Job (12:1–14:22)

Carry their god in their hands (12:6). The Hebrew is difficult but may be understood literally as referring to small effigies of gods (“idols”) carried in the hand, used to manipulate gods in the ancient Near East through magic.141 These were not life-size statues as with the cultic statues in the temples, but were small and could literally fit in the hand. Such idols were made of clay or bronze.142

Leads counselors away stripped (12:17). The Hebrew word used here is sometimes translated as “barefoot” (cf. v. 19). Ancient Near Eastern art shows prisoners of war being led away naked and barefoot (cf. Isa. 20:2–4; Mic. 1:8, where naked goes with barefoot).143 To go barefoot can be a sign of reverence (Ex. 3:5) and penitence (2 Sam. 15:30), but here it is shame, because stripping someone of clothes and shoes means a loss of honor (Job 19:9; cf. 22:6; 29:14; 40:10).144 Women can be stripped (Lam. 4:21; Hos. 2:2), as are the dead (1 Sam. 31:8).

Relief from Medinet Habu shows prisoners of Ramesses III.

Z. Radovan/www.BibleLandPictures.com

Takes off the shackles (12:18). This verse is not clear, but it may refer to bound captives. These are shown in ancient Near Eastern art, such as with the rebels on the Behistun relief, captives on a Mari inlay, a Megiddo ivory, and Sea Peoples shown as captives with their hands in shackles.145 Feet can also be fastened in shackles (13:27; cf. also 33:10; 36:8 for being bound in chains).

Proverbs of ashes … defenses of clay (13:12). On ash and clay and their connection with death and the underworld, see sidebar on “Death and Sheol” at 7:9. Here they refer to being worthless and weak.

Take my life in my hands (13:14). Pope146 connects the Hebrew nepeš147 (NIV “life”) with the Akkadian phrase napishtam lapatum (“to touch the throat”) as part of a gesture linked with oath-taking.

Bring charges (13:19). In 13:22–23 Job asks to be summoned and his offenses made known (cf. comments on 9:2 and sidebar on “Legal Matters in Job” there).

Hide your face (13:24). The hiding of God’s face148 refers to God’s wrath (as in 34:29; Ps. 27:9), because he has become Job’s enemy. Job wants God to summon him and show him his sins (Job 13:22–23). In Mesopotamia seeing the face can refer to a deity, but it is also used in a legal context.

Feet in shackles … putting marks on the soles of my feet (13:27). For shackles see comment on 12:18.149 Some commentators have proposed that the “marks” refer to a slave owner marking his name on the soles of a slave, but such a custom is unknown; only marking on the hand or forehead is known.150

Garment eaten by moths (13:28). Human corruption is like a garment eaten by moths and full of holes; examples of such garments are known from excavations in Palestine.151

Man’s days are determined (14:5). In 14:2 the image of the fleeting shadow is used (cf. 8:9). In Psalm 39:4 a mortal’s days are limited. The Gilgamesh Epic and the Epic of Aqhat from Ugarit make it clear that death is the fate of humankind and only the deities possess (eternal) life. For this reason the alegirl Siduri advises the hero Gilgamesh:

Gilgamesh, whither rovest thou?

The life thou pursuest thou shalt not find.

When the gods created mankind,

Death for mankind they set aside,

Life in their own hands retaining.152

Aqhat provokes the goddess Anat by stating that he must surely die.153

If a man dies, will he live again? (14:14). It is debated whether Job teaches resurrection.154 The Egyptians had a positive belief in life after death, whereas the Mesopotamian view was very bleak (see the sidebar on “Death and Sheol” at 7:9). It is also disputed whether this is the case in the Ugaritic texts. But there is no evidence for a universal belief in individual resurrection and immortality for the just as developed in biblical thought.155

Sealed up in a bag (14:17). Pope refers to the custom of putting pebbles in a bag as a system of accounting,156 but the emphasis here is on sealing, which was an important custom in the ancient Near East. A bag could be sealed by putting a piece of string around it and attaching a lump of soft clay, which was then stamped and allowed to harden. The text can also be connected with sealed documents and taken as referring to Job’s offenses that are written down.