise by the angel of the Lord, they came to inhabit this little Mountain of Pardons. They had lost one another, they say, and were separated for forty years, but in the end they met at this place with great joy and gladness. They built a little house on the top of this mountain, which today they call the House of Adam.
THE OTHER CARAVANS The same day that the caravan of Cairo comes to this place, two [other] caravans come here also, one of Damascus, the other of Arabia. In addition, all the inhabitants for ten days’ journey round about come, too, so that at one time there may be seen about two hundred thousand people and more than three hundred thousand animals. With all this company meeting together in this place the night before the feast, the three hosts cast themselves into a triangle, setting the mountain in the midst of them. All that night there is nothing to be heard or seen but gunshot and fireworks of sundry sorts, with such singing, sounding, shouting, hallooing, rumours, feasting, and triumphing that it is wonderful.
After this, on the day of the feast, they are all at rest and silence. They attend on no other thing than to offer oblations and prayers to God. In the evening, all those who have horses mount them and approach as near to the mountain as they can. Those who have no horses do the best they can on foot, giving the Captain of the Cairo caravan the chief place, the second to the Captain of Damascus, and the third to the Captain of Arabia. When all have approached, there comes a squire, one of the santones, mounted on a well-furnished camel. At the side of the mountain he ascends five steps into a pulpit for that purpose and makes a short sermon. He shows them how many and great are the benefits God has given the Muslim people, through the work of his beloved friend and Prophet Muhammad, who delivered them from the servitude of sin and idolatry they were drowning in before; and how he gave them the House of Abraham, where they could be heard, and the Mountain of Pardons, where they might obtain grace and remission from sins; adding that merciful God, who gives liberally all good things, commanded his secretary Abraham to build him a house in Mecca, where his successors might make their prayers to Him and be heard. At that time all the mountains in the world came together in this place, with enough stones to create it, except that little and low hill which, because of its poverty, could not discharge the debt. For this it became sorrowful, weeping beyond all measure for thirty years. And in the end eternal God had pity and compassion on the poor mountain, and said to it: “Weep no more, my daughter, for your bitter complaints have reached my ear; take comfort, for all those that shall go to visit the house of my friend Abraham will not be absolved from their sins, unless they first come to do you reverence and to keep their holiest feast in this place. This I have commanded to my people by the mouth of my friend and Prophet Muhammad.” Then the preacher exhorts everyone to the love of God, to prayer, and to almsgiving.
The sermon is done at sunset. Then the pilgrims make three prayers— the first for the Sharif, the second for the Sultan and his host, and the third for the people, to which all with one voice cry, “Be it so, Lord. Be it so.” Then having had the . . . [preacher’s] blessing and saluted the Mountain of Pardons, they return to Mina the way they came. At the end of the plain stand the four milestones mentioned before, two on each side of the way, through which they say it is needful that everyone pass. And those who pass outside them are said to lose all the merit that in their pilgrimage they had earned. From the Mountain of Pardons to the milestones none dare look back, for fear the sins which he has left in the mountains return to him again.
Past the milestones everyone dismounts, seeking in this sandy field fifty or sixty little stones, which they gather and bind in a handkerchief and carry to Mina. There they stay five days, and during that time there is a fair, free of all customs charges. At Mina are three pillars, not together, but set in diverse places where, it is said, were the three apparitions which the devil made unto Abraham, Hagar, and Ishmael, their son. (Amongst the Muslims they make no mention of Isaac, as if he had never been born.) . . . The pilgrims during their abode here go to visit these three pillars, throwing the little stones which before they gathered, while they repeat the same words which they say that Ishmael addressed to the devil when he withstood him. . . . After five days, the Captain rises with all the caravan and returns to Mecca, where they remain another five days.
73 By John Lewis Burckhart, excerpts of whose 1814 Hajj account form the last selection in this section.
74 Seker Bayrami: Turkish term for the feast that ends the month of Ramadan; in Arabic, Id al-Fitr. [Ed.]
75 The order of the saʿy and tawaf rites are reversed here, probably by an uninformed copyist or translator. [Ed.]