air pollution 91–2, 94, 167, 318–19
alcohol dehydrogenase gene 198
annual conference, Royal Economic Society 231
antenatal care 28, 149, 259, 282
antibiotics 95, 140, 143, 322, 352
Archer, Jeffrey 85
atherosclerosis 118
Attlee, Clement 30
autism-spectrum disorder 324
Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children see Cohort Study-1991 (Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children)
baby boom 27, 29, 64, 302, 316
Barker, David 172–80, 182–4, 200–201, 289
Barker Hypothesis 178
Bedford 117
Bee Gees 125
Ben-Shlomo, Yoav 185–6
Beveridge, William 29, 39, 57, 183, 302
Big Science projects 289, 310, 324
birth
caesarean 141–2, 290, 322–3, 352
weights 174–5
see also childbirth; maternity; perinatal mortality rate; placentas; pregnancy; stillbirth
birth cohorts laboratory 311–2, 316, 331, 333–6, 350
Blanden, Jo 229–30, 233–6, 245
blood pressure 101–2, 171–2, 175, 178–9, 197, 200–201
Born to Fail? (cohort report) 75–7, 269–70
Boyd Orr Cohort Study 195–6
Boyd Orr, Sir John 195–6
Boyle, Sir Edward 63
‘Bradford Hill’s criteria for causation’ 101, 106
breast cancer 180
breastfeeding 196–7, 282–4, 286, 291
British Births 1970 (book) 86
British Empire 19–20
British Eugenics Society 20–21
British Household Panel Survey 257
Bucking the Trend (Blanden) 245
Burton, Paul 350
Butler, Neville
and the 1982 video shoot 153–5
and Carol Dezateux 317
in favour of a new cohort study 84
held party for the third cohort 297
and the Perinatal Mortality Survey 47–56
a presence on both 1958 and 1970 cohorts 258
responsibility for the 1970 Cohort Study 130–34, 135–9, 151–2, 159
set up International Centre for Child Studies 134–5
sought help for the 1970 cohort 216–17
study of births and perinatal deaths in Cuba 288
survey of the 1970-born children 206, 229, 236
Bynner, John
encouraged scientists to use Essex data archive 334–5
directed 1958 and 1970 cohorts 229, 236, 258
investigated lack of cohort data usage 210–214, 217–19
making cohorts relevant to policy 238–40
plan for a millennium cohort 261–2
sample data sets for new scientists 285
survey of reading/maths skills of 1958 and 1970 cohort 237
trajectories of 1970 cohort 240–41
trajectory of disadvantage 244, 271
and the work of Glen Elder 244, 244–5
cancer
breast 180
and adult cohort studies 109
deaths from 96
and genetic sequencing 164
lung 96–101, 104, 106, 112, 210, 321
Cardiff Birth Survey 141
cardiovascular disease 89, 101–2, 171, 175, 181, 302
carpet survey (1968) 207
case-control studies 97–8
Central Advisory Council for Education 63
Centre for Longitudinal Studies 258, 345, 352
Chalmers, Iain 140–45, 151–3, 220
Chamberlain, Geoffrey 85–6
Chamberlain, Roma 85–6
Charles, Prince 32
Cheetham, Philip 88–90, 185, 298
Child Health and Development Study (US) 94, 112
child poverty 268
childbirth 28–9, 31–2, 39, 55, 86–7, 141–2, 144
See also birth
Children and Their Primary Schools (Plowden Report) 67–8, 74, 105
chloroform 31
Christmas, Steve 72–3, 77–8, 245–7
Churchill, Winston 30
Clean Air Act (1956) 91–2
Clinton, Bill 190
Cochrane, Archie 144
cohort studies
birth cohort study (Pelotas, Brazil) 197, 290
birth cohorts laboratory 311–12, 316, 331, 333–6, 350
British Doctors‘ study 100, 103, 112
Child Health and Development Study (1959) 94, 112
‘Children of the 90s’ 161
See also cohort study (1991)
children in California studies 94, 242–3, 319
China-Anhui Birth Study 290
Collaborative Perinatal Project 94, 112
‘Dutch Hunger Winter’ natural experiment 176
explanation of 33–9
Framingham Heart Study 102–3, 112, 175
French child cohort study (Growing Up in France) 290
Hertfordshire Cohort Study 175, 177
Human Genome Project 162–64, 190–1, 199–200, 289
Mandela’s Children cohort study 288
National Children’s Study (US) 292, 295, 328
Netherlands child study (Generation R) 290
Norwegian Mother and Child cohort study (MoBa) 290, 294
plans for a 1982 cohort 146–53, 159, 253–4, 315
Second Generation Study of the 1946 birth cohort 115
Whitehall (1967) 181
Whitehall II 181
William Kermack study (1934) 176
Cohort Study (1946)
and the 11-plus 59–61
and the 1982 video shoot 153–4
Barker’s ideas lead to new lease of life 179
a biomedical cohort 254–6
birthday party (2011) 296–8, 304–5, 307, 317, 343
current status of 345–7
and Diana Kuh 184, 295–305, 341–4
discovery of wide inequalities between children 27–9, 41–7, 271
and divorce 81
and early adult years 118
funding for DNA sample collection 191–2
longest running birth cohort in the world 291, 341, 345
medical disorders over time revealed 301–3
memorabilia in time capsule 353
and Michael Wadsworth 114–5
needed to adapt 111
and obesity 192–3, 311, 332–3, 348
reinstated as a dedicated research unit 297
requirement for giving ‘consent’ 264
size 289
and smoking in pregnancy 104, 106, 108–9, 130, 148, 269
study of high blood pressure 171–2, 175
unit moved back to London 180, 182
unit moved to Bristol 120–21, 125
wide breadth of study 109–110
work reviewed by MRC 170–72, 297–8
Cohort Study (1958)
Alissa Goodman took charge (2012) 28
bibliography of 219
birthday party (1979) 125–6
and Born to Fail? book 75–7, 269–70
brought to light widespread lack of basic skills 237
and children with psychological problems 352
considered consequences of family break-ups 81–4
contained unparalleled data about smoking in pregnancy 105, 147
current status of 345–7
data stored at Essex University 206–7, 209
increasing government interference in 128–9
Jane Elliott took charge (2004) 285
Jo Blanden’s research 229–30
and John Bynner 210–216
located in Gordon Square 286
NIH provided funding 215
and obesity 333
plans postponed 64
questions about schooling 78–80
and smoking in pregnancy 104, 106, 108–9, 130, 149, 269
taken over by John Fox 214
used to assess social mobility 228–34, 236
Cohort Study (1970)
Alice Sullivan took over (2004) 285, 338, 348
bibliography of 219
birth survey 85–6
celebration party for at Alton Towers (1989) 139, 297, 338
current status of 349–51
data at Essex University 206–7, 255, 257, 334–5, 339
disadvantaged children analysis by Blanden 245
and Facebook 337–9
and home ownership 338
Jane Elliott took charge (2004) 285
and Jo Blanden’s research 229–31, 233–6, 245
John Bynner took charge (1990) 218
and Leon Feinstein’s research 221–5, 227
located in Gordon Square 286
and Neville Butler 130–6, 216–18,
and obesity 335–6
plan to collect DNA (2016) 192, 348
reading and maths skills testing 236–42
sexuality question asked (2012) 248
and social science 254–6
uncovered widespread lack of basic skills 238, 241–2
used to assess social mobility 229–34, 236
Cohort Study (1991) (Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children)
a biomedical cohort 254–6
and cot deaths 188–9
current status of 349–51
establishment of 159–70
recruiting the children of the cohort members 202–4
viewed as an outsider 254
Cohort Study (2000) see Millennium Cohort
Cohort Study (Life Study) 317–31, 352–3
Collaborative Perinatal Project (US) 94, 112
Colley, John 119–20
comprehensive schools 62–3, 78–9
Concern (journal) 79
Cooper, Rachel 344
cot deaths (sudden infant death syndrome) 188–9
Davie, Ron 66
Dearden, Lorraine 228
death atlas (Barker) 172–3
Declaration of Helsinki 165
delinquency 115
Dex, Shirley 269–71
Dezateux, Carol 278–280, 314–5, 317–19, 325–9, 331, 352
diabetes 96, 102, 162, 171, 181, 279, 302, 322, 333, 348
Diamond, Ian 309–12
digital video recordings 324
divorce 7, 81–2, 111, 115, 221, 264, 285,
DNA 161–7, 190–91, 197–9, 322–3, 329, 340, 348, 350
Doll, Richard 97–100, 106, 210
Domesday Book 33–4
Douglas Babies 40, 68, 90, 298
Douglas, James
and the 1944 Education Act 59–60
and the 1982 video shoot 153–5
and breastfeeding 282–3
clever and curious 317
death of 180
determination to span both social and medical science 254
and early deaths of children 35
early life of 22–4
and educational reforms 63, 69–72, 74–5, 78
and good parenting 81, 244, 271–2
lessons on use of data by politicians 25, 236
and maturation of 1946 cohort study 110–111, 115–16
an outsider by attempting to bridge disciplines 312–13
and Neville Butler 132
predictions on class differences over time 301
and respiratory diseases 92–4, 113–14
retirement prospect 119–20
review by MRC 298
second nationwide birth survey 45–52
setting up 1946 birth cohort 16–19, 25–32, 38–44, 325
smoking in pregnancy dilemma 148
technology held him back 318
and the ‘waste of talent’ 89
Dutch Hunger Winter 176
Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC)
and bid to the Large Facilities Capital Fund 310–3
funding the 1958 and 1970 cohorts 214–15, 254, 345
investigated use of 1958 cohort data 210, 212
Ian Diamond became head of 309–10
Jane Elliott became head of 287
and plans for a new birth cohort 257, 260, 327–8
see also Social Science Research Council (SSRC)
nursery school 68, 76, 268, 275
Education Act (1944) 30, 58–9, 63–4
Elder, Glen 242–4
electromagnetic radiation 321
11-plus exam 57–61, 79, 89, 114, 183, 245, 305
Elias, Peter 260, 310–312, 316
Elizabeth, Princess 32
epidemiology
calculating rates of disease or death 35–6
cohorts an unshakable place in the field of 94–7, 103
glass-half-full approach to 333–4
impetus for a millennium cohort 289
life course epidemiology 185–7, 243
and Michael Marmot 180
and origins of chronic disease 171–182, 184–8
perinatal 263
plans for a new birth cohort 321–3
search for causation in 95–103, 106, 162, 164, 172, 178, 194, 197–8
a victim of its own success 194
Escape from Disadvantage (Pilling) 5, 244
Eugenics Society 69
evidence-based policy-making 220, 238
Facebook 337–9
Feinstein Graph 222–3, 224–6, 235–6
Feinstein, Leon 221–7, 232–3, 235–6
Ferri, Elsa 82–3
Field Survey of Air-Raid Casualties 24
Finer Committee on One Parent Families 81–3
fish consumption in pregnancy 189, 202
Fitzsimons, Emla 283–4, 286, 340, 351
foetal development 174–5, 178, 182–4, 189, 191, 200
Foetal Origins Hypothesis see Barker Hypothesis
foetal programming 175, 183, 200
fog/smogs 91–2
Ford Foundation 69
Fox, John 214–15
Framingham Heart Study 102–3, 112, 175
Framingham, Massachusetts 101–3, 112, 175
Framingham Risk Score 103
Francis Crick Institute 353
Frankel, Stephen 196
Franklin, Rosalind 161
FTO gene 190–92
‘Genetic Studies of Genius’ (Terman) 38
General Register Office see Office of the Registrar General
genetics 161, 190, 193, 199, 350
Gibb, Andy 125
Glass, David 22, 25, 32, 38–40
Gleave, Gail 138–9
Golding, Jean
ambitious plans for a 1982 cohort 146–53, 253–4, 259–60
and the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (1991 cohort) 159–70, 187–95, 201
early life of 145–6
perinatal survey in Jamaica 288
planned for a new birth cohort study 147–53, 341
research on urine samples 201–2
retirement 194–5
Goldstein, Harvey 106–8, 153–5
Goldthorpe, John 233–4
Goodman, Alissa 286–7, 345, 352
grammar schools 57–63, 78–9, 110
gynaecology 144
‘Haldane Principle’ 128
Haldane Report (1918) 128
Hardy, Rebecca 192–3
Head Start Program (US) 76, 225
Health Education Council 108
heart disease,
and the 1970 cohort 348
and the Framingham Heart Study 101–2
and high infant mortality 173–5
large increase from the 1920s onwards 96
and overweight children 279, 333
and poor nutrition 178
and smoking 100
Hill, Austin Bradford 97–101, 106, 143–4, 194, 210
Himsworth, Harold 69
Home and the School, The (Douglas) 61–3
‘human agency’ 243
Human Genome Project 162–70, 190, 289
Iles, Diane 156–8
in utero experiences 176–7
income,
and the 1970 cohort 348
and childbirth 29
and deprived children 75–6
and the Pilling interviews 2–3
and property prices 336
and social mobility 228–30, 232–6, 269–70, 330, 334
inequality 30, 73, 219, 221, 228, 261, 268, 268–9, 275–6, 279, 320, 329–30
inherited wealth 336
International Centre for Child Studies (ICCS) 134, 217
International Classification of Diseases (ICD) 36
iodine 202
Jay, Michael 247–9
Jerrim, John 225–6
Johnson, President Lyndon B. 76
Joseph Rowntree Village Trust 48
Joshi, Heather 262–5, 287, 341
Kermack, William 176
King George Hospital, Ilford 326, 354–5
Kuh, Charlotte 183
Kuh, Diana 8–9, 182–6, 296–305, 307, 341, 343–4
Kuh, Peter 183
Lamont, Norman 134
Large Facilities Capital Fund 309–10, 312–13
laughing gas see gas and air
Lennon, John 60
Leopold, Prince 31
life course epidemiology 185–6, 243, 296
literacy 236–41
lung cancer 96–101, 104, 106, 112, 143, 147, 210, 321
Machin, Stephen 228
Macmillan, Lindsey 232
Mandela, Nelson 288
Mandelson, Peter 258–9
‘marshmallow test’ 346
Mason, James 134
maternity
care 28–30
survey (1946) 19, 25, 27, 32–4, 39, 43
Maternity in Great Britain (Douglas) 27
Maternity Letters from Working Women (Women’s Co-operative Guild) 317
Maxwell, Robert 135
MC4R gene 193
Medawar, Peter 23
Medical Research Council (MRC)
birth cohorts laboratory proposal 311–2, 316, 331, 333–6, 350
funding of cohorts 69–71, 97, 110, 126–8, 133, 148, 213–4, 225, 238, 287, 299, 309, 347
little interest in a protracted data collection exercise 163
moved 1946 cohort to Bristol 119–20
parties held for 1946 cohort 298
performance assessments 299
debate about future of 1946 cohort 119, 152, 253
pressure to control its costs 296–7
reviewed the 1946 cohort 170–72, 299–300
tobacco and lung cancer link 100
Medical Research Ethics Committee 264
‘Memorandum on the Procedure’ 18
Mendel, Gregor 197
Mendelian randomization 197
middle-classes 28, 61, 74, 93, 107, 145, 197, 223–4, 228, 232, 302
midwives 16, 31–2, 53, 104, 168, 281–2, 325
Milburn, Alan 232
Millennium Cohort
comparison with earlier cohorts 265–71
current status of 308–310, 314, 316, 318, 340–1, 345, 351
decision to create 257–63
Emla Fitzsimons takes charge 283–4, 286, 340, 351
and Heather Joshi 262–5, 287, 341
inequality still a topic of discussion 275–6
and obesity 278–81
and parenting 273–8
planned diary study 351
and summer-born children 282
Ministry of Home Security 24
Mischel, Walter 346
Moser, Sir Claus 239
Much Hadham (village) 174
National Birthday Trust Fund 48, 85
National Bureau for Co-operation in Childcare 65
National Children’s Bureau 65, 67, 74, 79, 82, 125, 211
National Coal Board 48
national fertility 20–22, 27, 36, 303
National Health Service (NHS),
and the 1946 cohort 267, 344, 330
a British institution 344
design and launch of 30
and inequality 51
and pain relief in childbirth 32
and pregnancy 293
restructuring of 330
spiralling costs of 45–6
and middle- and upper-class women 302
National Heart Act (US) 101
National Institutes of Health (NIH) 215, 292
national insurance 29
National Perinatal Epidemiology Unit 139, 144
neural tube defects 146
non-achievers 3–4
Nuffield Foundation 69
nursery education 68, 76, 268, 275
Obama, Barack 330
obesity 102, 176, 190–93, 196–7, 279–80, 302–3, 311, 332–3, 338, 348
obstetrics 51–55, 130, 140–1, 144, 263
Office of the Registrar General 36, 99–100
Osmond, Clive 173
Palmer, Derek (son) 14
Palmer, Edith (daughter) 14
Palmer, Gertrude Mary 13–15, 18, 57, 156, 264
Palmer, Patricia (daughter) 13–14, 57–9, 72, 115, 305–7
perinatal mortality rate 45–6, 51–2, 105–7
Perinatal Mortality Survey (1958) 46–9, 55, 141, 145
pethidine 52
Philip, Prince 32
phonics 80
Pinch, The (Willetts) 316
placentas
cotyledons 201
David Barker’s fascination with role of 178
plans to study in Life Study cohort 324
in storage, as part of 1991 cohort 6, 157–8, 168, 195, 200–201
Plowden Committee 63–4, 66–7, 71
Plowden, Lady Bridget 63
pollution 91–4, 109–110, 113, 167, 318–20, 323
Population Investigation Committee 19, 20–22, 85, 284
Porter, Christine 131–3
poverty
and the 1946 cohort 13, 29, 36, 42–3, 81–3
and the 1970 cohort 241
link to reading 245
and parenting 275–8
Poverty: A Study of Town Life (Rowntree) 42
pre-eclampsia 288
‘prediabetes’ 117
pregnancy
alcohol consumption during 198-9
and Life Study 324–6
and foetal growth 178
and increased medical intervention in 141
and Jean Golding’s plans for 1982 cohort 149–50, 198–9
and pollution 320
prematurity 27, 44, 51, 75, 149
and smoking 103–9
and starvation 176
working during 43–4
see also birth; childbirth; maternity; perinatal mortality rate; placentas; stillbirth
Pringle, Mia Kellmer
and the 1958 cohort 71–2, 74, 78, 152
and the 1982 video shoot 153–5
celebrated 21st birthday of 1958 cohort 125–6
life of 64–6
plan for an institution to mount cohort studies 154, 312
provided typed notes for use of 1958 cohort 212
retirement 129–30
secured government funding for 1958 cohort 127
and Sir Keith Joseph 76
punched cards 26–7, 38, 70–71, 120
qualitative/quantitative methods 211
Queen’s Diamond Jubilee 313
questionnaires 17–19, 25–6, 49–50, 73, 99, 129, 132, 138, 165, 170, 184, 293
randomized controlled trials 143–5, 151, 194, 220, 253
rationing 45, 196, 265, 298, 320, 330
Reed, Howard 228
‘Report upon the Mortality of Lunatics’ (Farr) 37
Research Councils UK Executive Group 309
Research and Experiments Department, Ministry of Home Security 24
Research Unit Bicycle 70
‘risk factor’ for chronic disease 102
Roosevelt, Franklin D. 101
Rowett Institute for Nutrition and Health 195
Rowntree, Griselda 16
Rowntree, Joseph 48
Rowntree, Seebohm 42
Sabates, Ricardo 269–71
schizophrenia 113, 118, 177, 180
secondary modern schools 58, 60, 77–8
Skills for Life programme 239–40
Smith, George Davey 195–201, 284, 291, 350, 371
smoking 49, 96–101–9, 112–13, 182–3, 210, 302, 321, 335, 340
smoking in schoolboys survey 210
social mobility
role of private schools and elite universities 348
absolute and relative 227–8
Golden Age 227–8
in the 1958 and 1970 cohorts 227–36
and the millennium cohort 269
parenting as the new law of 276
strategy 235
Social Sciences Research Council (SSRC) 71–2, 127, 209, 213
see also Economic and Social Research Council
South Africa 288
Stiglitz, Joseph 183
streptomycin 143–4
Struggle for Population, The (publication) 20
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) see cot deaths
Sullivan, Alice 285–7, 338–40, 348,
Sunday Times 74
Sutton Trust 232–3
Tawney, R. H. 76
Terman, Lewis 37–8
‘Termites’ 38 see ‘Genetic Studies of Genius’ (Terman)
Thatcher, Margaret 74, 79, 127–8, 133–4, 151–2, 213, 220, 315
tissue store (Bristol) 157–9
Tobacco Research Council 48
Toynbee, Polly 7
Truman, President 101
tuberculosis 92, 95, 101–2, 143–4
Twilight of Parenthood, The (Charles) 20
UK Data Archive at Essex University 206
‘Unequal Start, The’ (Sunday Times) 74
United States
and autopsies of American soldiers 118
and the baby boom 27
and Caesarean-section births 325
and cardiovascular disease 101–2
Child Health and Development Study (1959) 94, 112–13
and Collaborative Perinatal Project 94, 112–13
and National Children’s Study 291–5
NIH provides money for 1958 cohort 215
and nursery education 76
and ‘prediabetes’ 117
small studies to trace cohorts of young children 37
social mobility in 230
University of Essex 205–212, 255
University of London 70
upper-classes 20, 28, 58, 61, 68, 223–4, 227, 232, 268, 301–2
Variety Club of Great Britain 48
Vibrio cholerae (bacterium) 95
Vignoles, Anna 225–6
village life in Hampshire survey 209
Wadsworth, Michael
and the 1946 cohort 113–16, 125, 152, 179–80
and the Bedford diabetes survey 117–18
blood pressure study 171–2, 175
and Diana Kuh 182–4
funding for DNA samples for 1946 cohort 191–2
glimpsing early signs of chronic disease 118–21
MRC reviews 1946 cohort 170–71, 298
retirement of 296
and the Whitehall Study 181
video shoot (1982) 153–5
war brides 18
Watson, James 161
Wedge, Peter 76–7
Wilkins, Maurice 161
William I, King 33–4
Wilson, Harold 62
Wood, Rebecca 266–7
Wood, Thomas 266
working-classes,
and antenatal care 28
and Carol Dezateux 317
and the eugenics movement 20
and Harvey Goldstein 107
and James Douglas 61–2, 74–5, 89, 93, 272
and Leon Feinstein 223–4
Patricia Palmer 305
and reading 241
and social mobility 227–8, 232
World Health Organization (WHO) 159–60, 319
World Medical Association 165–6
Young, J. Z. 22–3
Youth Opportunities programme 217