Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary: Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther & Job

Epilogue (42:1–17)

Repent in dust and ashes (42:6). Typical to ancient Israel, the idea of the link between honor and shame is at play here. Job honors God and acknowledges his shame359 by repenting in dust and ashes, which are linked with mourning in 2:8, 12 (cf. sidebar on “Mourning” at 2:12).

The LORD made him prosperous again (42:10). The Ugaritic king Keret loses seven sons, and he is promised seven, even eight, as with Job (who lost seven sons and three daughters); his calamity will be reversed.360

A piece of silver and a gold ring (42:11). The relatives and friends give Job money in the way that was customary in ancient times before the days of coins and notes.361 “Piece of silver” is q^eśîṭâ; these are not coins but pieces of silver used in business transactions. Gold is depicted as rings in Egyptian art and worn as jewelery.362 Achan’s loot included a wedge of gold (Jos. 7:20–21).

The first daughter he named (42:14). Interestingly enough, the names of Job’s sons are not given, but only those of his daughters. The names of very beautiful daughters are Jemimah, Keziah, and Keren-Happuch, meaning “dove,” “cassia,” and “horn of eye paint.” The NJB translates these as “Turtledove, Cassia and Mascara” and the TOB363 as “Turtledove, Cinnamon Bloom and Eyeshadow.”364 Cassia is a variety of cinnamon used as perfume. The Keren (“horn”) in Keren-Happuch is a container used for eye make-up; in other texts the horn is used as a container for oil (1 Sam. 16:1).

Inheritance (42:15). That daughters inherited is not common in the Semitic world; according to Numbers 27, a daughter only inherited when there was no son, whereas Job has seven sons. The inheritance by daughters does, however, occur in some cases, but it is rather additional inheritance to the normal dowry.365

Fourth generation (42:16). Job’s 140 years may be a doubling of the perfect number of seventy years. Joseph reached an age of 110; in Egyptian texts this is the ideal age.366 Joseph (Gen. 50:23) saw his grandchildren to the third generation, Job to the fourth! The phrase “and so he died, old and full of years” (Job 42:17) is also used for Abraham, Isaac, and David (Gen. 25:8; 35:29; 1 Chr. 29:8).

Bibliography

Andersen, F. I. Job. An Introduction and Commentary. TOTC. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1976. Excellent user-friendly commentary in a small book.

Beuken, W. A. M., ed.. The Book of Job. Colloquium Biblicum Lovaniense 42. Leuven: Leuven Univ. Press, 1993. Collection of technical essays on Job by leading international scholars.

Clines, D. J. A. Job 1–20. WBC 17. Dallas: Word, 1989. Job 21–37. WBC 18A. Nashville: Nelson, 2006. Best commentary on Job with detailed bibliographies; strong on philological and background notes.

Habel, N. The Book of Job. OTL. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1985. Detailed commentary, strong on literary aspects and design of the book.

Hartley, J. E. The Book of Job. NICOT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991. Well-balanced commentary.

Janzen, J. G. Job. Interpretation. Atlanta: John Knox, 1985. Contemporary practical commentary written in narrative style.

Newsom, C. A. “The Book of Job.” Pages 317–637 in vol. 4, The New Interpreter’s Bible: Introduction to Hebrew Poetry, Job, Psalms, 1 & 2 Maccabees. Nashville: Abingdon, 1996. Commentary based on the NIV and NRSV, which includes a close reading of the text.

Perdue, L. G., and W. C. Gilpin, eds. The Voice from the Whirlwind: Interpreting the Book of Job. Nashville: Abingdon, 1992. Collection of essays on various aspects of Job and associated problems.

Pope, M. H. Job. AB. New York: Doubleday, 1965. Older commentary with Pope’s own translation, but contains valuable (sometimes outdated) notes on the background by an expert on Ugaritic literature.

Reyburn, W. D. A Handbook on the Book of Job. New York: UBS, 1992. Exegetical information for translators, with some remarks on the background and some illustrations.

Chapter Notes

Main Text Notes

1. J. L. Crenshaw, “Theodicy,” ABD, 6:444–47; U. Berner, “Theodizee,” Handbuch religionswissenschaftlicher Grundbegriffe, ed. H. Cancik et al. (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1988), 5:169–72; M. Green, “Theodicy,” Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. M. Eliade (New York: Macmillan, 1986), 14:438–41; J. Assmann, “Theology, Theodicy, Philosophy,” in Religions of the Ancient World, ed. S. I. Johnston (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 2004), 531–46; Theodicy in the World of the Bible, ed. A. Laato and J. C. de Moor (Leiden: Brill, 2003).

2. J. J. Collins, Introduction to the Hebrew Bible (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2004), 507.

3. Cf. translation in COS, 1.103: 343–56. For a possible more southern link, such as in Galilee or the city of Udumu as Edom, cf. J. C. de Moor, “Theodicy in the Texts of Ugaritic,” in Theodicy, 117.

4. For the idea that the Job figure goes back to a Late Bronze Age ruler, cf. J. C. de Moor, “Ugarit and the Origin of Job,” in Ugarit and the Bible: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Ugarit and the Bible, ed. G. J. Brooke et al. (Münster: Ugarit-Verlag, 1994), 246–57.

5. For more information see R. G. Albertson, “Job and Ancient Near Eastern Wisdom Literature,” in Scripture in Context II, ed. W. W. Hallo, J. C. Moyer, and L. G. Perdue (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1983), 213–30; D. P. Bricker, “Innocent Suffering in Mesopotamia,” TynBul 51 (2000): 193–214; idem, “Innocent Suffering in Egypt,” TynBul 52 (2001): 83–100; G. L. Mattingly, “The Pious Sufferer: Mesopotamia’s Traditional Theodicy and Job’s Counselors,” in The Bible in the Light of Cuneiform Literature, Scripture in Context III, ed. W. W. Hallo, B. W. Jones, and G. L. Mattingly (Lewiston, N.Y.: Mellen, 1990), 305–48; D. Sitzler, Vorwurf gegen Gott: Ein religiöses Motiv im alten Orient (Ägypten und Mesopotamien) (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1995); K. van der Toorn, “Theodicy in Akkadian Literature,” in Theodicy, 57–89; J. H. Walton, Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1989), 170–71, 179–87; M. Weinfeld, “Job and Its Mesopotamian Parallels—A Typological Analysis,” in Text and Context: Old Testament and Semitic Studies for F. C. Fensham, ed. W. Claassen (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1988), 217–26.

6. COS, 3.146: 321–25; Loprieno, in Theodicy, 36–37, and V. H. Matthews and D. C. Benjamin, Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East (New York: Paulist, 1991), 206.

7. Assmann, “Theology,” 532.

8. For the tradition in Ugarit cf. COS, 1.152: 486. Although not a “theodicy”, the Ugaritic epic of King Keret (CAT, 1.14:I:7–25 = COS, 1.102: 333) also deals with a just king who lost his family; see M. Dietrich and O. Loretz, “Keret, der leidende ‘König der Gerechtigkeit,’ ” UF 31 (1999): 133–64; O. Loretz, Götter, Ahnen, Könige als gerechte Richter: Der “Rechtsfall” des Menschen vor Gott nach altorientalischen und biblischen Texten (Münster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2003), ch. 6. For other comparisons with Ugaritic literature, cf. de Moor, “Ugarit.”

9. COS, 1.179: 573–75.

10. COS, 1.151, 153–55: 485–96.

11. COS, 1.153: 488b.

12. COS, 1.54: 495b.

13. COS, 1.54: 494b.

14. COS, 1.155: 496b.

15. K. Nielsen, Satan: The Prodigal Son? (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2002), 99; de Moor “Ugarit,” 246.

16. CAT, 1.5:V:5–8, 1.6:VI:8 and 1.3:III:5–7 = COS, 1.86: 267a, 272n273; 1.86: 251a.

17. COS, 1.102: 335; cf. Matthews and Benjamin, Parallels, 201.

18. Cf. J.-M. Dentzer, Le motif du banquet couché dans le Proche-Orient et le monde grec du VIIe au IVe siècle avant J.-C. (Rome: École française de Rome, 1982); R. Gyselen, ed., Banquets d’Orient (Bures-sur-Yvette: Group pour l’Étude de la Civilisation du Moyen-Orient, 1992); for Egypt see S. Ikram, “Banquet”, OEAE, 1:162–64.

19. ANEP, 304, 679.

20. CAT, 1.17:I:1–13 = COS, 1.103: 343–44.

21. D. Kellerman, “,” TDOT, 11:96–113; R. E. Averbeck, “ I,” NIDOTTE, 3:405–15.

22. Photo in R. Amiran, “Arad,” NEAEHL², 1:79; O. Keel, The Symbolism of the Biblical World (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1997), Pl. XI.

23. C. A. Newsom, “Angels,” ABD, 1:248–53; S. A. Meier, “Angel” DDD, 45–50; S. B. Parker, “Sons of (the) God(s),” DDD, 794–800, esp. 797–98; W. Schlisske, Gottessöhne und Gottessohn im Alten Testament (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1973); H. Haag, “,” TDOT, 2:157–58. For reading it as a family metaphor, cf. Nielsen, Satan, 83–89.

24. COS, 1.109: 386b, 388a.

25. CAT, 1.2:I = COS, 1.86: 246 and CAT, 1.4:III:15 = COS, 1.86: 258a; cf. S. B. Parker, “Council,” DDD, 204–8; L. K. Handy, “The Authorization of Divine Power and the Guilt of God in the Book of Job: Useful Ugaritic Parallels,” JSOT 60 (1993): 107–18; idem, Among the Host of Heaven (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1994); T. Mullen, The Divine Council in Canaanite and Early Hebrew Literature (HSM 24; Chico: Scholars Press, 1980); M. Tsevat, “God and the Gods in Assembly. An Interpretation of Psalm 82, ” in The Meaning of the Book of Job and Other Biblical Studies (New York: Ktav, 1980), 131–48.

26. CAT, 1.1:III:22–23; 1.2:III:4–6; 1.3:V:4–9; 1.4:IV:20–29 = COS, 1.86: 245, 247, 254a, 259.

27. R. N. Whybray, “The Immorality of God: Reflections on Some Passages in Genesis, Job, Exodus and Numbers,” JSOT 72 (1996): 89–120.

28. COS, 2.27: 142b.

29. Haag, “,” TDOT, 2:157–58.

30. M. I. Gruber, Aspects of Nonverbal Communication in the Ancient Near East (Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1980), 149–50.

31. Keel, Symbolism, figs. 239, 285–86, 414; M. Haussperger, Die Einführungsszene: Entwicklung eines mesopotamischen Motivs von der altakkadischen bis zum Ende der altbabylonischen Zeit (München: Profil-Verlag, 1991).

32. M. Görg, “Der ‘Satan’—der ‘Vollstrecker’ Gottes?” BN 82 (1996): 9–12.

33. COS, 1.132: 460.

34. I. Ephʿal, The Ancient Arabs (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1982), 88–89, 227–29.

35. T. J. Meek, “Archaeology and a Point in Hebrew Syntax,” BASOR 122 (1951): 31–33.

36. ANEP, 367.

37. J. A. Naudé, “,” NIDOTTE, 1:534; S. Paul, Amos (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991), 48–49; TDOT, J. Bergman, J. Krecher, and V. Hamp, “,” 1:418–28 (425).

38. CAD, 7:229; S. Parpola, Assyrian Prophecies (Helsinki: Helsinki Univ. Press, 1997), 24; M. Weinfeld, “Divine Intervention in War in Ancient Israel and in the Ancient Near East,” in History, Historiography and Interpretation, ed. H. Tadmor and M. Weinfeld (Leiden: Brill, 1986), 132, 140.

39. R. S. Hess, “Chaldea,” ABD, 1:886–87; J. A. Brinkman, A Political History of Post-Kassite Babylonia 1158–722 B.C. (Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1968), 260–67; W. Orthmann, “Kaldu”, RlA, 5:291–97; A. L. Oppenheim, “Chaldea,” IDB, 1:549–50.

40. COS, 1.132: 460b.

41. G. A. Anderson, A Time to Mourn, a Time to Dance: The Expression of Grief and Joy in Israelite Religion (University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State Univ. Press, 1991); Gruber, Aspects, 464–76; X. H. T. Pham, Mourning in the Ancient Near East and the Hebrew Bible (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999), 24–25.

42. Gruber, Aspects, 472.

43. ANEP, 5.

44. COS, 3.92A: 237 and 237n3; Gruber, Aspects, 201–31.

45. On illness in Job, cf. H. Avalos, Illness and Health Care in the Ancient Near East: The Role of the Temple in Greece, Mesopotamia, and Israel (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995), 372–74.

46. Cf. M. Sussman, “Sickness and Disease,” ABD, 6:11; D. J. A. Clines, Job 1–20 (Nashville: Nelson, 1989), 48, with views and previous literature.

47. CAT, 1.12:II:37–38 = S. B. Parker, ed., Ugaritic Narrative Poetry (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997), 190.

48. 4QPrNab [4Q242] = COS, 1.89: 286.

49. COS, 1.108: 382b.

50. Cf. in the Aqhat epic (CAT, 1.19:IV:173 = COS, 1.103: 354b); cf. 1 Kings 18:28.

51. P. E. Dion, “Un nouvel clairage sur le context culturel des malheurs de Job,” VT 34 (1984): 213–15; text in COS, 2.34: 154.

52. M. H. Pope, Job (AB; New York: Doubleday, 1965), 21. In Ps. 22:16–17 potsherd is linked to the “dust of death.”

53. Anderson, Mourn, 84; Pham, Mourning, 27–35.

54. L. Wächter, “,” TDOT, 11:257–65, esp. 263–64.

55. Pham, Mourning, 29.

56. COS, 1.113: 414a. For reading Job’s situation as depression cf. F. T. de Villiers, “Symptoms of Depression in Job—A Note on Psychological Exegesis,” OTE 17/1 (2004): 9–14.

57. P. Miller, They Cried to the Lord: The Form and Theology of Biblical Prayer (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1994), 10–13.

58. T. J. Lewis, “CT 13.33–34 and Ezekiel 32: Lion-Dragon Myths,” JAOS 116 (1996): 23.

59. Cf. D. Cox, “The Desire for Oblivion in Job 3, ” SBFLA 23 (1973): 37–49; M. Fishbane, “Jer. 4 and Job 3: A Recovered Use of the Creation Pattern,” VT 21 (1971): 151–67; Nielsen, Satan, 61–63.

60. H. Lutzmann et al., “,” TDOT, 5:245–59.

61. CAT, 1.17:6:28–29; COS, 1.103: 347a.

62. J. C. VanderKam, “Calendars,” ABD, 1:810–20; A. J. Spalinger, “Calendars,” OEAE, 1:224–27; H. Hunger, “Kalender,” RlA 5:297–303; F. Rochberg, “Astronomy and Calendars in Ancient Mesopotamia,” CANE, 1925–40.

63. H. te Velde, Seth: The God of Confusion (Leiden: Brill, 1977), 67.

64. A. Loprieno, “Theodicy in Ancient Egyptian Texts,” in Theodicy, 34; R. A. Wells, “Horoscopes,” OEAE, 2:117–19.

65. T. C. Vriezen, “Hemerologien,” JEOL 6 (1939): 119. Cf. R. Labat, “Hemerologien,” RlA, 4:317–23; A. Livingstone, “Menologien,” RlA, 8:59–60.

66. C. H. Gordon, “Leviathan: Symbol of Evil,” in Biblical Motifs: Origins and Transformations, ed. A. Altmann (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1966); C. Uehlinger, “Leviathan,” DDD, 511–15; E. Lipiński, “,” TDOT, 7:504–9.

67. Uehlinger, “Leviathan,” 514.

68. G. Vall, “The Enigma of Job 1, 21a, ” Bib 76 (1995): 325–42.

69. O. Keel, “The Peculiar Headrests for the Dead in First Temple Times,” BAR 12/4 (1987): 50–53; Keel and Uehlinger, Gods, 367 with figs. 356–57b.

70. Gaster, Myth, 788.

71. M. Nissinen, Prophets and Prophecy in the Ancient Near East (Atlanta: SBL, 2003), 18–19.

72. ANEP, 545; Keel, Symbolism, figs. 265, 341–42; F. J. Yurco, “Mother and Child Imagery in Egypt and Its Influence on Christianity,” in Egypt in Africa, ed. T. Celenko (Indianapolis: Indianapolis Museum of Art, 1996), 43–45.

73. F. Tiradritti, ed., Egyptian Treasures from the Egyptian Museum in Cairo (New York: Abrams, 1999), 96.

74. Clines, Job, 92.

75. Gaster, Myth, 789.

76. COS, 1.38: 80a.

77. COS, 1.42: 94–95.

78. COS, 1.154: 493b.

79. J. J. M. Roberts, “The Young Lions of Psalm 34, 11, ” Bib 54 (1973): 265–67.

80. COS, 1.153: 487b.

81. A. Jepsen, “,” TDOT, 4:280–90; S. A. Butler, Mesopotamian Conceptions of Dreams and Dream Rituals (Münster: Ugarit-Verlag, 1998); J.-M. Husser, Dreams and Dream Narratives in the Biblical World (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999), esp. 155–64. On sleep cf. T. H. McAlpine, Sleep, Divine and Human in the Old Testament (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1987).

82. COS, 1.93: 293–94.

83. COS, 2.27: 142a.

84. ANET, 109–10; cf. S. M. Paul, “Job 4:15: A Hair-Raising Encounter,” ZAW 95 (1983): 119–21.

85. Gilgamesh 4:15–25 and 7:165–255 = A. George, The Epic of Gilgamesh: The Babylonian Epic Poem and Other Texts in Sumerian and Akkadian (New York: Barnes & Noble, 1999), 30–31, 59–62.

86. COS, 1.153: 487b.

87. Ibid.

88. S. B. Parker, “Saints,” DDD, 718–20 (esp. 719); H. Ringgren, “,” TDOT, 12:541.

89. T. H. Blomquist, Gates and Gods: Cults in the City Gates of Iron Age Palestine; An Investigation of the Archaeological and Biblical Sources (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1999); C. H. J. de Geus, Towns in Ancient Israel and in the Southern Levant (Leuven: Peeters, 2003), 28–39, esp. 34; E. Otto, “,” TWAT, 8:358–403.

90. ANET, 429.

91. I. Cornelius, The Iconography of the Canaanite Gods Reshef and Baʿal c. 1500–1000 B.C.E. (OBO 140; Freiburg Schweiz: Universitätsverlag; Göttingen: Vanderhoeck & Ruprecht, 1994), Pl. C; cf. P. Xella, “Resheph,” DDD, 700–703; H. Niehr, “Zur Entstehung von Dämonen in der Religionsgeschichte Israels: Überlegungen zum Weg des Rešep durch die nordwestsemitische Religionsgeschichte,” in Die Dämonen/Demons, ed. A. Lange, H. Lichtenberger, and K. F. D. Römheld (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003), 84–107; M. J. Mulder, “,” TDOT, 14:10–16.

92. CAT, 1.82.

93. On labor in the ancient Near East cf. R. Englund, “Hard Work—Where Will It Get You?” JNES 50 (1991): 255–80; M. A. Powell, ed., Labor in the Ancient Near East (New Haven, Conn.: American Oriental Society, 1987); H. Ringgren, “,” TDOT, 12:211–15, esp. 214; D. Warburton, “Working,” Companion, ch. 12; A. M. Roth, “Work Force,” OEAE, 3:519–24.

94. COS, 1.130: 450–51.

95. P. A. Krüger, “On Emotions and the Expression of Emotions in the Old Testament: A Few Introductory Remarks,” BZ 48 (2004): 224–25; M. Stol, “Psychosomatic Suffering in Ancient Mesopotamia,” in Mesopotamian Magic, ed. T. Abusch and K. van der Toorn (Groningen: Styx, 1999), 65.

96. Abusch, “Request,” 38.

97. Clines, Job, 185.

98. P. J. King and L. E. Stager, Life in Biblical Israel (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001), 153–55, illus. 76.

99. ANET, 106 = COS, 1.108: 381a.

100. E. R. Follis, “Sea,” ABD, 5:1058–59; F. Stolz, “Sea,” DDD, 737–42; H. Ringgren, “,” TDOT, 6:87–98.

101. G. C. Heider, “Tannin,” DDD, 834–36; H. Niehr, “,” TWAT, 8:715–20.

102. CAT, 1.2 = COS, 1.86: 245–49.

103. CAT, 1.3:III:40–41, 1.6:VI:50 and 1.83 = COS, 1.86: 252a, 273b; N. Wyatt, Religious Texts from Ugarit (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2002), 368–69.

104. D. A. Diewert, “Job 7:12: YAM, TANNIN and the Surveillance of Job,” JBL 106 (1987): 203–15.

105. ANEP, 109; B. F. Harris, “Papyri,” IBD, 2:1144–45; B. Leach and J. Tait, “Papyrus,” OEAE, 3:22–24; “Practical Papyrus,” Archaeology Odyssey 8/1 (2005): 56; Fauna and Flora of the Bible (New York: UBS, 1972), 125, 171–72; M. Zohary, Pflanzen der Bibel (Stuttgart: Calwer, 1982), 137.

106. M. B. Dick, “The Legal Metaphor in Job 31, ” CBQ 41 (1979): 37–50; Habel, Job, 54–57; G. W. Harrison, “Legal Terms in Job,” Biblical Illustrator 13 (Spring 1987): 13–15; Nielsen, Satan, 71–79; J. J. M. Roberts, “Job and the Israelite Religious Tradition,” ZAW 89 (1977): 107–14; idem, “Job’s Summons to Yahweh: The Exploitation of a Legal Metaphor,” RestQ 16 (1973): 159–65. See also M. F. Rachel, The Scales of Righteousness: Neo-Babylonian Trial Law and the Book of Job (BJS 348; Providence, R.I.: Brown Judaic Studies, 2007).

107. CAD, D: 151–52, 155–56; Dick, “Legal,” 49; A. Gamper, Gott als Richter in Mesopotamien und im Alten Testament (Innsbrück: Universitätsverlag Wagner, 1966).

108. I. Cornelius, “The Visual Representation of the World in the Ancient Near East and the Hebrew Bible,” JNSL 20 (1994): 198, 201 with fig. 4.

109. N. Habel, “He Who Stretches out the Heavens,” CBQ 34 (1972): 421–22.

110. COS, 1.111: 397a, 398b–99.

111. CAT, 1.2 = COS, 1.86: 245–49. Cf. also the sidebar “The Cosmic Battle with Chaos” at 41:1.

112. Amos 4:13; Mic. 1:3. Cf. for the Baal stela, see ANEP, 490; Cornelius, Iconography, 136 with Pl. 32:BR1; Keel, Symbolism, fig. 291; for Baal treading over mountains cf. M. Dijkstra, “The Weather-God on Two Mountains,” UF 23 (1991): 127–40.

113. W. Horowitz, Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1998), 146–47, 170.

114. For illustrations cf. Reyburn, Job, 781–83. On astronomy see F. Rochberg-Halton, “Astrology in the Ancient Near East,” ABD, 1:504–7; M. Alani, “ ‘Der das Siebengestirn und den Orion macht’ (Am 5, 8): Zur Bedeutung der Pleijaden in der israelitischen Religionsgeschichte,” in Religionsgeschichte Israels: Formale und materiale Aspekte, ed. B. Janowski and M. Köchert (Gütersloh: Kaiser, 1999), 139–241; R. A. Wells, “Astrology” and “Astronomy,” OEAE, 1:142–44, 145–51; T. Barton, Ancient Astrology (London: Routledge, 1994); D. Brown, Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy-Astrology (Groningen: Styx, 2000); B. Halpern, “Assyrian and Pre-Socratic Astronomies and the Location of the Book of Job,” in Kein Land für sich allein, ed. U. Hübner and E. A. Knauf (Freiburg: Universitätsverlag; Göttingen: Vanderhoeck & Ruprecht, 2002), 255–64; H. Hunger and D. Pingree, Astral Sciences in Mesopotamia (Leiden: Brill, 1989); U. Koch-Westenholz, Mesopotamian Astrology: An Introduction to Babylonian and Assyrian Celestial Divination (Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1995); Horowitz, Geography; S. Noegel et al., ed., Prayer, Magic, and the Stars in the Ancient and Late Antique W orld (University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State Univ. Press, 2003); G. Robins, “Mathematics, Astronomy, and Calendars in Pharaonic Egypt,” CANE, 1799–813; F. Rochberg, “Astronomy and Calendars in Ancient Mesopotamia,” CANE, 1925–40; idem, “Cosmology,” 326–29; idem, The Heavenly Writing: Divination, Horoscopy, and Astronomy in Mesopotamian Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2004); F. Lelli, “Stars,” DDD, 809–15; I. Zatelli, “Astrology and the Worship of the Stars in the Bible,” ZAW 103 (1991): 86–99.

115. J. Day, “Rahab,” ABD, 5:610–11; K. Spronk, “Rahab,” DDD, 684–86; U. Rüterswörden, “,” TDOT, 13:351–57, esp. 355–56.

116. S. M. Paul, “An Unrecognized Medical Idiom in Canticles 6, 12 and Job 9, 21, ” Bib 59 (1978): 545–47.

117. Tablet V: 10 = COS, 1.113: 415; cf. P. E. Dion, “Formulaic Language in the Book of Job: International Background and Ironical Distortions,” Studies in Religion/Sciences religieuses 16 (1987): 187–93.

118. A. M. J. Tooley, “Models,” OEAE, 2:426–27 with ANEP, 109; Taylor, Death, 103–5.

119. CAT, 1.18:IV:18–36 = COS, 1.102: 349b–50a. On connecting this with falconry cf. W. G. E. Watson, “The Falcon Episode in the Aqhat Tale,” JNSL 5 (1977): 71–72; cf. also J. V. Canby, “Falconry (Hawking) in Hittite Lands,” JNES 61/3 (2002): 161–201.

120. Cf. B. Otzen, “,” TDOT, 6:257–65, esp. 259–60.

121. Cf. D. J. Moo, “Romans,” in Zondervan Illustrated Bible Background Commentary, ed. C. E. Arnold (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002), 3:59–60.

122. ANEP, 569; Keel, Symbolism, fig. 334.

123. M. Lichtheim, Moral Values in Ancient Egypt (Fribourg: Fribourg Univ. Press, 1997), 40.

124. Tablet 1:101–4 = George, Gilgamesh, 5.

125. COS, 1.154: 495a.

126. CAT, 1.16:V:30 = COS, 1.102: 341b.

127. COS, 1.130: 451a.

128. On the use of clay in Mesopotamia cf. T. Abusch, “Ghost and God: Some Observations on a Babylonian Understanding of Human Nature,” in Self, Soul and Body in Religious Experience, ed. A. Baumgarten, J. Assmann, and G. Stroumsa (Leiden: Brill, 1998), 363–83.

129. R. Amiran, Ancient Pottery of the Holy Land (Camden, N.J.: Rutgers Univ. Press, 1970), 33–34; T. E. Levy and D. Alon, “Gilat,” NEAEHL, 514. On the lady as a “goddess,” cf. B. Margalit, “The History of El (ca. 3500–500 B.C.E.),” Amurru 3 (2004): 369–71.

130. J. Romer, Ancient Lives (London: Weidenfeld & Nicols, 1984), fig. 4.

131. CAT, 1.3:III:24–25 = COS, 1.86: 251b.

132. The Egyptian underworld, in Heb. š^e ʾôl.

133. COS, 1.16: 25b

134. Gruber, Aspects, 25–50; M. I. Bruber, “Gestures,” HBD, 341; H. Ringgren, “,” TDOT, 12:123.

135. Gruber, Aspects, 50–89; S. Langdon, “Gesture in Sumerian and Babylonian Prayer,” JRAS 50 (1919): 531–56; A. Parrot, “Gestes de la prière dans le monde mésopotamien,” in Maqqel Shâqédh: Hommage à Wilhelm Vischer (Montepellier: Causse, 1960), 177–80.

136. R. H. Wilkinson, Reading Egyptian Art: A Hieroglyphic Guide to Ancient Egyptian Painting and Sculpture (London: Thames & Hudson, 1992), 28–29.

137. Keel, Symbolism, fig. 421; cf. figs. 412, 415–16, 417a, 422.

138. CAT, 1.14:II:21–23; IV: 3–6 = COS, 1.102: 334–35.

139. COS, 2.35: 155a.

140. P. R. Ackroyd, “,” TDOT, 5:414.

141. K. van der Toorn, “Israelite Figurines: A View from the Texts,” in Sacred Time, Sacred Place: Archaeology and the Religion of Israel, ed. B. M. Gittlen (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 2002), 45–70.

142. P. R. S. Moorey, Idols of the People: Miniature Images of Clay in the Ancient Near East (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2003); O. Negbi, Canaanite Gods in Metal (Tel Aviv: Institute of Archaeology, 1976).

143. ANEP, 332, 358; Keel, Symbolism, figs. 321, 316, 315.

144. A. Baumann, “,” TDOT, 7:27; D. R. Edwards, “Dress and Ornamentation,” ABD, 2:232–38. On the symbolism of clothing cf. S. Rummel, “Clothes Maketh the Man—An Insight from Ancient Ugarit,” BAR 2 (May–June, 1976): 6–8; V. H. Matthews, “The Anthropology of Clothing in the Joseph Narrative,” JSOT 65 (1995): 25–36. Cf. literature under 29:14.

145. ANEP, 305, 332; I. Cornelius, “The Iconography of Divine War in the Pre-Islamic Near East: A Survey,” JNSL 21/1 (1995): fig. 13; S. Mittmann, “Die ‘Handschelle’ der Philister,” in Fontes Atque Pontes. Eine Festgabe für Hellmut Brunner (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1983), 327–34.

146. Pope, Job, 99.

147. H. Ringgren, “,” TDOT, 11:512.

148. S. E. Balentine, The Hidden God: The Hiding of the Face of God in the Old Testament (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1983); F. Hartenstein, Das “Angesicht JHWH”: Studien zu seinem höfischen und kultischen Bedeutungshintergrund in den Psalmen und in Exodus 32–34 (Habilitationschrift; Philipps-Universität Marburg, 2000); J. S. Burnett, “The Question of Divine Absence in Israelite and West Semitic Religion,” CBQ 67 (2005): 215–35.

149. These are not “stocks,” i.e., wooden blocks in which a prisoner’s feet were locked as in Reymond, Job, 263, because such a custom is unknown in the ancient Near East.

150. I. Mendelsohn, Slavery in the Ancient Near East (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1949), 42–50.

151. Y. Yadin, Bar-Kokhba (London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 1978), 162–64.

152. Tablet 10 = ANET, 90. Cf. T. Abusch, “Gilgamesh’s Request and Siduri’s Denial,” in The Tablet and the Scroll: Near Eastern Studies in Honor of William W. Hallo, ed. M. E. Cohen et al. (Bethesda, Md.: CDL, 1993), 1–14. This is reminiscent of Eccl. 9:7–9; cf. K. van der Toorn, “Did Ecclesiastes Copy Gilgamesh?” BRev 16/1 (2000): 22–30.

153. CAT, 1.17:VI:38 = COS, 1.103: 347b.

154. L. M. Muntingh, “Life, Death and Resurrection in Job,” in Studies in the Pentateuch, ed. W. C. van Wyk (OTWSA 17 & 18—Old Testament Essays; Pretoria: Dept. of Semitic Languages, 1976), 32–44.

155. Cf. Johnston, Sheol, 218–39; A. F. Segal, Life after Death: A History of the Afterlife in the Religions of the West (New York: Doubleday, 2004).

156. Pope, Job, 109–11.

157. M. P. Streck, “Oannes,” RlA, 10/1–2: 1–3.

158. J. c. Greenfield, “Apkallu,” DDD, 72–74; Black and Green, Gods, 163; F. A. M. Wiggermann, “Theologies, Priests, and Worship in Ancient Mesopotamia,” CANE, 1865.

159. COS, 1.113: 408a.

160. Black and Green, Gods, 27. He is also known from a myth, see COS, 1.129: 449.

161. COS, 1.54: 495a.

162. M. Barré, “ ‘Wandering about’ as a Topos of Depression in Ancient Near Eastern Literature and in the Bible,” JNES 60/3 (2001): 177–87, esp. 187.

163. George, Gilgamesh, 65.

164. Fauna and Flora, 156–5, 188–92; Zohary, Pflanzen, 54–57.

165. H. Kosmala, “,” TDOT, 2:373–77.

166. Cf. now P. Riede, Im Netz des Jägers. Studien zur Feindmetaphorik der Individualpsalmen (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 2000), 20–32, 66–74.

167. ANEP, 338; Cornelius, Iconography, Pl. 30: RM16.

168. B. Kedar-Kopstein, “,” TDOT, 13:173; M. L. Süring, The Horn-Motif in the Hebrew Bible and Related Ancient Near Eastern Literature and Iconography (Berrien Springs, Mich.: Andrews Univ. Press, 1980), 433–35.

169. ANEP, 475, 490, 493, 498, 513–16, 529, 538.

170. G. A. Barrois, “Debt,” IDB, 1:809.

171. E. M. Meyers, “Secondary Burials in Palestine,” BA 33 (1970): 20–29; L. Y. Rahmani, “Jerusalem Tomb Monuments on Jewish Ossuaries,” IEJ 18 (1969): 222, Pl. 23.

172. C. H. J. de Geus, “Signum Ignis Signum Vitae: Lamps in Ancient Israelite Tombs,” Scripta Signa Vocis: Studies about Scripts, Scriptures, Scribes and Languages in the Near East, Presented to J.H. Hospers by his Pupils, Colleagues and Friends, ed. H. L. J. Vanstiphout et al. (Groningen: Forsten, 1986), 65–75; King and Stager, Life, 375; cf. E. Bloch-Smith, Judahite Burial Practices and Beliefs about the Dead (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1992).

173. I. Cornelius and H. Niehr, Götter und Kulte in Ugarit: Kultur und Religion einer nordsyrischen Königsstadt der Spätbronzezeit (Mainz: von Zabern, 2004), 79 with figs. 127 and 135.

174. COS, 1.108: 381a and 1.109: 386a.

175. Cf. McAlpine, Sleep, 12.

176. CAT, 1.4:VIII:7–9; 1.5:VI:25; 1.6:I:7–8 = COS, 1.86: 263b–264a; 268a. Cf. CAT, 1.161:18–26 = COS, 1.105: 358b.

177. COS, 1.108–109: 381–89.

178. Zandee, Death, 114–25.

179. Keel, Symbolism, 89–94, figs. 110–19; Riede, Jägers, 339–46.

180. T. J. Lewis, “First Born of Death,” DDD, 332–35; Johnston, Sheol, 29.

181. CAT, 1.4:VIII–1.5:I, 1.6:II:17–19 = COS, 1.86: 264–66a and 270a.

182. U. Rüterswörden, “King of Terrors,” DDD, 486–88.

183. Gaster, Myth, 792; Clines, Job, 419.

184. ANET, 110.

185. CAD, K (kibritu): 333–34.

186. COS, 2.57: 183a.

187. CAT, 1.3:II:7–8 = COS, 1.86: 250b

188. Clines, Job, 442.

189. ANEP, 298; Keel, Symbolism, fig. 110; Lang, The Hebrew God, 47–49; I. Winter, “After the Battle Is Over: The Stele of the Vultures and the Beginning of Historical Narrative in the Art of the Ancient Near East,” in Pictorial Narrative in Antiquity and the Middle Ages, ed. H. L. Kessler and M. S. Simpson (Washington D.C.: National Gallery of Art, 1985), 11–32; idem, “Eannatum and the ‘King of Kish’?: Another Look at the Stele of the Vultures and ‘Cartouches’ in Early Sumerian Art,” ZA 76 (1986): 206. On the divine net cf. also J.-G. Heintz, Le filet divin (Jerusalem, 1965); in Egypt see Keel, Symbolism, fig. 111.

190. Keel, Symbolism, 89.

191. COS, 1.111: 398 and 1.113: 412b.

192. M. van de Mieroop, King Hammurabi of Babylon (Malden: Blackwell, 2005), 126–27.

193. Keel, Symbolism, 89.

194. Clines, Job, 445.

195. E. K Ritter and J. V. Kinnier-Wilson, “Prescription for an Anxiety State: A Study of BAM 234,” Anatolian Studies 30 (1980): 23–30.

196. COS, 3.146: 323b and 1.46: 111a.

197. Zandee, Death, 59–60, 341.

198. ANEP, 102 = Keel, Symbolism, fig. 88.

199. ANEP, 335.

200. B. S. Childs, Memory and Tradition in Israel (London: SCM, 1962); W. Schottroff, “Gedenken” im Alten Orient und im Alten Testament (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1964); H. Eising, “,” TDOT, 4:64–82; cf. D. Bonatz, Das syro-hethitische Grabdenkmal: Untersuchungen zur Entstehung einer neuen Bildgattung in der Eisenzeit im nordsyrisch-südostanatolischen Raum (Mainz: Von Zabern, 2000); idem, “Mnemohistory in Syro-Hittite Iconography,” in Historiography in the Cuneiform World, ed. T. Abusch (Bethesda, Md.: CDL, 2001), 65–77.

201. CAT, 1.17:II:27 = COS, 1.103: 345a.

202. L. H. Lesko, “Death and Afterlife in Ancient Egyptian Thought,” CANE, 1765.

203. For a detailed analysis cf. Clines, Job, 459–66; also Johnston, Sheol, 209–14.

204. J. B. Curtis, “On Job’s Witness in Heaven,” JBL 102 (1983): 549–62.

205. Habel, Job, 306.

206. Muntingh, “Resurrection,” 32–44.

207. Fauna, 72–74.

208. D. Pardee, “merôrat-petanîm ‘Venom’ in Job 20:14, ” ZAW 91 (1979): 401–16.

209. Lichtheim, AEL, 2:159 = COS, 1.47: 118b.

210. TDOT, 13:201–8, esp. 203; Yadin, Warfare, 6–9.

211. ANET, 201, 205.

212. Gruber, Aspects, 289.

213. ANEP, 695; M. P. Baudot, “Representations in Glyptic Art of a Preserved Legend: Etana, the Shepherd, Who Ascended to Heaven,” in Studia Paulo Naster Oblata II (Leuven: Peeters, 1982), 1–8.

214. COS, 2.82: 214a.

215. ANEP, 304, 332.

216. Keel and Uehlinger, Miniaturkunst, fig. 119.

217. D. M. Doxey, “Anubis,” OEAE, 1:97–98.

218. COS, 3.41: 77–78.

219. Allen, “World,” 28, fig. 2:2; Keel, Symbolism, fig. 33.

220. T. Dothan and I. Dunayevsky, “Tell Qasile,” NEAEHL, 1206.

221. D. W. Baker, “Ophir,” ABD, 5:26–27.

222. K. H. Singer, Die Metalle Gold, Silber, Bronze, Kupfer und Eisen im Alten Testament und ihre Symbolik (Würzburg: Echter, 1980); B. Kedar-Kopstein, “,” TDOT, 4:32–40.

223. Keel, Symbolism, 183; W. L. Moran, The Amarna Letters (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1992), 14, 19.

224. Black and Green, Gods, 113–14; U. Seidl, “Kudurru,” RlA, 6:267–77; K. E. Slanski, The Babylonian Entitlement narûs (kudurrus): A Study in Their Form and Function (Boston: ASOR, 2003), cf. ANEP, 518–21.

225. A. R. Millard, “Landmark,” IBD, 873; Keel, Symbolism, fig. 124.

226. COS, 1.47: 117b.

227. King and Stager, Life, 95–98, ill. 37–38; R. Frankel, “Olives,” OEANE, 4:179–84; M.-C. Amouretti and J.-P. Brun, eds., Oil and Wine Production in the Mediterranean Area (Athènes: École Française d’Athènes, 1993); M. Heltzer, and D. Eitam, eds., Olive Oil in Antiquity (Haifa: Univ. of Haifa, 1987); R. Frankel, ed., The Technology of Oil and Wine Production in Antiquity in Israel and other Mediterranean Countries (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994); idem, Wine and Oil Production in Antiquity in Israel and Other Mediterranean Countries (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999); L. Lesko, King Tut’s Wine Cellar (Berkeley, Calif.: Scribe, 1977).

228. ANEP, 155–56; M.-C. Poo, “Wine,” OEAE, 3:502–3; N. F. Miller, “Viticulture,” OEANE, 5:304–5; M. Dayagi-Mendels, Drink and Be Merry: Wine and Beer in Ancient Times (Jerusalem: Israel Museum, 1999); King and Stager, Life, 98–101, ill. 39–41; Lesko, King Tut’s Wine Cellar; P. E. McGovern, Ancient Wine: The Search for the Origins of Viniculture (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 2003).

229. Johnston, Sheol, 124.

230. P. J. Williams, “Are the Biblical Rephaim and the Ugaritic RPUM Healers?” in The Old Testament in Its World, ed. R.P. Gordon and J. de Moor (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 266–75; M. S. Smith, “Rephaim,” ABD, 5:674–76; Johnston, Sheol, 128–42; H. Rouillard, “Rephaim,” DDD, 692–700; CAT, 1.6:VI:46–52 and 1.161 = COS, 1.86: 273b; 1.105: 357–58 (cf. Cornelius and Niehr, Ugarit, 86 with fig. 137); R. Liwak, “,” TDOT, 13:602–11; see also COS, 2.56–57: 182b–183a.

231. COS, 1.108: 382.

232. M. Hutter, “Abaddon,” DDD, 1.

233. Habel, “Stretches out the Heavens,” 421–22.

234. COS, 1.111: 398–99.

235. ANET, 387b.

236. Black and Green, Gods, fig. 46.

237. Keel, Symbolism, figs. 9–13.

238. Allen, “World,” 25, fig. 2:1; cf. ANEP, 542; Keel, Symbolism, figs. 21, 26–29.

239. Bottéro, Religion, 78, 80.

240. N. S. Fox, “Clapping Hands as a Gesture of Anguish and Anger in Mesopotamia and Israel,” JANES 23 (1995): 49–60, esp. 54.

241. CAT, 1.3:V:6–7; 1.4:IV:21–22 = COS, 1.86: 247a, 259a; cf. Cornelius and Niehr, Ugarit, 55; H. Niehr, “Die Wohnsitze des Gottes El nach den Mythen aus Ugarit,” in Das biblische Weltbild, 325–60.

242. Black and Green, Gods, 27; B. Becking, “Ends of the Earth,” DDD, 300–301.

243. B. Schlick-Nolte, “Glass,” OEAE, 2:30–34; D. Whitehouse, “Glass,” OEANE, 2:413–15; H. Kühne, “Glas, Glasuren,” RlA, 3:407–27; P. T. Nicholson, Egyptian Faience and Glass (Princes Risborough: Shire, 1993).

244. M. V. Fox, Proverbs 1–9 (New York: Doubleday, 2000), 67–71.

245. COS, 1.159; 516a; 1.153: 487a and 1.117: 419b.

246. CAT, 1.6:III:12–13 = COS, 1.86: 271a.

247. H. Olivier, “A Land Flowing with Milk and Honey—Some Observations on the Modes of Existence in Ancient Israel,” NGTT 29/1 (1988): 2–13; A. Caquot, “,” TDOT, 3:131.

248. K. van der Toorn, Family Religion in Babylonia, Syria and Israel (Leiden: Brill, 1996), 193.

249. On the shaming of Job, cf. L. M. Bechtel, “Shame as a Sanction of Social Control in Biblical Israel: Judicial, Political, and Social Shaming,” JSOT 49 (1991): 72–74.

250. Gruber, Aspects, 304–5; M. I. Gruber, “Gestures,” HBD, 342.

251. CAT, 1.2:I:21, 30–34 = COS, 1.86: 246; Gruber, Aspects, 301–3; Kruger, “Non-Verbal,” 57–60.

252. Zwickel, Edelsteine, 31.

253. Habel, Job, 404, 412; Pope, Job, 214–16; R. van den Broek, “Phoenix,” DDD, 655–57.

254. Cf. M. Weinfeld, “,” TDOT, 7:25; L. Schwienhorst, “,” 9:207; O. Keel, “Der Bogen als Herrschaftssymbol,” in Studien zu den Stempelsiegeln aus Palästina/Israel Band 3 (Freiburg, Schweiz: Universitätsverlag; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1990), 27–65; RlA 10/5–6: 458–469; Wilkinson, Reading, 184–85, and Symbol, 200–203, ill. 155–59; C. Zutterman, “The Bow in the Ancient Near East,” IrAnt 38 (2003): 119–65.

255. CAT, 1.16:III = COS, 1.102: 341a.

256. Gruber, Aspects, 557–82.

257. CAT, 1.17:II:8–12 = COS, 1.103: 345a.

258. George, Gilgamesh, 14.

259. Ludlul II = COS, 1.153: 489b.

260. E. Firmage, “Zoology,” ABD, 6:1109–67 (esp. 1143–44); P. F. Houlihan, “Canines,” OEAE, 1:229–31; Black and Green, Gods, 70; Fauna and Flora, 21; W. Heimpel and U. Seidl, “Hund,” RlA, 4:494–97; D. J. Brewer, Dogs in Antiquity: Anubis to Cerberus: The Origins of the Domestic Dog (Warminster: Aris & Phillips, 2001); F. E. Deist, The Material Culture of the Bible: An Introduction (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000), 131; R. and J. Janssen, Egyptian Household Animals (Buckinghamshire: Shire, 1989), 9–13; Keel, Orte, 106–9; Riede, Jägers, 195–99; G. J. Botterweck, “,” TDOT, 7:146–57; C. E. Watanabe, Animal Symbolism in Mesopotamia—A Contextual Approach (Vienna: Instut für Orientalistik, 2002), 119–20.

261. King and Stager, Life, 83, 118–19. Cf. COS, 2.143: 395 on the healing goddess Gula with Black and Green, Gods, 101; R. Frankena, U. Seidl, and E. Sollberger, “Gula,” RlA, 3:695–97.

262. ANEP, 183, 190, 319 (hunting), 657–58 (demons); Keel, Symbolism, fig. 107.

263. COS, 3.42A: 79a; Moran, Amarna, 209, 277–78 (# 129; 201–2).

264. Fauna and Flora, 21–22.

265. For archers shown stringing their bows, cf. Partridge, Fighting, fig. 55.

266. J. Scurlock and B. Andersen, Diagnoses in Assyrian and Babylonian Medicine (Urbana, Ill.: Univ. of Illinois Press, 2005), 231–41.

267. D. M. Doxey, “Anubis,” OEAE, 1:97–98.

268. COS, 2.82: 214a.

269. J. Walton, “,” NIDOTTE, 1:781–84; J. Bergman, H. Ringgren, and M. Tsevat, “,” TDOT, 2:338–43.

270. See P. L. Day, “Anat,” DDD, 36–43 (42).

271. ANEP, 639; Keel, Symbolism, fig. 83; cf. J. G. Griffiths, The Divine Verdict: A Study of Divine Judgement in the Ancient Religions (Leiden: Brill, 1991); C. Seeber, Untersuchungen zur Darstellung des Totengerichts im alten Ägypten (München: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 1976).

272. AEL, 2:121.

273. ANET, 34; COS, 2.12: 59–64; AEL, 2:125.

274. E.g., G. Fohrer, “The Righteous Man in Job 31, ” in Essays in Old Testament Ethics, ed. J. L. Crenshaw and J. T. Wills (New York: Ktav, 1974), 9–10.

275. J. A. Black, “The New Year Ceremonies in Ancient Babylon: ‘Taking Bel by the Hand’ and a Cultic Picnic,” Religion 11 (1981): 44.

276. Dick, “Job 31”; for the ostracon see COS, 3.41: 78a.

277. Lichtheim, Moral Values; see also sidebar “Redemption” at 19:25.

278. CTH 373 translated in I. Singer, Hittite Prayers (SBLWAW; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2002), 32 (4a).

279. J. R. Ebeling and Y. M. Rowan, “The Archaeology of the Daily Grind,” NEA 67 (2004): 108–17; King and Stager, Life, 94–95; Reyburn, Job, 567.

280. Hillers, Treaty-Curses, 63.

281. J. A. Tyldesley, Daughters of Isis: Women of Ancient Egypt (London: Viking, 1994), 60.

282. For example, CAT, 1.24 and 161

283. K. van der Toorn, “Sun,” ABD, 6:237–39; B. B. Schmidt, “Moon” DDD, 585–93; E. Lipiński, “Shemesh,” DDD, 764–68; J. G. Taylor, Yahweh and the Sun: Biblical and Archaeological Evidence for Sun Worship in Ancient Israel (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993); G. Theuer, Der Mondgott in den Religionen Syrien-Palästinas: unter besonderer Berücksichtigung von KTU 1.24 (Freiburg, Schweiz: Universitätsverlag, 2000); R. E. Clements, “,” TDOT, 6:355–62, esp. 360; and E. Lipiński, “,” TWAT, 8:306–14.

284. Keel and Uehlinger, Goddesses, 367, 369–72.

285. ANEP, 622; Gruber, “Gestures,” HBD, 342; Keel, Symbolism, fig. 420; Pope, Job, 235 (with older literature).

286. D. Kellerman, “,” TDOT, 2:439–49.

287. See A. van Selms, “Job 31:38–40 in Ugaritic Light,” Semitics 8 (1982): 30–42.

288. Note Jas. 5:4, where James writes that the wages a land owner has failed to pay are crying out and the cries have reached the ears of the Lord, the Almighty.

289. A. G. McDowell, Village Life in Ancient Egypt: Laundry Lists and Love Songs (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1999).

290. Gaster, Myth, 784.

291. Lesko, King Tut’s Wine Cellar; cf. comments on wine at 24:11.

292. For a waterskin made of goat’s hide cf. Yadin, Bar-Kochba, 115; cf. Dayagi-Mendels, Drink, 41–43.

293. T. Jacobsen, The Treasures of Darkness: A History of the Mesopotamian Religion (New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ. Press, 1976), 147–64.

294. George, Gilgamesh, 99; cf. R. A. Veenker, “Gilgamesh and the Magic Plant,” BA 44 (1981): 199–205.

295. A. Stigmair, “/,” TDOT, 7:535.

296. C. Barth, “,” TDOT, 4:94.

297. Pope, Job, 263–64.

298. P. A. Bird, “The End of the Male Cult Prostitute: A Literary-Historical and Sociological Analysis of Hebrew qadeš-qedešîm,” in Congress Volume, Cambridge 1995, ed. J. A. Emerton (Leiden: Brill, 1997), 37–80, esp. 75–77; C. Frevel, Aschera und der Ausschliesslichkeitsanspruch YHWHs: Beiträge zu literarischen, religionsgeschichtlichen und ikonographischen Aspekten der Ascheradiskussion (Weinheim: Beltz Athenaum, 1995), 629–737, esp. 709–10; R. A. Oden, The Bible without Theology (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 2000), 131–54; H. Ringgren, “,” TDOT, 12:542.

299. ANEP, 500–501, 531–33, 537–38; Cornelius, Iconography, 255–58; Cornelius and Niehr, Ugarit, fig. 74; Keel, Symbolism, figs. 292, 294.

300. CAT, 1.3: III:26, 5:V:8 = COS, 1.86: 251b, 267a and CAT, 1.101 = Wyatt, Texts, 388–89.

301. Weinfeld, “War,” 121–22, 141–42; cf. also P. E. Dion, “YHWH as Storm-God and Sun-God: The Double Legacy of Egypt and Canaan as Reflected in Psalm 104, ” ZAW 103 (1991): 43–71. On the “voice” of God, see B. Kedar-Kopfstein, “,” TDOT, 12:586.

302. CAT, 1.4:VII:30–37 = COS, 1.86: 262b.

303. V. Curtis, Persian Myths (London: British Museum, 1993), 18.

304. C. Derricks, “Mirrors,” OEAE, 2:419–20.

305. A. H. Gardiner, Ancient Egyptian Onomastica (London: Oxford Univ. Press); W. K. Simpson, “Onomastica,” OEAE, 2:605; G. von Rad, “Hiob 38 und die altägyptische Weisheit,” Gesammelte Studien zum Alten Testament (München: Kaiser, 1971), 262–71.

306. M. Civil, “Ancient Mesopotamian Lexicography,” CANE, 2311; D. O. Edzard et al., “Name, Namengebung (Onomastik),” RlA, 9:94–134.

307. COS, 1.113: 408.

308. D. O’Connor, “Architecture of Infinity—the Egyptian Temple,”Archaeology Odyssey 2/4 (1999): 42–551; R. B. Finnestad, Image of the World and Symbol of the Creator: On the Cosmological and Iconological Values of the Temple of Edfu (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1985); Wilkinson, Symbol, 36–37.

309. COS, 1.111: 398b.

310. ANEP, 306, 514–15, 523, 529, 537, 609–10; cf. Keel, Symbolism, figs. 180, 191; cf. fig. 311. Cf. T. Jacobsen, “Pictures and Pictorial Language (The Burney Relief),” in Figurative Language in the Ancient Near East, ed. M. Mindlen et al. (London: Univ. of London, Press 1987), 4; Black and Green, Gods, 156.

311. CAT, 1.10:I:3–4 = Wyatt, Texts, 155; cf. F. Lelli, “Stars,” DDD, 809–15; CAT, 1.23:54 (COS, 1.87: 281b).

312. F. Stolz, “Sea,” DDD, 737–42.

313. COS, 1.111: 398b.

314. Habel, Job, 538.

315. S. A. Meier, “Shahar,” ABD, 5:1150–51; S. B. Parker, “Shahar,” DDD, 754–55; L. Rupert, “,” TDOT, 14:578.

316. Cf. CAT, 1.23:49–54 and 1.100:52 = COS, 1.87: 281b and 1.94: 297b.

317. I. Cornelius, “The Sun Epiphany in Job 38:12–15, ” Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages 16 (1990): 25–43; B. Janowski, Rettungsgewissheit und Epiphanie des Heils: Das Motiv der Hilfe Gottes “am Morgen” im Alten Orient und im Alten Testament (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1989).

318. COS, 1.108–9, 381–89.

319. S. A. Wiggins, “Pidray, Tallay and Arsay in the Baal Cycle,” JNSL 29 (2003): 83–101.

320. ANEP, 536; Keel, Symbolism, fig. 295; in color in AOB, 303.

321. CAT, 1.6:IV = COS, 1.86: 271b.

322. S. Redford, “Equines,” OEAE, 1:478–79; F. Hilzheimer, “Esel,” RlA, 2:476; W. Heimpel, “Onager,” RlA, 10/1-2:91–92.

323. ANEP, 186.

324. F. C. Fensham, “Common Trends in Curses of the Near Eastern Treaties and Kudurru-Inscriptions Compared with Maledictions of Amos and Isaiah,” ZAW 75 (1963): 163–64; idem, “The Wild Ass in the Aramaean Treaty between Bar-gaʾayah and Mattiʿel,” JNES 22 (1963): 185–86; K. Watanabe, Neo-Assyrian Treaties and Loyalty Oaths (Helsinki: Helsinki Univ. Press, 1988), 45.

325. CAT, 1.92 = Wyatt, Texts, 270–72.

326. ANEP, 183 = Cornelius and Niehr, Ugarit, fig. 41.

327. Xenophon, Anabasis 1.5.2.

328. ANEP, 190, 706.

329. M. Weszeli et al., “Pferd,” RlA, 10/5–6: 469–503.

330. Cf. ANEP, 672.

331. ANEP, 463.

332. J. J. M. Roberts, “The Hand of Yahweh,” VT 21 (1971): 247–48; cf. J. K. Hoffmeier, “The Arm of God versus the Arm of Pharaoh in the Exodus Narratives”, Bib 67 (1986): 378–87; K. Martens, “With a Strong Hand and an Outstretched Arm,” SJOT 15 (2001): 123–45; F. J. Helfmeyer, “,” TDOT, 4:133–40.

333. Cornelius, Iconography, 306; cf. R. Wilkinson, “Ancient Near Eastern Raised-Arm Figures and the Iconography of the Egyptian God Min,” BES 11 (1991): 109–18.

334. G. Warmuth, “,” TDOT, 3:353–54.

335. Black and Green, Gods, 130–31; E. Cassin, La splendour divine: Introduction à l’étude de la mentalité mésopotamienne (Paris: Mouton, 1968); T. Podella, Das Lichtkleid JHWHs: Untersuchungen zur Gestalthaftigkeit Gottes im Alten Testament und seiner altorientalischen Umwelt (Tübingen: Mohr, 1996), esp. 240–42; CAD, M/II: 10; M. Krebernik, “Melam,” RlA, 8/1–2:35.

336. COS, 1.113: 392a, 395a.

337. E. Ruprecht, “Das Nilpferd im Hiobbuch: Beobachtungen zu der sogenannten zweiten Gottesrede,” VT 21 (1971): 209–31, argues that in both cases it is the hippo.

338. B. F. Batto, “Behemoth,” DDD, 165–69; Mettinger, God, 195.

339. C. Uehlinger, “Leviathan,” DDD, 511–15; Mettinger, God, 197.

340. Batto, “Behemoth,” 165–69; Fauna, 11–12; G. J. Botterweck, “,” TDOT, 2:6–20.

341. Ruprecht, “Das Nilpferd.” According to B. Couroyer, “Qui est béhémoth? Job, XL, 15–24, ” RB 82 (1975): 418–43, it is the wild buffalo that roamed the area of Lake Hûhleh.

342. Habel, Job, 559.

343. V. Kubina, Die Gottesreden im Buche Hiob: Ein Beitrag zur Diskussion um die Einheit von Hiob 38, 1–42, 6 (Freiburg: Herder, 1979), 68–76.

344. B. Lang, “Job xl 18 and the ‘Bones of Seth,’ ” VT 30 (1980): 360–61.

345. Uehlinger, “Leviathan,” 511–15.

346. Keel, Ijob, Abb. 73–76; T. Säve-Söderbergh, On Egyptian Representations of Hippopotamus Hunting as a Religious Motive (Lund: Gleerup, 1953); D. Wildung, Nilpferd und Krokodil: Das Tier in der Kunst des alten Ägypten (München: Staatliche Sammlung Ägyptischer Kunst, 1987); A. Behrmann, Das Nilpferd in der Vorstellungswelt der Alten Ägypter (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1996); cf. O. Keel, “Königliche Nilpferdjagd: Eine ungewöhnliche Darstellung auf einem Skarabäus des Mittleren Reiches,” GM 134 (1993): 63–68.

347. A. Caubet and F. Poplin, “Behemoth, Like You, Job, My Creature!” Monde de la Bible 48 (March-April 1987): 22.

348. Day, Conflict; Fuchs, Mythos.

349. J. C. L. Gibson, “A New Look at Job 41.1–4 (English 41.9–12),” in Text as Pretext: Essays in Honour of Robert Davidson, ed. R. P. Carroll (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1992), 129–39.

350. Amply illustrated by Keel, Ijob, Abb. 77–82; summarized by Mettinger, God, 196; Uehlinger, “Leviathan,” 514.

351. CAT, 1.5:I:1–3, cf. 27–29 = COS, 1.86: 265a.

352. Keel, Ijob, Abb. 83a–93; Keel and Uehlinger, Goddesses, figs. 140a-b.

353. COS, 1.111: 393.

354. CAT, 1.2:I:19–29 = COS, 1.86: 246a.

355. COS, 1.132: 459b.

356. George, Gilgamesh, 19.

357. Partridge, Fighting, 35–36; Reyburn, Job, 765; Yadin, Warfare, 9–10, 296–97, 436–37.

358. King and Stager, Life, Ill. 34–35.

359. C. Muenchow, “Dust and Dirt in Job 42:6, ” JBL 108 (1989): 597–611.

360. CAT, 1.14–15: = COS, 1.102: 333b, 337b.

361. J. W. Betlyon, “Coinage,” ABD, 1:1076–89; J. W. Betlyon, “Money,” HDB, 647–51; P. F. O’Rourke, “Coinage,” OEAE, 2:41–52; A. D. H. Bivar, “Coinage,” OEANE, 2:327–28; C. M. Monroe, “Money and Trade,” in Companion, ch. 11; D. C. Snell, “Methods of Exchange and Coinage in Ancient Western Asia,” CANE, 1487–97; King and Stager, Life, 198–99.

362. ANEP, 72; Y. J. Markowitz, “Jewelry,” OEAE, 2:201–7; B. Sass, “Jewelry,” OEANE, 3:238–46.

363. Traduction oecuménique de la Bible.

364. Cf. Reyburn, Job, 778.

365. Z. Ben-Barak, “Inheritance by Daughters in the Ancient Near East,” JSS 25 (1980): 22–33; Westbrook, Property, 161.

366. J. and R. Janssen, Getting Old in Ancient Egypt (London: Rubicon, 1996), 68.

Sidebar and Chart Notes

A-1. V. P. Hamilton, “Satan,” ABD, 5:985–86; P. L. Day, An Adversary in Heaven (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988); C. Breytenback and P. L. Day, “Satan,” DDD, 726–32, esp. 727–29; H.-J. Fabry, “ ‘Satan’—Begriff und Wirklichkeit: Untersuchungen zur Dämonologie der alttestamentlichen Weisheitsliteratur,” in Demons/Die Dämonen: Die Dämonologie der israelitisch-jüdischen und frühchristlichen Literatur im Kontext ihrer Umwelt, ed. A. Lange (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003), 269–91; H. Haag, Teufelsglaube (Tübingen: Katzmann, 1974); N. Forsyth, The Old Enemy: Satan and the Combat Myth (Princeton: Princeton Univ., 1987); B. Baloian, “,” NIDOTTE, 3:1231–32; S. Japhet, I and II Chronicles (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1993), 373–75; F. Lindström, God and the Origin of Evil (Lund: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1983); C. and E. Meyers, Haggai, Zechariah 1–8 (AB; Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1987), 183–86; Nielsen, Satan; S. H. T. Page, Powers of Evil (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1995); J. B. Russell, The Devil (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1977); W. Foerster and G. von Rad, “διάβολος,” TDNT, 2:72–81; K. Nielsen, “,” TWAT, 7:745–51; M. Weiss, The Story of Job’s Beginning (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1983), 32–42.

A-2. On “physicians” and health care in the ancient Near East, cf. H. C. Kee, “Medicine and Healing,” ABD, 4:659–64; Sussman, “Sickness and Disease,” ABD, 6:6–15; Illness and Health; R. D. Biggs, “Medicine, Surgery, and Public Health in Ancient Mesopotamia,” CANE, 1911–24; B. Böck, “When You Perform the Ritual of ‘Rubbing’: On Medicine and Magic in Ancient Mesopotamia,” JNES 62/1 (2003): 1–16; M. Haussperger, “Die mesopotamische Medizin und ihre Ärzte aus heutiger Sicht,” Zeitschrift für Assyriologie 87 (1997): 196–218; J. V. Kinnier-Wilson, “Medicine in the Land of the Bible and Times of the Old Testament,” in Studies in the Period of David and Solomon and Other Essays, ed. T. Ishida (Tokyo: Yamakawa-Shuppansha), 337–65; R. D. Biggs and G. Beckman, “Medizin,” RlA, 7: 623–31; R. K. Ritner, “Medicine,” OEAE, 2:353–56; J. F. Nunn, Ancient Egyptian Medicine (London: British Museum, 1996); O. Rimon et al., Illness and Healing in Ancient Times (Haifa: Hecht Museum, 1996); J. Scurlock, “Mesopotamian Medicine,” in A Companion to the Ancient Near East, ed. D. Snell (Oxford: Blackwell, 2005), ch. 22; M. L. Brown, “,” TDOT, 13:593–602; K. R. Weeks, “Medicine, Surgery, and Public Health in Ancient Egypt,” CANE, 1787–98.

A-3. Histories 1:197; 2:84.

A-4. Keel, Symbolism, fig. 91 = J. A. Black and A. Green, Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia (London: British Museum, 1992), fig. 151, with reconstruction fig. 104.

A-5. Anderson, Mourn; Pham, Mourning; B. A. Levine, “Silence, Sound, and the Phenomenology of Mourning in Biblical Israel,” JANES 22 (1993): 89–106.

A-6. O. Keel and C. Uehlinger, Gods, Goddesses, and Images of God in Ancient Israel (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1998), fig. 150.

A-7. CAT, 1.5:VI:11–22 = COS, 1.86: 267b–268a; cf. P. A. Kruger, “On Non-Verbal Communication in the Baal Epic,” Journal for Semitics 1 (1989): 64–66.

A-8. CAT, 1.19:IV:172–73; COS, 1.103: 354b.

A-9. T. Abusch, “Gilgamesh’s Request and Siduri’s Denial: Part II: An Analysis and Interpretation of an Old Babylonian Fragment about Mourning and Celebration,” JANES 22 (1993): 4.

A-10. Anderson, Mourn, 78.

A-11. ANET, 57.

A-12. W. J. Urbrock, “Blessings and Curses,” ABD, 1:755–61; D. Stuart, “Curse,” ABD, 1:1218–19; D. P. Silverman, “Curses,” OEAE, 1:348–50; C. W. Mitchell, The Meaning of brk “to Bless” in the Old Testament (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1987); K. Nordh, Aspects of Ancient Egyptian Curses and Blessings: Conceptual Background and Transmission (Uppsala: Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis, 1996); W. Schottroff, Der altisraelitische Fluchspruch (Neukirchen: Neukirchener Verlag, 1969); J. Scharbert, “,” TDOT, 1:261–66; idem, “,” 405–18; idem, “,” 2:279–308; idem, “,” 13:37–44, esp. 43–44.

A-13. T. G. Crawford, Blessing and Curse in Syro-Palestinian Inscriptions of the Iron Age (New York: Lang, 1992) with texts in COS, 2.47A-B; 2.52; 2.54–2.64; 2.83: 171–72, 179–90, 221.

A-14. D. F. Watson, “Angels,” ABD, 1:248–53; Meier, “Angels,” 45–50; S. A. Meier, The Messenger in the Ancient Semitic World (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988); S. Olyan, A Thousand Thousands Served Him: Exegesis and the Naming of Angels in Ancient Judaism (Tübingen: Mohr, 1993); K. P. Sullivan, Wrestling with Angels: A Study of the Relationship between Angels and Humans in Ancient Jewish Literature and the New Testament (Leiden: Brill, 2004).

A-15. COS, 1.108–1.110: 381–90.

A-16. See B. J. Lillie, “Almighty,” ABD, 1:160; M. Rose, “Names of God in the OT,” ABD, 4:1001–11; F. M. Cross, Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1973), 52–60 (Shaddai); W. Herrmann, “El,” DDD, 274–80; D. Pardee, “Eloah,” DDD, 285–88; K. van der Toorn, “God (I),” DDD, 352–65; E. A. Knauf, “Shaddai,” DDD, 749–53; K. van der Toorn, “Yahweh,” DDD, 910–19; B. Lang, The Hebrew God: Portrait of an Ancient Deity (New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ. Press, 2002), 202–8; T. N. D. Mettinger, In Search of God: The Meaning and Message of the Everlasting Names (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988); W. D. Reyburn, A Handbook on the Book of Job (New York: United Bible Societies, 1992), 21–22; F. M. Cross, “,” TDOT, 1:242–61; H. Ringgren, “,” TDOT, 1:267–84; D. N. Freedman, M. P. O’connor, and H. Ringgren, “,” TDOT, 5:246–53; G. Stein, “,” TWAT, 7:1078–104; M. Weippert, “YHWH,” RlA, 5:246–53.

A-17. Knauf, “Shaddai,” 752.

A-18. COS, 2.27: 142b.

A-19. Knauf, “Shaddai,” 749.

A-20. T. J. Lewis, “Dead, Abode of the,” ABD, 2:101–5; T. J. Lewis, “Dead,” DDD, 223–31; H. M. Barstad, “Sheol,” DDD, 768–70; “Death, the Afterlife, and Other Last Things,” in Religions, 470–95; L. Wächter, “,” TDOT, 14:239–48; R. S. Hallote, Death, Burial, and Afterlife in the Biblical World (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2001); P. Johnston, Shades of Sheol: Death and Afterlife in the Old Testament (Leicester: Apollos, 2002); N. J. Tromp, Primitive Conceptions of Death and the Netherworld in the Old Testament (Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1969); P. Xella, “Death and the Afterlife in Canaanite and Hebrew Thought,” CANE, 2059–70; S. U. Gulde, Der Tod als Herrscher in Ugarit und Israel (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2007).

A-21. Black and Green, Gods, 27–28, 57–62, 180–82; D. Katz, The Image of the Netherworld in the Sumerian Sources (Bethesda: CDL, 2003); J. A. Scurlock, “Death and the Afterlife in Ancient Mesopotamian Thought,” CANE, 1883–93.

A-22. COS, 1.108: 381a and 1.109: 386a (cf. now in N. Walls, Desire, Discord and Death: Approaches to Ancient Near Eastern Myth [Boston: ASOR, 2001], ch. 3).

A-23. George, Gilgamesh, 61.

A-24. M. Müller, “Afterlife,” OEAE, 1: 32–37; L. H. Lesko, “Death and the Afterlife in Ancient Egyptian Thought,” CANE, 1763–74; J. Taylor, Death and the Afterlife in Ancient Egypt (London: British Museum Press, 2001).

A-25. J. Zandee, Death as an Enemy according to Ancient Egyptian Conceptions (Leiden: Brill, 1960), 73–78, 88–91.

A-26. On law in Old Testament and ancient Near East, see S. Greengus, “Law,” ABD, 4:242–52; H. Avalos, “Legal and Social Institutions in Canaan and Ancient Israel,” CANE, 615–31; P. Bovati, Re-establishing Justice: Legal Terms, Concepts and Procedures in the Hebrew Bible (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994); K. Nielsen, Yahweh as Prosecutor and Judge: An Investigation of the Prophetic Lawsuit (Rib-Pattern) (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1978); R. Westbrook, ed., A History of Ancient Near Eastern Law (Brill: Leiden, 2003); B. Wells, “Law and Practice,” in Companion to the Ancient Near East, ed. D. Snell (Oxford: Blackwell, 2005), 183–95; V. Hamp and G. J. Botterweck, “,” TDOT, 3:187–94; H. Ringgren, “,” TDOT, 13:473–79.

A-27. The NIV translates as “judge,” but Clines, Job, 228, takes it as “opponent.”

A-28. R. A. Oden Jr., “Cosmogony, Cosmology,” ABD, 1:1162–71; R. Albertz, Weltschöpfung und Menschenschöpfung: Untersuchungen bei Deutero-Jesaja, Hiob und in den Psalmen (Stuttgart: Calwer, 1974), 132–50; J. P. Allen, Genesis in Egypt: The Philosophy of Ancient Egyptian Creation Accounts (New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ. Press, 1988); idem, “The Egyptian Concept of the World,” in Mysterious Lands, ed. D. O’Connor and S. Quirke (London: UCL, 2003); Ancient Cosmologies, ed. C. Blacker and M. Loewe (London: Allen & Unwin, 1975); K. W. Bolle, “Cosmology,” in Encyclopedia of Religion, 4:100–107; J. Bottéro, Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 2001), 77–90; R. J. Clifford, Creation Accounts in the Ancient Near East and in the Bible (Washington, D.C.: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1994); J. J. Collins, “Cosmology: Time and History,” Religions, 59–70; Cornelius, “World,” 193–218; V. A. Tobin, “Creation Myths,” OEAE, 1:469–72; M. Hutter, “Earth,” DDD, 272–73; M. Hutter and M. De Jonge, “Heaven,” DDD, 388–90; H. M. Barstad, “Sheol,” DDD, 768–70; Horowitz, Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography; C. Houtman, Der Himmel im Alten Testament: Israels Weltbild und Weltanschauung (Leiden: Brill, 1993); J. T. Pennington, “Dualism in Old Testament Cosmology: Weltbild and Weltanschauung,” SJOT 18 (2004): 260–77; B. Janowski and B. Ego, eds., Das biblische Weltbild und seine altorientalischen Kontexte (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2001); C. H. Long, “Cosmogony,” in Encyclopedia of Religion, 4:94–100; Nielsen, Satan, 64–71; F. Rochberg, “Mesopotamian Cosmology,” in A Companion to the Ancient Near East, ed. D. Snell (Oxford: Blackwell, 2005), 316–29; R. A. Simkins, Creator and Creation: Nature in the Worldview of Ancient Israel (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1994); H. Ringgren, “,” TDOT, 11:387–403; L. I. J. Stadelmann, The Hebrew Conception of the World: A Philological and Literary Study (Rome: Biblical Institute Press, 1970); D. Tsumura, The Earth and the Waters in Genesis 1 and 2: A Linguistic Investigation (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1989); M. J. E. Wright, The Early History of Heaven (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2000); M. R. Wright, Cosmology in Antiquity (London: Routledge, 1995).

A-29. E. E. Platt, “Jewelry, Ancient Isrealite,” ABD, 3:829–30; B. S. Magness-Gardiner, “Seals, Mesopotamian,” ABD, 5:1062–64; R. S. Bianchi, “Scarabs,” OEAE, 3:179–81; S. B. Shubert, “Seals and Sealing,” OEAE, 252–57; B. Magness-Gardiner, “Seals,” OEANE, 4:509–12; D. Collon, First Impressions: Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East (London: British Museum Publications, 1987); M. Gibson and R. Biggs, ed., Seals and Sealing in the Ancient Near East (Malibu: Undena, 1977); L. Gorelick, ed., Ancient Seals and the Bible (Malibu: Undena, 1983); W. W. Hallo, ed., Seals and Seal Impressions (Bethesda, Md.: CDL, 2001); O. Keel, Corpus der Stempelsiegel-Amulette aus Palästina, Israel: von den Anfängen bis zur Perserzeit: Einleitung (Freiburg, Schweiz: Universitätsverlag; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1995); O. Keel and C. Uehlinger, Altorientalische Miniaturkunst: Die ältesten visuellen Massenkommunikationsmittel: Ein Blick in die Sammlungen des biblischen Instituts der Universität Freiburg Schweiz (Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern, 1996); E. Klengel-Brandt, ed., Mit sieben Siegeln versehen: Das Siegel in Wirtschaft und Kunst des Alten Orients (Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern, 1997); H. Pittman, “Cylinder Seals and Scarabs in the Ancient Near East,” CANE, 1589–603; B. Otzen, “,” TDOT, 5:263–69.

A-30. ANEP, 265.

A-31. ANEP, 256.

A-32. M. M. Schaub, “Lamp,” HBD, 545–46; R. H. Smith, “Lamps,” OEANE, 4:326–30; R. E. Nixon, “Lamps,” IBD, 870–73; R. H. Smith, “The Household Lamps of Palestine in Old Testament Times,” BA 27 (1964): 1–31; V. Sussmann, “Lighting the Way through History—the Evolution of Ancient Oil Lamps,” BAR March/April (1985): 42–56; J. G. Westenholz, ed., Let There Be Light: Oil Lamps From the Holy Land (Jerusalem: Bible Lands Museum, 2004).

A-33. Zandee, Death, 226–34.

A-34. van der Toorn, Family Religion, 128–30; cf. A. Aalen, “,” TDOT, 1:147–167; H. Lutzmann et al., “,” 5:245–59.

A-35. K. H. Richards, “Death,” ABD, 2:108–10; T. J. Lewis, “Mot,” ABD, 4:922–24; Johnston, Sheol; J. F. Healy, “Mot,” DDD, 598–603; K.-J. Illman, H. Ringgren, and H.-J. Fabry, “,” TDOT, 8:185–209.

A-36. CAT, 1.4:VIII; 1.5:I:15–16; 1.5:II:1–3 = COS, 1.86: 263a–66a.

A-37. CAT, 1.6:II = COS, 1.86: 270.

A-38. J. Unterman, “Redemption,” ABD, 5:650–54; E. T. Mullen Jr., “Goʾel,” DDD, 372–73; R. Kessler, “Ich weiss, dass mein Erlöser lebet: Sozialgeschichtlicher Hintergrund und theologische Bedeutung der Löser-Vorstellung in Hiob 19, 25, ” ZThK 89 (1992): 139–58; W. L. Michel, “Confidence and Despair: Job 19, 25–27 in the Light of Northwest Semitic Studies,” in The Book of Job, ed. W. A. M. Beuken (Leuven: Leuven Univ. Press, 1994), 163–66; H. Ringren, “,” TDOT, 2:350–55; R. Westbrook, Property and Family in Biblical Law (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1991), 58–68.

A-39. Lichtheim, AEL, 2:155 = COS, 1.47: 120b.

A-40. I. H. Jones, “Music and Musical Instruments,” ABD, 4:930–39; J. Braun, Music in Ancient Israel/Palestine: Archaeological, Written, and Comparative Sources (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002); A. D. Kilmer and D. A. Foxfog, “Music,” HBD, 665–71; D. G. Stradling and K. A. Kitchen, “Music,” IBD, 2:1031–40; D. Meeks, “Dance,” OEAE, 1:356–60; B. Lawergren, “Music,” OEAE, 2:450–54; J. Braun, “Musical Instruments,” OENEA, 4:70–79; RlA, 8:463–91; R. D. Anderson, “Music and Dance in Pharaonic Egypt,” A. D. Kilmer, “Music and Dance in Ancient Western Asia,” and S. de Martino, “Music, Dance, and Processions in Hittite Anatolia,” CANE, 2555–68, 2601–13, 2661–69; L. Manniche, Music and Musicians in Ancient Egypt (London: BM, 1991); King and Stager, Life, 285–300; T. Ilan, “Dance” in NEA 66/3 (2003): 161–69.

A-41. ANEP, 191–209.

A-42. Cornelius and Niehr, Ugarit, 36.

A-43. ANEP, 200, 208–11.

A-44. G. Kehrer, ed., Vor Gott sind alle gleich: soziale Gleichheit, soziale Ungleichheit und die Religionen (Düsseldorf: Patmos, 1983); M. Weinfeld, Social Justice in Ancient Israel and in the Ancient Near East (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1995).

A-45. F. C. Fensham, “Widow, Orphan, and the Poor in Ancient Near Eastern Legal and Wisdom Literature,” JNES 21 (1962): 129–39, with translations of the relevant texts in COS, 2.131: 336; 1.102: 342b, 346a, 351a (CAT, 1.16:VI:45–50; 1.17:V:5–8 9; 1.19:I:20–25); also COS, 2.30: 147–48.

A-46. S. N. Kramer, “Modern Social Problems in Ancient Sumer: Evidence from the Sumerian Literary Documents,” in Gesellschaftklassen im Alten Zeistromland, ed. D. O. Edzard (München: Bayerischen Akademie, 1972), 117; Lichtheim, Moral Values, e.g., 12, 20, 48, 62; see also S. Jin, “Der Furchtsame und der Unschuldige,” JNES 62/4 (2003): 267–73.

A-47. H. Niehr, “Zaphon,” DDD, 927–29; E. Lipiński, “,” TDOT, 12:435–43, esp. 441; N. Wyatt, “The Significance of spn in West Semitic Thought: A Contribution to the History of a Mythological Motif,” Ugarit: ein ostmediterranes Kulturzentrum im Alten Orient, ed. M. Dietrich and D. Loretz (Münster: Ugarit-Verlag, 1995), 213–37; idem, Space and Time in the Religious Life of the Near East (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 2001).

A-48. R. J. Clifford, The Cosmic Mountain in Canaan and the Old Testament (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1972).

A-49. Cornelius and Niehr, Ugarit, fig. 28.

A-50. COS, 1.99: 313b.

A-51. A. Stuart and J. Ruffle, “Mining and Metals,” IBD, 2:1002–6; F. Joannès, J. Siegelová, and J. D. Muhly, “Metalle und Metallurgie,” RlA, 8:96–136; J. D. Muhly and E. C. Lapp, “Metals,” OEANE, 4:1–20; I. Shaw, “Minerals,” OEAE, 2:415–19; idem, “Quarries and Mines,” OEAE, 3:99–104; A. C. Gunter, “Material, Technology, and Techniques in Artistic Production,” CANE, 1539–51; P. R. S. Moorey, Materials and Manufacture in Ancient Mesopotamia (Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1985); J. D. Muhly, “Mining and Metalwork in Ancient Western Asia,” CANE, 1501–21; King and Stager, Life, 164–76; P. T. Nicholson and I. Shaw, eds., Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2000).

A-52. B. Rothenberg, The Egyptian Mining Temple at Timna (London: Institute for Archaeo-Metallurgical Studies, 1988); Keel, Symbolism, figs. 6, 249–50.

A-53. Platt, “Jewelry, Ancient Israelite,” ABD, 3:823–25; I. H. Marshall, “Jewels and Precious Stones,” IBD, 2:781–88; P. L. Garber and R. F. Funk, “Jewels,” IDB, 2:898–905; B. Sass, “Jewelry,” OEANE, 3:238–46; W. Zwickel, Edelsteine in der Bibel (Mainz: von Zabern, 2002); cf. I. Cornelius, “Review of Zwickel,” JAOS 123 (2003): 673–75.

A-54. George, Gilgamesh, 75.

A-55. R. E. Murphy, “Wisdom in the OT,” ABD, 6: 920–31; H. F. Fuhs, “,” TDOT, 6:312.

A-56. On clothing cf. comment on 12:17; also ANEP, 1–66; T. Podella, “Kleid/Be-, Entkleiden,” in Handbuch religionswissenschaftlicher Grundbegriffe, ed. H. Cancik et al. (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1993), 3:381–85; R. S. Borass, “Dress,” HBD, 226–29; R. L. Alden, “,” NIDOTTE, 2:757–59; L. Green, “Clothing and Personal Adornment,” OEAE, 1:274–79; RGG⁴, 4:1410–12; H. Waetzoldt and E. Stommenger, “Kleidung,” RlA, 6:18–38; J. Camberoni and H.J. Fabry, “,” TDOT, 7:457–68; H. A. Brongers, “Die metaphorische Verwendung von Termini für die Kleidung von Göttern und Menschen in der Bibel und im Alten Orient,” in Von Kanaan bis Kerala: Festschrift für Prof. Mag. Dr. Dr. J.P.M. van der Ploeg O.P. zur Vollendung des siebzigsten Lebensjahres am 4. Juli 1979, überreicht von Kollegen, Freunden und Schülern, ed. W. C. Delsman (Kevelaer: Butzon & Becker, 1982), 61–74; M. E. Vogelzang and W. J. van Bekkum, “Meaning and Symbolsim of Clothing in Ancient Near Eastern Texts,” in Scripta Signa Vocis, 265–84.

A-57. George, Gilgamesh, 48, 97.

A-58. Ibid., 14.

A-59. COS, 1.129: 449.

A-60. Partridge, Fighting, 39–47; T. Kronholm and H.-J. Fabry, “,” TDOT, 13:201–8; Yadin, Warfare, 6–9.

A-61. Keel, Symbolism, figs. 131–32a; 245a; 304.

A-62. CAT, 1.17:V–1.19:I = COS, 1.103: 345b–347, 350; cf. D. R. Hillers, “The Bow of Aqht: The Meaning of a Mythological Symbol,” in Orient and Occident, ed. H. A. Hoffner (Kevelaer: Butzon & Bercker, 1973), 71–80.

A-63. ANET, 534a; Hillers, Treaty-Curses, 60.

A-64. Keel, Symbolism, figs. 341–342a; 132a; 245.

A-65. ANEP, 117–22, 133, 776–77; Cornelius and Niehr, Ugarit, figs. 48–49; Keel, Symbolism, fig. 249.

A-66. COS, 1.162: 528a, 530b; Kramer, “Social Problems,” 117–18.

A-67. COS, 2.153: 409.

A-68. COS, 1.47: 119b.

A-69. COS, 1.117: 418b.

A-70. B. Becking, “Shelah,” DDD, 762–63.

A-71. H. D. Galter, “Hubur,” DDD, 430–31.

A-72. George, Gilgamesh, 78–83.

A-73. COS, 1.154: 492b.

A-74. Galter, “Hubur,” 431.

A-75. Taylor, Death, 103–5.

A-76. CAT, 1.4:VIII:10–14 = COS, 1.86: 264a with note 197.

A-77. A. R. W. Green, The Storm-God in the Ancient Near East (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 2003); H. J. Deighton, The “Weather-God” in Hittite Anatolia: An Examination of the Archaeological and Textual Sources (Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1982); D. Schwemer, Die Wettergottgestalten Mesopotamiens und Nordsyriens im Zeitalter der Keilschriftkulturen (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2001).

A-78. COS, 1.111: 397b, 398a.

A-79. CAT, 1.4:VII:25–37= COS, 1.86: 262b.

A-80. S. Aalen, “,” TDOT, 1:147–64; H. Lutzmann et al., “,” TDOT, 5:245–59.

A-81. COS, 1.28: 45, J. L. Foster, “The Hymn to Aten: Akhenaten Worships the Sole God,” CANE, 1751–61.

A-82. Cornelius, “Sun,” figs. 4 and 8.

A-83. On stars and astronomy in the ancient Near East, cf. comment on 9:9 with detailed literature.

A-84. E. Reiner, Astral Magic in Babylon (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1995), 3.

A-85. Horowitz, Mesopotamain Cosmic Geography, 15.

A-86. D. Ferry, “Prayer to the Gods of the Night,” in Lingering Over Words, ed. T. Abusch, J. Huehnergard, and P. Steinkeller (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1990), 171.

A-87. IVPBBCOT, 500.

A-88. Firmage, “Zoology,” ABD, 6:1109–67; O. Borowski, Every Living Thing: Daily Use of Animals in Ancient Israel (Walnut Creek, Calif.: AltaMira, 1998); B. J. Collins, ed., A History of the Animal World in the Ancient Near East (Leiden: Brill, 2002); A. S. Gilbert, “The Flora and Fauna of the Ancient Near East,” CANE, 153–74; B. Janowski, ed., Gefährten und Feinde des Menschen: Das Tier in der Lebenswelt des alten Israel (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1993); Keel, Orte, 100–174; Watanabe, Animal Symbolism, with relevant parts in Fauna.

A-89. L. H. Martin, “Hermes,” DDD, 405–11; Knauf, “Shadday,” 752; Lang, The Hebrew God, 77–90, esp. 101–4; N. Marinatos, The Goddess and the Warrior: The Naked Goddess and Mistress of Animals in Early Greek Religion (London: Routledge, 2000); LIMC 8/1 with LIMC 8/2: Pls. 677–78.

A-90. O. Keel, Jahwes Entgegnung an Ijob: Eine Deutung von Ijob 38–41 vor dem Hintergrund der zeitgenössischen Bildkunst (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1978), 86–125.

A-91. Keel, Ijob, 63–156.

A-92. Ibid., Abb. 33–46; Keel and Uehlinger, Goddesses, figs. 162a–162d.

A-93. J. Day, God’s Conflict with the Dragon and the Sea: Echoes of a Canaanite Myth in the Old Testament (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985), 81.

A-94. CAT, 1.3:III:43–44 = COS, 1.86: 252a.

A-95. CAT, 1.6:VI:51 = COS, 1.86:273b.

A-96. Cf. on this J. Day, “Dragon and Sea, God’s Conflict with,” ABD, 2:228–31; A. Annus, “Ninurta and the Son of Man,” in Mythology and Mythologies, ed. R. M. Whiting (Helsinki: Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project, 2001); M. Bauks, “ ‘Chaos’ als Methapher für die Gefährdung der Weltordnung,” in Weltbild, 431–64; J. J. Collins, “Stirring Up the Great Sea: The Religio-Historical Background of Daniel 7, in The Book of Daniel in the Light of New Findings, ed. A. S. Van der Woude (Leuven: Peeters, 1993), 121–36; Day, Conflict; Fuchs, Mythos; J. C. L. Gibson, “On Evil in the Book of Job,” in Ascribe to the Lord: Biblical and Other Studies in Memory of Peter C. Craigie, ed. L. Eslinger and J. Taylor (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1988), 399–419; O. Kaiser, Die mythische Bedeutung des Meeres in Ägypten, Ugarit und Israel (Berlin: Töpelmann, 1959); C. Kloos, Yhwh’s Combat with the Sea (Leiden: Brill, 1986); J. H. Gronbaek, “Baal’s Battle with Yam—a Canaanite Creation Fight,” JSOT 33 (1985): 27–44; B. Lang, The Hebrew God, 57–62; T. Podella, “Der ‘Chaoskampfmythos’ im Alten Testament: Eine Problemanzeige,” in Mesopotamica-Ugaritica-Biblica (Kevelaer: Butzon & Bercker; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1993), 283–329; C. Uehlinger, “Der Mythos vom Drachenkampf: Von Sumer nach Nicaragua,” Reformatio 39 (1990): 213–26; M. K. Wakeman, God’s Battle with the Monster: A Study in Biblical Imagery (Leiden: Brill, 1973); N. Wyatt, “Arms and the King: The Earliest Allusions to the Chaoskampf Motif and Their Implications for the Interpretation of the Ugaritic and Biblical Traditions,” in ‘Und Mose schrieb dieses Lied auf …’: Studien zum Alten Testament und zum Alten Orient: Festschrift für O. Loretz zur Vollendung seines 70. Lebensjahres mit Beiträgen von Freunden, Schülern und Kollegen, ed. M. Dietrich and I. Kottsieper (Münster: Ugarit-Verlag, 1998), 833–82. Cf. now D. T. Tsumura, Creation and Destruction: A Reappraisal of the Chaoskampf Theory in the Old Testament (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 2005); T. J. Lewis, “CT 13.33–34 and Ezekiel 32: Lion-Dragon Myths,” JAOS 116 (1996): 28–47.

A-97. COS, 1.111: 391–402.

A-98. COS, 1.56: 150.

A-99. CAT, 1.5:I:1–4 = COS, 1.86: 265a.

A-100. CAT, 1.3:III:38–44 = COS, 1.86: 252a.

A-101. Annus, “Ninurta and the Son of Man,” 7; in the Mari oracles the storm god Adad “fought with the Sea” (M. Nissinen, Prophets and Prophecy in the Ancient Near East [Atlanta: SBL, 2003], 22 with note c).

A-102. ANEP, 651, 669–71, 691; Keel Symbolism, figs. 45–52.

A-103. Cornelius, Baal, 212–24 with Pls. 50–51, esp. BM 76–77.