Glossary:
Names and Terms288

ABA a man’s overrobe, in Arabia.

ABBASID DYNASTY second of the two great dynasties to rule the caliphate, the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyad Dynasty in 750 and reigned until the destruction of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258.

ABU BAKR the first caliph, successor to Muhammad (reigned 632–34).

ADHAN the Muslim call to prayer.

AGHA a chief.

AISHA daughter of Abu Bakr and Muhammad’s favorite wife in his later years.

ALHAMDULILLAH equivalent to “Gratitude is due to God”; a general expression.

ALI IBN ABU TALIB (died 661). Cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet, considered by Shi’ites the rightful heir to the caliphate and the most inspired of the early companions of Muhammad. Ali’s two sons by Muhammad’s daughter Fatima were the Prophet’s most direct male descendants. The Fatimid lineage descends from this union. Descendants of the elder son, Hasan, are often referred to as sharifs; those of the younger son, Husayn, are termed sayyids.

ALID a descendant of Ali.

AMIR a general or other military commander; by extension, the governor of a territory.

AMIR AL-HAJJ the official leader of a pilgrim caravan.

ARAFAT the desert plain and mountain fifteen miles east of Mecca, where pilgrims perform the rite of standing (wukuf ) during the high point of the Hajj.

ARAMCO the Arabian American Oil Company, which explored and developed the Saudi Arabian oil concession beginning in the early 1930s. By 1964, American joint shareholders included Standard Oil Company of California, Texaco, Standard Oil Company of New Jersey (later Exxon), and Socony-Vacuum Company (later Mobil Oil Company). The Saudi government nationalized Aramco in 1973.

ARNAUT an Albanian; in particular, an Albanian Muslim soldier in the service of the Ottoman Empire, especially in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Egypt.

ʿASHURA a holiday on the tenth of the month of Muharram commemorating the martyrdom of Imam Husayn and his followers at Karbala in 680; of special importance to Shi’ite Muslims.

ASR afternoon; in particular, the third prayer of the Muslim canonical day.

AYAT a verse of the Quran; in general, any sign of God’s work in nature.

AYYUBID DYNASTY (1169–1250), founded at Cairo after the overthrow of the Fatimid Dynasty by Saladin; the rule of Egypt, northern Iraq, most of Syria, and Yemen passed to his descendants.

BAB gate or doorway in a mosque, city wall, or house.

BAB AL-SALAAM Gate of Peace; the traditional gate for entering the Haram in Mecca.

BADR Site of an important battle during the Medina period (March 15, 624), between a small Muslim force led by Muhammad and a well-guarded Quraysh caravan returning from Gaza; a decisive victory for the Muslims.

BANU SHAYBA the clan appointed by Muhammad in perpetuity as caretakers of the Meccan mosque.

BAQIYYAʿ a Muslim cemetery in Medina where many of Muhammad’s closest companions are buried; therefore, a major historic landmark.

BARAKA spiritual power or blessedness; also, a miraculous force that emanates from certain people and places.

BAYRAM feast; the Turkish equivalent to the Arabic id. The feast that marks the end of the Ramadan fast is Seker Bayrami (Id al-Fitr); the feast that marks the end of the Hajj is Kurban Bayrami (Id al-Adha).

BAYT ALLAH See Kaʿba

BAYT AL-HARAM the Sacred House; Arabic name of the Grand Mosque in Mecca.

BAZAN public fountain, especially the one near the entry to Arafat.

BEDOUIN or BEDAWI traditional nomadic camel-breeding tribes of the Arabian desert.

BIDʿA religious innovation; also, diverging from the established way to the point of heresy although not to the point of actual unbelief; the opposite of sunna.

BISMILLAH in the name of God, the beginning of nearly every chapter of the Quran; also, a protective formula, frequently uttered before any action, from eating or drinking to entering a house.

BLACK STONE an ancient relic mounted in the eastern corner of the Kaʿba about five feet above the ground and held in place by a silver band; in Arabic, al-Hajar al-Aswad. The Stone is kissed, touched, or saluted by passing pilgrims as a gesture of respect for the Prophet Muhammad, who did the same on his final pilgrimage to Mecca.

CALIPH originally, any of the four successors of Muhammad, spiritual and temporal rulers of Islam; later, a figurehead of the Muslim world, whose significance waxed and waned over the centuries. See also sultan.

CUBIT originally, the distance from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger; an ancient measurement equal to about 1.5 modern feet.

DAR AL-ISLAM lands under Muslim rule; later, any lands where Muslim institutions are maintained.

DERVISH or DARWISH a devotee or mendicant of a Muslim order or brotherhood. See faqir.

DEY Ottoman governor or military commandant in North Africa.

DHU AL-HIJJA the last lunar month of the Islamic calendar, during which the Hajj is undertaken.

DHU AL-QADA the eleventh lunar month of the Islamic calendar.

DILUL a fine breed of Arabian camel.

DIRʿIYYA original town of the Saudi amirs, near present-day Riyadh.

DISHDASHAH See thobe.

ELL an ancient unit of measure, between 1.5 and 2 feet.

FAJR the first, predawn, prayer of the Muslim canonical day.

FAQIH an expert in Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh). See mufti.

FAQIR (plural FUQARA) member of a religious order; an adept. See dervish.

FARSAKH a Persian measurement equivalent to between 2.3 and 4.2 miles. See parasang.

AL-FATIHA the opening chapter (sura) of the Quran and the most frequently recited Muslim prayer.

FATIMA daughter of the prophet Muhammad and wife of Ali, from whom the Fatimid Dynasty descends.

FATIMID DYNASTY rulers of an empire in North Africa (909) and subsequently in the Middle East (960–1171); founders of Cairo (968).

FIRMAN a decree or license issued by a ruler.

FRIDAY MOSQUE a mosque where the Friday congregational prayer may be conducted.

HADITH (plural AHADITH) often translated as “tradition”; a report of what the Prophet Muhammad, his companions, or one of the first four “rightly guided” caliphs said or did. Collectively, the ahadith form a large and active literature with the status of Scripture in the determination of precedent in Islamic law.

HAGAR according to the Quran, one of Abraham’s wives and the mother of Ishmael. Her search between Safa and Marwa for water for her son is commemorated during the Hajj by the rite called saʿy.

HAJJ the annual Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca, required of every able Muslim at least once in a lifetime.

HAJJI (feminine HAJJA) a prenominal title given to any Muslim who has made the Hajj.

HAMZA an uncle of the Prophet Muhammad and a famous Muslim warrior and early martyr.

HANAFI the Sunni system of jurisprudence ascribed to Abu Hanifah (699–767); the predominant school of modern Turkey. Its adherents depend strongly on analogy in the interpretation of the Quran.

HANBALI the Sunni system of jurisprudence ascribed to Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–885); the majority sect in modern Saudi Arabia. This conservative movement “returns” interpretation to the Quran.

HARAM a sacred precinct with special laws of asylum; also the area of any mosque.

HARAM in Mecca, the walled court of the Great Mosque (al-Haram al-Sharif ) or, the whole of Mecca, together with the surrounding territory within the haram, or sacred limits, as marked by pairs of stone pillars built beside the roads outside the city.

AL-HARAM AL-SHARIF the Noble Sanctuary; popular name for the mosque complex at Mecca.

HARWALA the quicker part of the saʿy rite.

HASAN older son of Ali and Fatima (died 680).

HASHIMITE the house of Hashim, originally Muhammad’s clan; later, the name of the dynasty of sharifs who governed Mecca.

HATIM the low semicircular wall built out from the northwest face of the Kaʿba, surrounding the hijr area.

HAWQALA any of various Quranic verses said on difficult occasions to ward off evil.

HIJAB Arabic term for the Muslim woman’s veil; in Persian, chador.

HIJAZ highland and Red Sea coastal region in the northwest of the Arabian Peninsula, containing Mecca, Medina, Rabigh Jidda, and the Haram Territory.

HIJR semicircular area extending from the northwest face of the Kaʿba, traditionally identified as the burial place of Ishmael and Hagar.

HIJRA the Prophet’s departure from Mecca to Medina on July 16, 622; hence, the first day of the Muslim calendar and the system of dating marked a.h. (anno hegirae) in the West.

HUSAYN younger son of Ali and Fatima, martyred at Karbala in 680 while attempting to gain control of the caliphate. Shi’ites consider Imam Husayn the preeminent figure of resistance against oppression and tyranny.

ID AL-FITR feast that celebrates the end of the Ramadan fast; also called Id al-Seghir, the Little Feast; in Turkish, Seker Bayrami.

ID AL-ADHA Feast of the Sacrifice marking the formal end of the Hajj on the tenth day of the last month of the Muslim calendar and continuing three more days; also called, Id al-Kebir, the Big Feast; in Persian, Ayd-e Azha, Ayd-e Qorban; in Turkish, Kurban Bayrami. It takes place at Mina for Hajj pilgrims.

IHRAM the rites of purification that pilgrims complete before entering the Sacred Territory of Mecca to perform the Hajj or Umra. The term also applies to a manner of dress indicating this ritual status: for men, two lengths of unstitched cotton cloth worn during the Hajj or Umra rites at Mecca; for women, modest national dress; also called the attire of submission or the clothing of the next life.

IMAM prayer leader in a mosque; also, by extension, the leader of a Muslim community.

INSH’ ALLAH God willing; a phrase that follows any statement or promise concerning the future.

IQAL a circlet worn over the kaffiya to keep it in place.

ʿISHA the fifth, prayer of the Muslim day, occurring after dusk.

ISMAʿILIS a sect of Islam, a branch of Shi’ism.

IZAR the lower half of the ihram garment, covering the body from navel to knee.

JABAL NUR Mountain of Light; the mountain in Mecca where Muhammad received the first Quranic revelation.

JABAL AL-RAHMA Mount Mercy; Mountain of Pardon or of Forgiveness; a hill on the Plain of Arafat where the Prophet Muhammad delivered his farewell sermon and, thus, where a sermon is given each year during the high point of the Hajj.

JAMARAT a group of three pillars—Jamarat al-Aqaba (the biggest), Jamarat al-Wusta (the middle sized), and Jamarat al-Ula (the smallest)—where pilgrims throw pebbles during the Hajj; also, the place they are located, the rite itself, or the pebbles thrown.

JEMAA or JUMA the congregational Muslim Friday prayer.

JIHAD effort; struggle. Islam distinguishes two jihads: the greater effort, applying to a person’s struggle against base impulses, such as pride, envy, greed; and the lesser effort, a war in the defense of Islam and in accordance with Sharia law.

JINN invisible beings, sometimes harmful, at other times helpful, to human beings.

JUMA See JEMAA.

JUMADA I the fifth lunar month of the Islamic calendar.

JUMADA II the sixth lunar month of the Islamic calendar.

KAʿBA the shrine at the center of the mosque in Mecca, toward which Muslims face when they pray and around which they circle as pilgrims in the rite of tawaf; variously called the Shrine, the House of God (Bayt Allah), the House.

KAFFIYA the checkered head scarf worn by Arab men in the Middle East.

KARBALA the desert site sixty miles south-southwest of Baghdad where in 680, Imam Husayn, younger son of Ali and Fatima and grandson of the Prophet, leading an insurrection by Ali’s family, was killed with seventy followers while trying to seize the Islamic caliphate from the second Umayyad ruler, Yazid ibn Mu’awiyya (reigned 680–683). The event is celebrated annually by pilgrimages to Karbala and marked as the year’s great day of mourning by Shi’ite Muslims, for whom the passion play depicting this and other historical tragedies plays a central part.

KHADIJA the Prophet Muhammad’s first and only wife until she died, in 619.

KHAN title for a ruler; also, a public hostel for travelers and pilgrims (caravansary).

KHAYBAR site of a siege and subsequent battle fought between Muslims and Arabian Jews in May-June 628, located about a hundred miles north of Medina.

KISWA the ceremonial black and gold cloth covering the Kaʿba, which is annually replaced during the Hajj.

LABAYK I am here; I am ready; first word of the Talbiyya.

MADHAB sometimes rendered “sect,” “school,” or “rite”; a system of jurisprudence, of which four have survived in Sunni Islam: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafiʿi.

MADRASA a Muslim school in which traditional fields of Muslim scholarship are studied; in North Africa, madersa.

MAGHRIB the West; Arab North Africa.

MAGHRIB the fourth prayer hour of the Muslim day, just after sunset.

MAHMAL a traditional camel-mounted palanquin accompanying the official Hajj caravan from Damascus and, later, Cairo as a symbol of sovereignty.

MALIKI the Sunni system of jurisprudence ascribed to Malik ibn Anas (715–95); the predominant sect in present-day Morocco.

MAMLUK originally, the slave-soldier corps of Saladin (reigned 1171–93), whose leaders replaced their Ayubbid masters in 1250 and continued to rule Egypt and its provinces until 1517; more generally, any member of their large army.

MAQAM IBRAHIM Station of Abraham; a small shrine in the Meccan mosque marking a legendary boulder upon which Abraham reputedly stood to rebuild the Kaʿba; today, it is sheltered in a kiosk.

MAQSURA an enclosed or screened-off portion of a mosque, originally reserved to protect a ruler while praying.

MARWA one of two hills in Mecca about four hundred yards apart between which Ishmael’s mother, Hagar, is said to have run in search of water; in Persian, Marveh.

MASAʿA the course, between the hills of Safa and Marwa in Mecca, along which the rite of saʿy is performed.

MASHʿAR AL-HARAM a pre-Islamic Sacred Grove; an area, marked by a mosque, in Muzdalifa where pilgrims spend the night after leaving Arafat, before they may return to Mina.

MASHRABIYA protruding wood lattice window casement; also called raushan.

MIHRAB the niche in a mosque wall indicating the qibla, or direction of the Kaʿba in Mecca, toward which Muslims pray.

MINA a village and valley a few miles east of Mecca where the Hajj procession camps on its way to and from Arafat.

MINBAR a portable staircase in a mosque from which the imam delivers a sermon; a form of pulpit.

MIQAT the stations bordering the Sacred Territory where pilgrims purify themselves and put on the ihram.

MISHLAH a loose cloak, often with golden threads on the fringes, worn loosely over other robes and clothing.

MOLVI or MOULVI a religious teacher.

MUDAYYINA Those Devoted to Religion; the proper and preferred name of the Wahhabis.

MUEZZIN the mosque crier who calls Muslims to prayer from a minaret; from Turkish, and now the accepted English spelling of mu’adhdhin.

MUFTI an expert in the Sharia, who gives public decisions. See faqih.

MUHARRAM the first lunar month of the Islamic calendar.

MUHASSIR a valley on the Hajj pilgrim route forming the boundary between Mina and Muzdalifa.

MUHRIM a term applied to a pilgrim in the requisite state of ritual purity (ihram) for entering the Mecca shrine area.

MUJAWIR (pl. MUJAWWIRIN) a sojourner; one who resides for an unusually long period near a holy place to receive the blessing associated with it.

MULLAH a generic term for clergyman.

MURID disciple of a Sufi murshid, or pir.

MURSHID or PIR a Sufi master; one authorized to lead disciples on the Sufi path.

MUSSELMAN older, variant European spelling of Muslim; probably from Persian, musulman.

MUTAWWIF a guide who counsels and leads pilgrims on the proper performance of the Hajj rites.

MUZDALIFA a small town about four miles from Arafat, the stopping place after Arafat on the route of the Hajj recessional.

MUZAWWIR a pilgrim’s guide in Medina.

NAFRA the Pouring Forth or the Rush; a rapid movement undertaken en masse by all pilgrims on leaving Arafat for the night vigil at Muzdalifa.

NIYA intention; the mental or verbalized statement of purpose preceding any ritual action in Islam.

OSMANLI an Ottoman Turk.

OTTOMAN EMPIRE an empire established by Turkish tribes in fourteenth-century Anatolia. The Ottomans ruled most of the Middle East from 1453 to 1922. parasang originally, the distance traveled by a caravan in one hour; equal to just under 3.5 modern miles (6 kilometers).

PASHA a Turkish title, often equivalent to governor; in Arabic, bashaw.

PATROON Algerian slave owner; in Spanish, patrón.

PORTE the Sublime Porte in Istanbul; a widely accepted French term for the “high gate” (babiali) of the Grand Vizier’s offices, for which the Ottoman government was named.

PROPHET’S MOSQUE the site of Muhammad’s home after leaving Mecca and of his grave; one of the three principal shrines of Sunni Muslims; the second destination of most hajjis while in the Hijaz.

QADI a judge administering Sharia law.

QADIRIYYA followers of Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani (died 1166); today, one of the largest Sufi orders.

QIBLA the direction of the Kaʿba in Mecca, from wherever one is standing; the orientation point of prayer marked by a niche, or mihrab, in a mosque.

QIRBA a waterskin.

QURAYSH the tribe of Muhammad; traditional protectors of the Haram in Mecca and providers of security for hajjis.

RABI’I the third lunar month of the Islamic calendar. rabi’ ii the fourth lunar month of the Islamic calendar. rajab the seventh lunar month of the Islamic calendar.

RAKʿA (plural RAKAT) a cycle of ritual daily prayer (salat) consisting of recitation, bowing, kneeling, and prostration. The five daily prayers are composed of two (predawn), four (noon or not long after), four (afternoon), three (near sunset), and four (dusk or not long after) rakats.

RAMADAN the ninth lunar month of the Islamic calendar, during which Muslims fast in the daylight hours.

RAMAL the quickened pace of the first three circuits around the Kaʿba in tawaf; also, a meter in Arabic poetry.

RENEGADO European volunteer in a Mamluk or other mercenary Muslim army, (ca. 1500–1900.)

RIDA the upper half of the ihram garment.

SAFA one of two hills in Mecca about four hundred yards apart between which Hagar is said to have run in search of water for her son, Ishmael.

SAFAR the second lunar month of the Islamic calendar.

SALAAM ALAYKOUM Peace be upon you; universal Arabic greeting.

SALAT ritual daily prayer, as an act of piety and expression of humility; not an entreaty or supplication.

SAʿY the hastening, the hurry, the running; a Hajj rite that commemorates Hagar’s search for water in the desert, comprising seven ritual laps between two hills, Safa and Marwa, at the Haram Mosque in Mecca.

SAYYID (feminine SAYYIDA) originally, a descendant of the Prophet through Husayn, son of Ali, Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law, and Muhammad’s daughter, Fatima; later, any noble; in Arabic, an honorific.

SELJUK DYNASTY a ruling military family of Oguz Turkmen tribes who founded an empire in Persia and Mesopotamia (1038–1194) and in central and eastern Anatolia (1077–1307) that for a period also included Syria and Palestine.

SEPOY soldier, especially in the Ottoman cavalry; also, sipahi, spachi.

SEQUIN a gold piece; a ducat or dinar.

SHABAN the eighth lunar month of the Islamic calendar; the month preceding Ramadan.

SHAFIʿI the Sunni system of jurisprudence ascribed to al-Shafi’i (767–820), deriving from the Maliki school and distinguished by a capacity to appeal to local authorities and traditions in resolving legal and religious questions.

SHARIA the Path or Way; sometimes translated as Sacred Law or Canon Law; the whole body of moral law guiding the life of a Muslim, modeled on the Quran and Sunna.

SHARIF (feminine SHARIFA) originally, a descendant of the Prophet through Hasan, son of Ali, Muhamamad’s cousin and son-in-law, and Muhammad’s daughter, Fatima; by extension, the ruling family of Mecca from ca. 1200 to 1924; more generally, any noble; an honorific.

SHAWAL the tenth lunar month of the Islamic calendar.

SHAYKH (feminine SHAYKA) elder; a person of knowledge or understanding; in Sufi circles, a guide or teacher; among the Arab Bedouin, a clan or tribal leader; in modern Middle Eastern society, a title of deference, eminence, or respect.

SHEVRIA or SHUBREYA in the Hijaz, a square camel saddle made up like a small bed on which one rider sits.

SHIʿISM a large and diverse group of Muslim sects that distinguish themselves from the Sunni rite by sharing a belief that Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law, Ali, was the legitimate caliph after the Prophet and that succession to the caliphate should be hereditary; also known as Shi’at Ali, Party of Ali.

SHUBREYA See shevria.

SHUGDUF two square panniers constructed around a framework of wood and ropework and set on a camel, used to convey pilgrims in the Hijaz. Each pannier holds one person.

SIND the Indus River territories; generally, modern-day Pakistan.

SOUK an Arab market area, sometimes with covered lanes.

SUFI a follower of Sufism, the mystical paths of Islam.

SULTAN in early times, the actual ruler, often with military power, in contrast to the caliph, or spiritual head of the Muslim people; later, the usual term for a regional or imperial sovereign.

SUNNA the practice and example of Muhammad, of which the ahadith are illustrations; the opposite of bidʿa; by extension, acceptable behavior. As an adjective, it describes an action as either sunna or not.

SUNNI the Way of the Customs of Muhammad; adherent of the majority sect of Islam; distinguished from Shiʿism by a belief that the post of caliph is elective, not hereditary; all Sunnis subscribe to one of the four schools, Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, or Shafiʿi.

SURA a chapterlike division of the Quran.

TAʾIF a mountain town almost overlooking Mecca.

TAKHTRUAN a deluxe litter carried by two camels for conveying pilgrims in the Hijaz.

TALBIYYA acquiescence; a prayer frequently chanted by pilgrims, the first word of which is labayk, “I am here”; an answer to a divine summons.

TAQIYYA religious dissimulation or concealment, practiced by various minority Muslim sects at different times to escape persecution.

TARIQA way; used especially to refer to the mystical paths of the Sufis; by extension, a Sufi group or order with a particular method of achieving complete spiritual and physical integration.

TAWAF turning or circumambulation; a pilgrim rite comprising seven circuits of the Kaʿba.

THOBE or DISHDASHAH the long-sleeved, ankle-length gown worn by Arab men; in Arabic, thawb.

TOMAN basic unit of Iranian currency.

TRAVEL LIAR a term coined by the American scholar Percy G. Adams, used here to describe a European travel author who wrote in a lifelike manner about journeys to places he had never been.

UHUD site of the first battle fought by Muslims.

ULAMA (singular, ʿALIM) people learned in Islamic legal and religious studies; where institutionalized, a religious senate.

UMAYYAD DYNASTY first Muslim dynasty (661–750) to rule the caliphate, stretching at its peak (685–705) from Spain to India.

UMRA the Minor or Lesser Pilgrimage to Mecca, including the rites of tawaf and saʿy but excluding Arafat. Of a more individual nature than the Hajj, it may be carried out at any time.

VIZIER a ruler’s administrator; anglicized form of the Arabic wazir.

WAHHABI Western term for a follower of Shaykh Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703–92) and his interpretation of the Hanbali teachings; more properly, Mudayyina. This religious movement provided the theological basis for the Saʿud family’s conquest and unification of the Arabian Peninsula.

WAQF a pious endowment or mortmain dedicated, sometimes in perpetuity, to the upkeep of a mosque, hospital, or school. The mosques at Mecca and Medina were and are the recipients of many such endowments.

WONDER BOOK a fanciful atlas of unknown lands; a medieval European literary genre.

WUDU’ the ritual ablution establishing a state of purity required before Muslim prayer.

WUKUF the Hajj rite of “standing together” at Arafat. This obligatory noon-to-sunset vigil is the high point of the pilgrimage.

YAWM AL-TARWIYYA the Day of Washing, on which the Kaʿba is given a ceremonial cleaning, following which a new kiswa is draped over the Shrine.

ZAKAT a ritual annual tax paid by Muslims and distributed to the poor.

ZAMZAM the sacred well inside the mosque at Mecca.

ZAMZAMI members of the Shrine guild who provide pilgrims with water from the Zamzam well.

ZAWIYA a Sufi center; in Persian, khaniqah; in Turkish, tekke.

ZUHR the second prayer hour of the Muslim day, usually falling in the hour beginning a few minutes after high noon.

288 All cross-references appear in boldface type in an entry’s definition.