Her Highness Sikandar,
the Begum of Bhopal
India
1864
In these accounts we have heard before of royal pilgrim parties, their entourages and queens viewed from afar. The following, however, is the first Hajj report actually written by a regent. It reflects the importance of the Indian Hajj and underscores the growing universality of Islam. By 1850, 80 percent of the world’s Muslims lived outside the Arab Near East.
Nawab Sikandar, the Begum of Bhopal, set sail for Mecca in late 1863, traveling with her uncle, her mother, and a retinue of several hundred people. Generations of Hindi rulers before her had traveled in state as pilgrims on the Hajj. They were among its most active supporters. At home, they financed ships to carry hajjis free of charge. In Mecca and Medina, they endowed the mosques and built hospices and schools for their Hindi pilgrims. In this sense, Sikandar’s Hajj was not only an act of devotion. It was also an affair of state.
At the time of her pilgrimage, she governed a province of nine thousand square miles with a population of one million, the second largest of the Anglo-Indian principalities. Self-reliant, trusting little to officials, she showed great loyalty to Britain and opened many schools for boys and girls. Her friend and translator, Elizabeth Willoughby-Osborne, described Sikandar as a person of remarkable intellect and firmness, combining an aptitude for business with enormous energy. Unlike most of the Indian upper class, women in her family mixed in society, shunned the veil, and showed force of character. As her book makes clear, the Begum was not bashful.
She reached Jidda in January 1864 with a shipload of gifts to bestow on the Holy Cities. In the impoverished Hijaz, her wealth became a magnet for misfortune. Money chests were broken into on the docks. Ashore, a house she had reserved was sublet from under her. Next came the Turkish Pasha’s tax collectors, who laid excessive dues on all her goods. The Begum met these reversals with a volley of official letters that sets the tone for the rest of the account. Her train of eighty camels limped out of Jidda a week later. It was lightened several times along the way. The Pasha performed the official plundering; local Bedouin raiders did the rest. A low point occurred between Hadda and Mecca, where kidnappers briefly abducted Sikandar’s mother.153
It was just the beginning. In Mecca, after performing her first rites, theBegum’s life was threatened at a dinner party. Her host was the ruler of Mecca, Sharif Abdullah ibn Muhammad ibn Aun (reigned 1858–77) whose role as Guardian of the Holy Places entitled him to a quarter of all gifts sent from abroad. His numerous infractions of state decorum were the last straw for the Begum, who proved a stickler on protocol. Her pointed letters to him and to the Pasha and their factotums lay bare from a royal vantage the same local corruption noted by Burton. Yet the Begum’s critique remains Muslim throughout. Despite a hand-in-glove relationship with Britain, she never suggests (as had the imperialistic Burton) that outside forces might one day be required to oversee the Hajj. Rather, she correctly faults the Sharif for rampant corruption and holds the Ottoman Turks responsible for not enforcing order on the roads.
Sikandar’s jaundiced views of the Sharif are deserved but one-sided. He had his reasons for squeezing her wealthy delegation, and they were wholly economic. The lucrative Hajj caravans entering the Hijaz had shrunk from six to three in a hundred years, and the largest, from Istanbul via Damascus, was on its way to becoming mere ceremony. With the advent of steam, more and more pilgrims arrived for the Hajj by ship, and most came from the Begum’s India. This sharply reduced the Sharif ‘s overland tax base and lightened the purse assigned to him by the Porte154 to protect the roads. Even the interior routes, on which the Begum hoped to travel to Medina, were losing more traffic every year to a safer sea route from Jidda to Medina’s port of Yanbu. After reading of al-Abbasi’s failed attempt in that direction, it is easy to imagine the outcome of such a trip, had the Begum chanced it. The hard-pressed Hijazi tribes would surely have raided a seven-hundred-camel caravan led by a foreigner. The Sharif could not have guaranteed her safety, despite his vows (excerpted here). The Begum’s final pages detail a baker’s dozen reasons why the trip posed mortal dangers. In the end, she forfeited Medina.
Sikandar’s book is dedicated to Queen Victoria, her co-regent. Originally written in Urdu and published in two copies (one for the Queen,155 one for the Begum), it was subsequently translated into English by Willoughby-Osborne, wife of Bhopal’s British political agent, and printed in London in 1870. (The imperial implications of this publication history are hard to miss.) The book’s form is an official report partly told in letters, but its dryness is enlivened by the bizarre events the Begum describes. Her letter campaign sheds valuable light on the Hijaz pilgrim routes, not only their number and general disposition, but who controlled them, as well as the dangers a powerful foreigner faced in taking them. These excerpts also provide a rare glimpse into the wealthiest Meccan harems, including a passage on marriage customs that flies in the face of received opinion about Muslim women’s rights. The Begum’s account describes the clash of two discordant cultures. Although decorum is never broken, a battle of honor rages beneath the surface of this prose.
from Pilgrimage to Mecca by The Nawab Sikandar, Begum of Bhopal
ARRIVING AT JIDDA On the thirteenth of the month of Shaban, in the year of the Hijra 1280, corresponding to the twenty-third of January 1864 of Christ, having made in company with my fellow pilgrims a prosperous voyage from Bombay, I arrived at Jidda. Immediately after my arrival, the port admiral of the Sultan of Turkey came on board and said: “You cannot land today. After your arrival has been reported to the Sharif and the Pasha of Mecca, you may be able to disembark tomorrow at about eight or nine o’clock and enter the city.”
Accordingly, on the twenty-fourth of January, at nine o’clock in the morning, the unlading of my luggage commenced; and accompanied by the Nawab Kudsiah Begum,156 Nawab Mian Faujdar Muhammad Khan,157 and Dr. Thomson,158 I proceeded to the house of Ahmad Arab, where the caravan of pilgrims was staying. Here Dr. Thomson left me and went to call on the Consul of Jidda. Ahmad Arab received me very hospitably, giving a dinner in my honour, at which all the ladies of his family were present. We remained there, however, only until six o’clock in the evening, Ahmad Arab having informed me that a princess had arrived from Egypt and would lodge at his house and that therefore I must vacate it for her. I had no alternative but to do this; and I was consequently obliged to seek an asylum elsewhere; this I found at a house called Khush Shamiyan (Happy Dwelling).
Abd al-Rahim, the head of the caravan, went and asked Ahmad Arab to tell him what the charge would be for the three or four hours we had spent in his house, and the latter replied that as we had done him the honour to remain but a short time, he would receive no payment. Whereupon I made him a present of some bales of cloth, some coins, etc.
After all, the Egyptian princess never came, having found quarters elsewhere, and not only had we been put to much inconvenience, but Ahmad Arab was in no way benefited.
While the goods were being taken out of the ship, Nawab Faujdar Muhammad Khan, who was present with the Kudsiah Begum, told her that her money chest had the cover broken and that the rupees were scattered about. “Those Bedouin thieves,” he added, “are scrambling for them.”
The Kudsiah Begum replied, “If the box is broken, the rupees are probably stolen. What is the use of your troubling yourself ?”
On hearing this, I became anxious about my luggage and asked the people why they were opening the boxes. They replied, “That the custom dues might be paid.”
I then wrote to Muhammad Baksh, Deputy Harbour Master of Jidda. . . . A letter came in answer from Shams al-Din, customhouse officer, saying: “Inasmuch as I am a servant of the Turkish government and there are fixed custom dues for this port, I have no power to take less than the prescribed rates; but in consideration of your Highness having honoured this empire with a visit, and of the letter you refer to from the Governor of Bombay, and of his friendship towards you, also out of regard for our common faith, I will only examine one of your ten cases; be pleased, however, to send a list of the whole of your Highness’s goods, that I may certify to its correctness, and receive the customs according to the above-mentioned regulations. And further, inform me of the name of your agent here.” . . .
THE ROYAL BAGGAGE I received the following account from [my agents] Mittu Khun and Abdul Karim: “Today, being the eighth of February, 1864, we disembarked the whole of your Highness’s property with every care, under the direction of a person named Antonio de Silva. But the Custom House officer would not hear anything that was said and insisted upon opening all the bales and arbitrarily exacting the dues upon every article. The amount of trouble and annoyance we experienced is beyond description. He scattered all the things about; if a box chanced to be unlocked, well and good; if not, he broke it open. In short, he spoilt all the cases and their contents. As yet we have been unable to discover what the particular tax levied upon each article may have been; apparently not a single thing has been exempted from dues. When we are informed on the subject, we shall communicate with your Highness.”
On hearing this, I passed an order directing a copy of this letter to be sent through Hafiz Muhammad Khan to the Sharif and Pasha. . . .
The Pasha and Sharif wrote that they were aware of Captain Mittu Khan being appointed to the charge of my property and that any representation made by him to them they would willingly attend to. They expressed regret at the conduct of the Custom House officer and said they had written to him on the subject and that his reply should be forwarded to me. . . .
AT EVE’S TOMB, JIDDA The Kudsiah Begum visited this tomb of our ancestor Eve and, according to her wont, distributed alms. But on turning to leave the place, some two hundred to three hundred beggars—men and women, old and young, boys and girls, followed her, shouting at and hustling her to the extent that she was well-nigh crushed to death and rendered senseless by their violence and importunity. It seems to be the established practice of these faqirs and inhabitants of the city to importune for alms and, on refusal, to make an attack all together—crowding, hustling, and even tearing the clothes off one’s back. . . .
Every native of India who lands at Jidda has a dollar or half-dollar, according to his condition in life, extorted from him. There is no kindness of disposition among the inhabitants, but they are characterized by a large amount of cruelty and oppression. They consider it a meritorious act to oppress the natives of India—just as a heretic considers it a meritorious act to persecute the true believer. To steal their property or to maltreat them is looked upon as no offence at all. . . .
THE ROYAL CARAVAN, JIDDA TO MECCA I now proceed with the account of my march from Jidda. Sharif Abdullah of Mecca wrote to me as follows: “It is a long time since we first heard of your intended visit to the holy shrines. Praise be to God that you are on your way! The news has given me much pleasure, and as you will shortly reach Mecca, I have, with reference to the arrangements to be made for your reception, in accordance with your rank, sent to you my brother, together with an interpreter, and they will carry out all your wishes. Be so good as to look upon my relation as your sincere friend, and may you come with perfect ease and comfort to the House of God at Mecca!”
A similar letter came from the Pasha of Mecca with reference to sending his son, Suleyman Beg, to meet me.
After this I wrote to my agent, Abd al-Rahim, saying: “Hire, for the journey to Mecca, eighty camels, at the rate of one riyal each, but let me know if the hire be more or less.” The agent accordingly hired camels for the various stages—viz.: from Jidda to Mecca, from Mecca to Mina, from Mina to Muzdalifa, from Muzdalifa to Arafat, and from thence by the same route back again to Jidda. . . .
At length the price of the camels having been settled by Abd al-Rahim, he took them off . . . to arrange about their distribution among the different members of the caravan; and about sunset, having mounted our shugduf camels,159 we started from Jidda. . . .
THE DOWAGER’S ABDUCTION Between Jidda and Hadda (the first stage), I found the istikbal160 waiting to receive me, and with it were Sharif Abdullah, brother of the Sharif of Mecca, and Suleyman Beg, son of the Pasha of Mecca, attended by Jafar Effendi. The latter said to me, “When the Sharif comes up and salutes you by saying ‘Salaam alaykoum!’ (‘Peace be with you!’), your Highness must reply, ‘Alaykoum salaam!’ (‘Upon you be peace!’) Then he will say, ‘Kif hal kyum?’ (‘How do you do?’) Your Highness must reply, ‘Tayib.’ (‘Very well!’)”
After this, the brother of the Sharif, riding on horseback, came up. The order of the procession was as follows: About fifty sowars (horse soldiers) rode behind Sharif Abdullah, and about the same number of Turkish sowars behind Suleyman Beg, son of the Pasha. The Sharif ‘s brother was preceded by an Abyssinian seated on horseback, who wore a fur hat which appeared to me to be made of the skin of a shaggy sort of dog; he had two very small kettledrums in front of him and rode holding the reins in his mouth and using both hands for beating the drums. When the sun rose, I observed that an umbrella was held over the head of the Sharif ‘s brother by an Abyssinian riding by his side. The horses were very handsome and well-bred and went along as quietly as if they were kids or lambs tied together; there was no neighing.
Suleyman Beg’s escort was similar to that of the Sharif ‘s brother, only he had but one kettledrum. They were both accompanied by torchbearers, and the torches were composed of a particular kind of wood, instead of rags soaked in oil, the ashes of which kept continually falling on the ground as the men moved along. The Sharif ‘s brother rode by my side for some little distance, but when I told him that the Dowager Begum was coming up behind, he, together with Suleyman Beg, left me and went back to meet her.
We reached Hadda at seven o’clock in the morning, and on arrival, I heard the following account from Munshi Saraj al-Din: “In your Highness’s caravan of pilgrims, which left Jidda for the great Mecca at seven o’clock in the evening . . . , was the camel ridden by Her Highness the Kudsiah Begum, and in the middle of the night, while on the road, it was seized by about twenty Bedouins, who began leading it away from the caravan in another direction, when Her Highness called out in a loud voice, ‘“I don’t know where those people are taking my camel! They won’t listen to or understand me, and none of my servants are with me. Ari, Ari! (Hullo, there!) Lead my camel along near the Sikandar’s camels!’ There was with Kudsiah Begum’s camel a slave whom she had purchased for the pilgrimage, giving him his freedom, and he had joined her at Jidda. He was clinging round the neck of the camel, and would not let it go, when Budhu Khan, . . . one of your Highness’s own orderlies, having heard the Kudsiah Begum’s voice, ran back and began to deal such blows with the butt end of his musket at the three or four Bedouins who were leading off the camel, as well as at the ten or twelve others who were surrounding it, that he knocked several of them over. And when they saw that some of their companions were disabled, they left the camel and ran off. Budhu Khan had been joined, in the meantime, by Ghulam Husayn and Husayn Baksh, sepoys of the same regiment, and the three remained with Her Highness as escort.”
The Kudsiah Begum herself gave a few more particulars of the occurrence and said that, as she never imagined the Bedouins who were leading off her camel to be robbers, she had entered into conversation with them, under the impression that they were escorting her, and had told them not to keep her camel by itself, but to lead it along with mine. It was not until she arrived at Hadda that she understood they were robbers.
Qasim Ali, an employee of the Bhopal state, reported to me as follows: “When I reached the outer gate of Jidda, the camel drivers, that is to say the Bedouins, began turning all the luggage topsy-turvy and ended with dispatching it in that state. After we had travelled about half a mile, one of the camel men seized a box full of goods and a bag containing a bill of exchange and other property belonging to some of the servants of Her Highness (the Dowager Begum). He ran off with these, leaving the camel behind him, the remainder of the caravan having gone on a long way ahead. We, therefore, being quite helpless, had no alternative but to return to Jidda. Arrived there, we procured a donkey from Abdl al-Rahim, and with three horse soldiers as escort we again set off, and reached here today. On our way we fell in with Mian Ida, who told us to inform your Highness that his camel men, after having unloaded the camels, had left him where we found him and that he was perfectly helpless.”
On hearing this, I ordered a letter to be written to Jafar Effendi, requesting him to communicate with the Sharif of Mecca and to ask him what arrangements could be made for forwarding the goods. . . .
MECCA The city of Mecca the Exalted is very wild and desolate looking, and is surrounded by lofty hills, quite destitute of trees. These hills extend, I am told, to a distance of four or five marches on all sides of Mecca, and I found on the Amra Road that this was the case. The road runs between the hills, being in some places so narrow as to admit of only three or four camels going abreast, and in others wide enough for five or ten. . . .
There was a great deal of severe sickness, and the inhabitants of Mecca suffered considerably. Nine people in my suite were attacked with various complaints, such as dysentery, fever, and tumours in the leg. On the pilgrimage, I lost eight altogether, four of whom died on board ship and four at Mecca and Jidda. In the caravan that separated from me and went to Medina, a great many people died, some on land and some on board ship. Two persons also disappeared out of my suite and were never found again: one was a woman whom we lost on the pilgrimage, and the other a water carrier who went to Medina. I do not know what became of them.
In the country round Mecca, there are neither lakes, rivers, nor streams; there are only springs, and in these no travellers are allowed to bathe without payment. People of the poorer classes are beaten and driven away from them, sentries belonging to the Sharif and Pasha being posted over them. The water is sold at the rate of half a guirsh161 a skinful. A chief or person of rank who is acquainted with the Sharif and Pasha can obtain a sufficient supply of water for the needs of his establishment. I had permission to receive as much as I wanted. There are magnificent baths in the city, those for men being separate from the women’s. . . .
The foundations and walls of the buildings in Mecca are very strong, being composed of either bricks and mortar or stone, but the roofs and floorings are roughly constructed after this fashion: branches of the date palm are laid crosswise over the beams and rafters, and over them is spread a layer of earth, so that if any porous vessel containing water be placed on the floor, the drippings percolate through into the rooms below. Or should there be a pan of fire for cooking placed on the floor, the house is in danger of being set on fire. After rain it is common to see grass growing on the roofs. Every house has a kitchen, bathroom, and other offices of masonry, the remainder of the building being composed of mud. . . .
The custom of taking perquisites prevails to such an extent among all classes that if one only wants to hire a donkey for the pilgrimage, one has to employ an agent, and this man gets as commission from the owner of the animal upon the hire of it the sum of a guirsh or half-guirsh. On all occasions of buying and selling, the same custom prevails. It is usual to demand the price of an article the moment it is sold; one is not trusted for an instant.
It seemed to me that begging was held to be as honourable as working; and when travellers take their departure (from Mecca), they are besieged by nobles as well as plebeians who clamour obstinately and violently for [handouts].
Almost all the bad characters that have been driven out of India may be found in Mecca.
Imports from every part of the world are procurable, but the price of everything is dear.
Women frequently contract as many as ten marriages, and those who have only been married twice are few in number. If a woman sees her husband growing old, or if she happen to admire anyone else, she goes to the Sharif, and after having settled the matter with him, she puts away her husband and takes to herself another, who is perhaps young, good-looking, and rich. In this way a marriage seldom lasts more than a year or two. . . .
The people who reside in the cities know something of religion, but those who inhabit the mountainous regions are totally ignorant of it. . . .
A BANQUET The hour of my arrival at Mecca was the ʿisha (first watch of the night), and the call to evening prayers was sounding from the different mosques. I entered within the holy precincts by the Gate of Peace, and, arriving at the House of Abraham, I stood and read the prescribed prayers. After that, I performed the ceremonies of the Arrival Tawaf, and of running at Safa and Marwa. It was then my intention to go to the house I had engaged, after I should have offered in sacrifice the animals brought for the purpose, and have accomplished the ceremony of Halak Nisai [Ritual Haircut], and have also visited the house of Abu Bakr, the mutawwif, where it is customary for pilgrims to stay. If I should find my own house convenient, I intended remaining there.
In the meantime, however, meeting Molvi Abd al-Kayum, I asked him to conduct me to my house. He accordingly walked on before me; whereupon one of the four slaves of the Sharif of Mecca, who had accompanied me from Hadda, ran after him and, striking him in the face, pushed him against the wall. The Molvi called out in a loud voice, “Look, Madam! One of the Sharif ‘s slaves is beating me shamefully!” I said to the man, “Bhai!” (literally, “Brother!”) “Why are you beating the Molvi, who is one of my people?” He replied, “You are to come to our Sharif’s house and eat the dinner he has prepared for you.” I answered, “The Sharif has not invited me; I will come back when I have made my offerings.” After this, I again proceeded on my way, Molvi Abd al-Kayun walking before me, when a slave, who was with Jafar Effendi, a very tall, powerful man, drew his sword and began to attack the Molvi. The latter called out to me as before, and I remonstrated with the man who had assaulted him, saying that the Molvi, in obedience to my orders, was showing me the way to my house. The slave replied, “My master the Sharif ‘s feast, which cost him five thousand rupees, is all getting spoilt, and his money is being wasted!” Jafar Effendi then said, “Your Highness had better go to the Sharif ‘s; otherwise he will be very angry, and his anger is certainly not pleasant.” On hearing this, I bent my steps to the Sharif ‘s house, and arriving there, I found his brother, Abdullah, waiting for me, who, after having made a salaam and inquired how I was, took his leave.
I made the prescribed offerings at his door and performed the ceremony of Halak Nisai. On entering the house, I found a room in which a handsomely embroidered velvet carpet was spread, and in front of the room, on the top of an open portico, dinner was laid upon a tablecloth. The repast consisted of about five hundred specimens of Arabian cookery, some of the dishes savoury, some sweet. They said to me, “Eat your dinner.” I excused myself by replying that I had had no invitation. Jafar Effendi said to me, “If you do not eat, the Sharif will be very displeased, and it would never do to offend him.” Then, stooping down, he whispered in my ear, “When the Sharif is angry with people, he orders his head slaves to shoot them in the night, and you have to perform the tawaf; on this account, then, do not make the Sharif angry.” After this, I said nothing more, but sat down and began to eat. The dew had fallen upon the food, making it as cold as ice, so that nothing had any flavour. Jafar Effendi and some Turks attend upon me at the meal. After it was over, night having set in, we passed it there. . . .
A LETTER FROM THE SHARIF “In accordance with the custom of this court and to show my friendship for you, I sent my brother to receive you with the istikbal. It is both right and proper that the remaining hospitable observances (which consist of an entertainment lasting three days) should be carried out; and as my servants knew that the custom was both an established and invariable one, they thought it superfluous to give you any notice, either of the entertainment or with regard to your staying in my house. This will account for your having heard nothing of the matter. I now, being acquainted with the custom of your country, find that I acted contrary to your etiquette; however, it was done unintentionally, so let bygones be bygones. Now, our friendship is established on a sure basis. It is no trouble to me to render you every assistance in my power; and although I do not see the necessity for informing you beforehand, every transaction between us shall be to our mutual satisfaction, in accordance with the request contained in your letter. The house is entirely at your disposal, and by occupying it you have inconvenienced no one; neither is any return expected for it; still, if you consider that it is not adapted to you, you must decide as you think best.”
On receiving this, I wrote to the Deputy Commander-in-Chief (Naib Bakhshi) and told him to go to the Sharif and say from me “that his courteous reply had given me much pleasure; that adjoining the house I had rented there were five other houses, not government buildings, which I should be obliged by his obtaining for me, in order that privacy might be insured to me during my stay for the period of Ramadan, and that I would send the rent to him.”
The [Deputy] wrote in answer that the Sharif had ordered the chief magistrate of the city to purchase the five buildings and make them over to me and that he had told him verbally if I did not like to remain in his house, he would not be hurt or annoyed at my leaving it; for he only desired my comfort, and wherever I could be most comfortable, there I had better remain. He added, “The pilgrimage is a sacred duty, but it is incumbent on everyone performing it to provide himself with a house suitable to his rank in life. I do not say that the Begum need necessarily remain in my house, but it is proper that she should select one adapted to the occupation of a personage of her great name and exalted dignity.”
Notwithstanding the Sharif ‘s persistent refusal to take any rent, he accepted it willingly enough when the time came for me to leave. . . .
I was now settled in Mecca and began to be occupied with my religious exercises.
After Her Highness the Nawab Dowager Begum had presented to the Sharif, the Pasha, and Shayba Sahib162 the gifts she had brought for them from Bhopal, the fame of her liberality and great riches spread to such an extent throughout the whole city of Mecca that she was completely mobbed by faqirs, and the possibility of her performing the tawaf was entirely put an end to. I felt perfectly helpless and began to question the utility of having gone to Mecca for devotional ends. I accordingly requested the Sharif and Pasha to make over to me some of their Turks, to form part of my suite when I made the tawaf and so protect me from the violence of the faqirs. The Sharif, in compliance, ordered four Turks to attend me when performing the tawaf. They did this, and when they had safely escorted me home, they were going away after having made their salaam, but I judged from their demeanour that they expected a present, although they had not asked for one. I consequently ordered a present of eight annas163 to be given to each man daily. They took it without any compunction and seemed in no fear of punishment at the result.
We were in the habit of wearing Turkish veils when going out on the tawaf and other expeditions, and the inhabitants of Mecca enquired of my people, “Which among those women was the Sikandar Begum of Bhopal?” Some of them were foolish enough to point me out, so to avoid a repetition of the annoyance, I issued an order to all my suite forbidding them, on pain of dismissal from my service, to cause me to be recognised, either indoors or out-of-doors, by anyone, be they inhabitants of Mecca, or strangers. . . .
VISITING THE HAREM The inhabitants of Mecca now began to say that I ought to pay visits to the Sharif and Pasha, they being the rulers of the country; and I accordingly made up my mind to send my prime minister to wait upon the Sharif. I wrote to the Naib Bakhshi and desired him to inform the Sharif and Pasha that after the ship with my retinue had arrived, I would, God willing, pay them a visit. . . .
[When the ship had arrived], I went on foot to the Sharif ‘s house and learnt that he was sitting alone in one of his rooms. Three slaves met me and requested me to go into the [meeting hall], which I proceeded to do, they leading the way. At the first step of the staircase to the [hall], some slaves were stationed; three or four steps higher up, some female Georgian attendants; and at the same distance still higher up were some female Egyptians, servants of the mother and sisters of the Sharif. These women placed their hands under my arms and assisted me up the steps. Four or five steps higher up was one of the Sharif ‘s wives and, at the same distance again, another wife. Then, beyond a door leading into a passage, at the place established by custom, being about halfway down the room, was the Sharif ‘s mother. As each of the Sharif ‘s wives met me, they first took my hand in theirs, and then putting their faces against both sides of my face and neck, they ended with kissing me lightly on my lips. The Sharif ‘s mother did the same.
Nawab Faujdar Muhammad Khan, the Minister, Hafiz Muhammad Khan, and Captain Mittu Khan, who all accompanied me, were received in the gentlemen’s apartments and were joined by the Sharif.
An hour afterwards some slaves came to me to say that the Sharif would, with my permission, come into the [room]. I replied: “It is the Sharif ‘s own house,” (meaning to say, “Of course, he can do as he pleases”). I was sitting with his mother and wives and conversing with the former, who spoke Arabic, Jafar Effendi’s wife interpreting for us. The Sharif has seven wives, four of whom I saw. Of these, two were Georgians, very handsome and beautifully dressed, being, one might say, literally covered with diamonds from head to foot. Their heads were encircled with a wreath composed of jewels, and when the ladies moved or talked, the sparkling effect of these was very pretty. Underneath this diadem, they wore on their heads very small, fine handkerchiefs, such as English ladies carry in their hands; these were thickly embroidered with jewels and tied in a coquettish way. From their neck to their waist, they were adorned with gems in the same fashion. Altogether, in face, height, and beauty of limbs, these two Georgians were as perfect women as one could wish to see. The dress of one was composed of black satin and that of the other of lilac satin, embroidered with stars. The third wife was an Arabian and had regular features. The fourth was an Abyssinian.
Those wives only who have borne children to the Sharif are allowed to sit down in his presence, while those who have no family are compelled to stand with their hands put together.
When the Sharif came into the [hall], the four wives and the mother rose respectfully, and I, having marked their obeisance, advanced a few steps to meet him. After the Sharif was seated, I made my offering and then followed the usual complimentary speeches. Having enquired for my health, the Sharif asked: “How far is Bhopal from here?” I replied: “It is the Paradise of India—your Highness should pay it a visit.” The Sharif laughed and said: “My home is the Kaʿba.”164 After this, the wives and mother, having again made their obeisance, sat down in the background.
Some Georgians and Africans who were in attendance now brought in cups of coffee and pomegranate sherbet, and others the rose water and incense. Just as it is the fashion in India to give attar165 and rose water, so is it the custom in Mecca to fumigate the guests with sweet-scented incense.
The Sharif now said to me: “If your Highness will allow me, I will send for your uncle, the minister, and other gentlemen to come here.” I replied: “I came here for the express purpose of paying a visit to the ladies of your Highness’s family, and if the gentlemen come, they will go away. I had rather be with the ladies.” The Sharif, however, persevered in his wish to send for them, so after a little while, I consented. The ladies accordingly withdrew, and some slaves were sent to fetch the gentlemen of my suite. The Sharif did not salute any of them, but they, having made their salaam and kissed his hand, sat down. After a few complimentary speeches, they all returned to the gentlemen’s apartments. The Sharif remained sitting where he was. I should think his age was rather more than fifty. The ladies now came into the room again, and after remaining a little while longer, the Sharif took leave of me and returned to the gentlemen’s apartments.
I then took leave of the ladies and went to another house to visit the Sharif ‘s sisters. The party consisted of three sisters, four mothers, two sisters-in-law, and a number of other women. After the usual complimentary speeches, the Sharif ‘s younger brother came and sat with us, and then coffee and sherbet were served. After the incense burning, I took my departure and returned to my own house. It is the custom at these visits for the men to embrace each other and for the women to do the same among themselves. . . .
THIRTEEN REASONS TO AVOID MEDINA I wished to continue my pilgrimage to Medina, but before coming to any decision, I wrote to Mian Faujdar Muhammad Khan, saying that I had heard most appalling accounts of the state of the road to Medina, “which, if true, will deter me from going to that place, the pilgrimage to Medina not being obligatory.” I am further induced not to go for the following reasons:
Mian Faujdar Muhammad Khan’s reply was as follows:
“What you write is quite true and most sensible; to go to Medina till the road is quite safe is to trifle with our lives. You are quite right not to go, for it is written in the venerable Quran, ‘It is wicked to put one’s life in danger.’
“It is laid down that all Muslims ought to go to Mecca, but it is not necessary to go to Medina. When our pilgrimage here is over, we should return to Bhopal.”
Hakim Bakr Ali Khan also wrote:
“My opinion quite coincides with your Highness’s; you should not go to Medina. You may come here again some day, when you may be able to go. The molvis and men learned in the law have decided that it is not necessary to go to Medina if the roads are unsafe. Imam Muhammad Ghazali166 has even forbidden it.”
I then wrote to Sharif Abdullah and Pasha Izat Ahmad, as follows:
“I have made many enquiries regarding the road to Medina; some people tell me there are four roads; others, that there are five or six. Some say the roads are open; others, that they are all closed. I believe, therefore, that none of them know anything about the matter. I shall feel much obliged by your sending me a list of the various routes, together with the names of the marches on each, and also by your informing me what roads are closed and what open.”
In reply, Sharif Abdullah and the Pasha wrote:
“There are five roads to Medina, besides the Imperial Road, but only small caravans of forty or fifty camels go along most of them. The large caravans go either by the Imperial or Eastern Road.
“It is to be hoped that, through the efforts of the Pasha of Medina, the Imperial Road will soon be clear of Bedouins.”
I learnt from Muhammad Hasan, an Arab, the following particulars regarding the routes, etc., to Medina:
“About the fifteenth or twentieth Shawal, the first caravan leaves Mecca. It assembles at Wadi Fatima: owing to the scarcity of water, it goes in small parties to Safra Wadi (the seventh march from Mecca). Many stop one day and night at Rayek en route.
“At Safra Wadi, the caravan reassembles and marches together for two marches as far as Bir Sharoki, for fear of the Bedouins. From Bir Sharoki, they go in small parties to Medina, which is one march distant.
“In marching from Medina to Mecca, the same precautions are adopted.
“After the Hajj, two caravans go from Mecca to Medina; the first is called Tayyara, and goes with the Syrian caravan; the second starts about twenty days after and goes very slowly.”
I wrote, as follows, to Miriam Bibi, of Aden,167 whose orders all the Bedouins respect (twelve of the Bedouin chiefs being under Shaykh Sa’ad, who is her disciple):
“I have heard from the people at Mecca that the roads to Medina are closed because there is a dispute between the Bedouins and the Sultan of Turkey. I have also been informed that Shaykh Sa’ad, who is a great chief among the Bedouins, is your disciple. I write, therefore, to request that you will give me a letter to Shaykh Sa’ad to the effect that when my caravan goes from Mecca to Medina, he, or his son, or one of his near relatives, should accompany and escort it safely to Medina and back again to Mecca. I will handsomely reward him. Please send the letter for Shaykh Sa’ad to me, and I will forward it to him and receive his reply.”
I wrote to Her Britannic Majesty’s Consul at Jidda, as follows:
“I send herewith copies of all the reports I have received regarding the routes to Medina. Please give me your advice. I purpose going with the Egyptian and Syrian caravan to Medina and, having performed the pilgrimage, to go with the same caravan to Suez, from whence I hear I can proceed by steamer via Aden to Bombay. I cannot learn anything here about the route from Medina to Suez, which I believe is about twenty-seven marches. Will you kindly inform me whether supplies can readily be obtained, whether the road is safe, and also whether you can procure me an escort.”
The Consul wrote in reply:
“There are hundreds of persons in Mecca who know far more about the routes than I do; as, however, you have asked my advice, I should recommend you to march to Jidda and to go from there to Yanbu by steamer; from Yanbu it is not many marches to Medina.
“I have learnt the following, regarding the Suez Road, from the people here. The road is bad, water is scarce, the distance great, and the expense will be enormous. It is six hundred British miles from Medina to Suez, and I should advise you not to go by that route: if, however, you are bent on going to Suez, your best plan would be this:
“From Medina to Yanbu by land, and thence to Suez by steamer. If you wish it, I will arrange to charter one of the imperial (Turkish) steamers for you. From Suez to Bombay you will, I fear, encounter difficulty, as there are only two or three of the Peninsular and Oriental Company’s steamers ever there. In my opinion, it would be better for you to charter a steamer in Bombay to fetch you.
“The person who advised you to march from Mecca to Suez, and thence by steamer to Bombay, did so from interested motives.
“There is no doubt the Eastern Road from Mecca to Medina is the safest, but even on it men and animals suffer great inconvenience.
“This being a foreign country, I am unable to order an escort for you.”
I received a letter from Shaykh Sa’ad in reply to the one sent him by Miriam Bibi; he wrote thus:
“I send my son Hazifah to you. He will do all you desire and convey you in all safety and comfort. I will do all I can to assist you. Pray treat my son, and the Arabs with him, with all kindness, because they will suffer much trouble and inconvenience. Your generosity is well-known.
“The camel men will receive every assistance from me, and my son will study your comfort in every way.”
On further enquiry, I learnt that the marches are thus performed:
The caravan marches daily for seven pahars168 and halts for one. . . . In this manner Medina is reached in twelve days.
There is no water on the road. The Bedouins alone know the route and where any water is to be found.
There are many hills on the road to Medina, but all destitute of trees.
Whatever the pilgrims take with them the Bedouins seize, giving back only what they do not want.
Even the water which is carried on camels they sometimes seize. They will convey in safety to Medina any caravan with which they are pleased, but if they are annoyed, they leave the caravan and disappear among the hills; and the pilgrims, not knowing the road, wander about till they die from thirst and starvation.
The Bedouins, for five out of the twelve stages to Medina, acknowledge the Sharif Abdullah; for the other seven they look to Shaykh Sa’ad as their ruler.
But they only obey the orders of their chiefs so long as it suits them. No reliance is to be placed in them. They respect no promises and obey no orders, unless it pleases them to do so.
For these reasons I resolved not to go to Medina, as it would have been needlessly risking my own life and those of my suite.
153 Leading a single rider away from a caravan at night, for later ransom, was a common Hijazi ruse, described by Joseph Pitts two centuries earlier (see p. 123–24).
154 Porte: short for the Sublime Porte, a widely accepted French term for the “high gate” (babiali) of the Grand Vizier’s offices in Istanbul, after which the Ottoman government was named.
155 The Queen took her relations with British India seriously. She later made herself fairly fluent in Urdu, with lessons from her favorite male servant, Abd al-Karim al-Munschi, a Hindi Muslim.
156 Nawab Kudsiah Begum: Dowager Begum, mother of the Sikandar Begum.
157 Nawab Mian Faujdar Muhammad Khan: uncle of the Sikandar Begum.
158 Dr. Thomson: Charles Thomson, Esq., M.D., Surgeon to the Bhopal Political Agency, who had been deputed by Her Majesty’s Indian government to escort the Begum as far as Jidda.
159 A shugduf camel carries two square panniers, or shugdufs, composed of a framework of wood, filled in with ropework. Each pannier holds one person.
160 istikbal: literally, “meeting.” It is the custom in the East for people of rank to be received at some distance from their destination by a deputation from the house of the host with whom they are to stay. In the case of royal personages, they are met by some member of the family accompanied by a large retinue; the procession in India on such occasions is very imposing. . . .
161 guirsh: equal to one twentieth of a riyal, the Arab penny. [Ed.]
162 Shayba Sahib: The Keeper of the Keys of the Holy Places.
163 anna: one shilling.
164 that is, the Sanctuary at Mecca.
165 attar: a very strong perfume—such as oil of roses or sandalwood.
166 Muhammad al-Ghazali: a great Muslim theologian (1058–1111) whose works did much to inform and spiritualize the ritual obligations of his religion. [Ed.]
167 Miriam Bibi: a spiritual leader of great regional power. [Ed.]
168 pahar: a watch, equal to three hours.