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9
Introducing Project Human Resource Management
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CERTIFICATION OBJECTIVES
Project human resource management is a multifaceted task. It requires the ability to
lead, direct, and orchestrate the project team, customers, project partners, contributors,
and any other stakeholders to achieve the desired results for the project’s purpose.
Project managers cannot, and must not, do everything. They must rely on the project
team to complete the project work. Have you ever worked on a project in which the
project manager wanted to do all the work? Or the project manager assigned the mundane
tasks to the project team and did the most important activities himself? Or the project
manager completed the activities with the highest exposure? Not good. Project managers
must delegate activities.
Project human resource management relies on the general management skills discussed
in Chapter 2:
Leading Communicating
Negotiating
Problem solving
Influencing
Project managers must find ways to motivate the project team to complete the work.
There is a tendency in many projects for the project team to be excited about the
project at the start, and then the excitement wanes as the project moves toward completion.
The project manager must coach and mentor to develop the project team to ensure that
the excitement, willingness, and dedication to the project work continue.
Throughout the project, the project manager will have to address project team retention,
labor relations, performance appraisals, and, depending on the nature of the project
work, health and safety issues. As most projects are new and temporary, so, too, are
the relationships between the project team members and the project manager.
As the project progresses, the number of stakeholders in the project may change. The
project manager and the project team will need to be aware of the coming influx of
stakeholders and how this change may affect the dynamics of the project team and the
project work. An approach to project human resources may work well in one phase of
the project but not in another due to the stakeholders who have become involved.
Project human resource management may not be completely in the hands of the project
manager. The performing organization’s HR department may have control over the majority
of the assignment and recruitment of the project team. It’s important for the project
manager to know his responsibility, power, and autonomy in order to comply with the
organization’s policies.
CERTIFICATION OBJECTIVE 9.01
Preparing for Human Resource Planning
Human resource planning is the process of mapping the project’s roles, responsibilities,
and reporting relationships to the appropriate people or groups of people. HR planning
identifies the people involved with the project and determines their role in the project,
their overall influence on the project work, and to whom they may report/ from whom
they may receive a report.
Consider a project to create a community park. The project manager works for a commercial
entity that will complete the project work. She identifies the people responsible
for activities within her organization—the designers, engineers, installers, management,
and so on. She will also have functional managers who coordinate employees’ availability,
financing to arrange procurement of resources needed for project completion, and senior
management to report the status of the project work.
The project manager will also work and communicate with government officials for approval
of the design, change requests, and overall schedule of the project. There’ll be safety
issues, landscaping questions, and other concerns that will come up as the project
progresses.
Finally, the project manager will likely communicate with stakeholders that are not
internal to her organization—for example, the people who live in the community and
enjoy the park and various government officials. These stakeholders will need to be
involved in the planning and design of the park to ensure that it satisfies the community’s
needs.
As you can see, HR can involve both internal and external stakeholders. In most projects,
organizational planning happens early in the project planning phase—but it should
be reviewed and adjusted as the environment changes. Organizational planning is all
about ensuring that the project performs properly for the environment in which it
is working. Much of organizational planning focuses on communications, which we’ll
cover in the next chapter.
The human resource plan defines four terms for the project management team: The role
is the generic project team name, such as application developer or instructor. The
authority is the level of decision-making ability a project team member has. The responsibility
includes the actions and expectations of project team members to complete project
work. Competency refers to the project role’s depth of skills, knowledge, and experience
in the project.
Identifying the Project Interfaces
Project interfaces are the people and groups the project manager and the project team
will work with to complete the project. There are five types of interfaces:
Organizational interfaces These are the folks within the performing organization who the project team will
work with to complete the project work. For example, a project to install a centralized,
real-time database for customer orders and manufacturing will require the sales, finance,
manufacturing, and information technology organizational units to be involved. The
different organizational units may all be involved throughout the project life, or
their level of involvement may fluctuate, depending on the project needs.
Technical interfaces The technical interfaces describe the relationship between the project and the
technical disciplines’ input to the project. Consider a project to create a new building.
The technical interfaces would include architects, mechanical engineers, structural
engineers, and others. These interfaces would be involved throughout the project phases—and
also between project phases for inspections, change requests, and so on.
Interpersonal interfaces Interpersonal interfaces describe the reporting relationships among the people
working on the project. Depending on the nature of the project and the information
to be shared, the communication can be informal, such as a hallway meeting, or formal,
such as a variance report.
Logistical interfaces Project managers must consider the logistics of the project stakeholders. This
means the project manager needs to know whether they’re collocated, what time zones
may be in play, and even the countries of the stakeholders involved.
Political interfaces Ah, there’s always politics isn’t there? The project manager must consider the
individual goals of the stakeholders, their informal power with the organization,
and whether formal or informal alliances exist.
Identifying the Resource Requirements
Every project needs people to complete the work. Resource requirements are the identified
roles needed on a project to complete the assigned work. For example, a project to
install a new telephone system throughout a campus would require a menagerie of workers
with varying skill sets: hardware and software gurus, telephony experts, electricians,
installers, and others. The identified staff would be pulled from the resource pool.
Any skills gaps would need to be addressed through staff acquisition, additional training,
or procurement.
Sometimes project managers are influenced by the halo effect, when one positive attribute
of a person influences a decision based solely on perception. For example, Bob is
a great software developer, so he’d naturally be a great project manager for software
projects. In reality, there’s no evidence that just because Bob’s extremely skilled
at software development that he’d also be a good project manager.
Identifying the Project Constraints
Constraints limit. When it comes to human resource constraints, the project manager
is dealing with many factors that limit options for project completion. This is where
creativity comes into play: The project manager must find a creative way to acquire,
schedule, or train the needed resources to complete the project. Common constraints
include the following:
Organizational structure Recall the organizational structures: functional, weak matrix, balanced matrix,
strong matrix, and projectized. The project manager’s authority in the organization
is relevant to the organizational structure he is forced to work within.
When a labor union’s policies and rules are identified as a constraint, the union
or group is considered a project stakeholder.
Collective bargaining agreements The contractual agreements between employee groups, unions, or other labor organizations
may serve as a constraint on the project. In these instances, there may be additional
reporting relationships regarding the project status, work, and performance of project
team members.
Project management preferences If a project manager has had success with the organization and the management of
a project team in the past, she will most likely want to re-create the success by
following the same model. Current projects should emulate successful historical projects.
Staffing Based on the competencies and talent of the project team, the assignments to activities
are created. Project organization, scheduling, and workflow are often dependent on
the abilities of the project team.
Procurement When a particular qualification, skill, or specific person is requested as part
of the project requirement, this requirement becomes a constraint on the project.
CERTIFICATION OBJECTIVE 9.02
Completing Organizational Planning
Organizational planning calls upon the project manager to consider the requirements
of the project and the stakeholders involved—and how the nature of the project will
require the project manager and the project team to interact with the stakeholders.
In addition, the project manager has to consider the project team itself and how the
team will be managed, led, and motivated to complete the project work according to
plan.
The goal of organizational planning is to identify and plan for the constraints and
opportunities brought about by the nature of the project work, the team’s competence,
and the demands of the performing organization and stakeholders. Scores of books have
been written on organizational planning, theory, and project team motivation. The
goal of this conversation is to help you know the essentials to pass the PMP exam.
Relying on Templates
All projects are somewhat different, but some may resemble historical projects. This
resemblance to historical projects allows the project manager to use proven plans
as templates for current projects. Specifically, in light of organizational planning,
the project manager can use the roles and responsibility matrixes and the reporting
structure of historical projects as models for the current project. As a rule, current
projects should emulate successful historical projects.
Applying Human Resource Practices
The performing organization will likely have policies and procedures for the project
manager to follow. Enterprise environmental factors, usually through management or
a human resources department, should specify
Job responsibilities
Reporting structures
The project manager’s role and autonomy
Policies regarding project team member discipline
The definition for customized organizational terms, such as coach, mentor, or champion
Relating to Organizational Theories
A project manager can rely on many different organizational theories to identify weaknesses
and strengths, guide the project team, and move the project forward. The entire context
of these theories is beyond the scope of this book; however, you should be familiar
with several of these theories to pass the PMP exam.
See the video “Human Resource Theories.”Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow’s hierarchy asserts that people work to take care of a hierarchy of needs.
The pinnacle of their needs is self-actualization. People want to contribute, prove
their work, and use their skills and abilities. Figure 9-1 shows the pyramid of needs that all people try to ascend by fulfilling each layer,
one at a time.
FIGURE 9-1 Maslow’s hierarchy: people work for self-actualization.
Following are Maslow’s five layers of needs, from the bottom up:
Physiological Several necessities are required for human life: air, water, food, clothing, and
shelter.
Safety People need safety and security; this can include stability in life, work, and
culture.
Social People are social creatures and need love, approval, and friends.
Esteem People strive for the respect, appreciation, and approval of others.
Self-actualization At the pinnacle of needs, people seek personal growth, knowledge, and fulfillment.
Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation
According to Frederick Herzberg, a psychologist and authority on the motivation of
work, there are two catalysts for creating job satisfaction and success:
Hygiene agents These elements are the expectations all workers have: job security, a paycheck,
clean and safe working conditions, a sense of belonging, civil working relationships,
and other basic attributes associated with employment.
Motivating agents These elements motivate people to excel. They include responsibility, appreciation
of work, recognition, the chance to excel, education, and other opportunities associated
with work other than just financial rewards.
Herzberg’s theory says the presence of hygiene factors will not motivate people to
perform, as these are expected attributes. However, the absence of these elements
will demotivate performance. For people to excel, the presence of motivating factors
must exist. Figure 9-2 illustrates Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation.
FIGURE 9-2 The absence of hygiene factors causes a worker’s performance to suffer.
McGregor’s Theory of X and Y
McGregor’s theory states that management believes there are two types of workers,
good and bad, as shown in Figure 9-3:
FIGURE 9-3 Management believes X people are bad and Y people are good.
X is bad. These people need to be watched all the time, micromanaged, and distrusted. X people
avoid work, responsibility, and have no ability to achieve.
Y is good. These people are self-led, motivated, and can accomplish new tasks proactively.
Ouchi’s Theory Z
William Ouchi’s Theory Z is based on the participative management style of the Japanese.
This theory states that workers are motivated by a sense of commitment, opportunity,
and advancement. Workers in an organization subscribing to Theory Z learn the business
by moving up through the ranks of the company.
If you need a way to keep McGregor’s X and Y and Ouchi’s Z separate in your mind,
think of this: X is bad, Y is good, and Z is better.
Ouchi’s Theory Z also credits the idea of “lifetime employment.” Workers will stay
with one company until they retire because they are dedicated to the company that
is, in turn, dedicated to them.
McClelland’s Theory of Needs
David McClelland developed his acquired-needs theory based on his belief that a person’s
needs are acquired and develop over time. These needs are shaped by circumstance,
conditions, and life experiences for each individual. McClelland’s Theory of Needs
is also known as the Three Needs Theory because it asserts that each individual has
three basic needs. Depending on the person’s experiences, the order and magnitude
of each need shifts:
Need for achievement These people need to achieve so they avoid both low-risk and high-risk situations.
Achievers like to work alone or with other high achievers, and they need regular feedback
to gauge their achievement and progress.
Need for affiliation People who have a driving need for affiliation look for harmonious relationships,
want to feel accepted by people, and conform to the norms of the project team.
Need for power People who have a need for power are usually seeking either personal or institutional
power. Personal power-seekers generally want to control and direct other people. Institutional
power-seekers want to direct the efforts of others for the betterment of the organization.
McClelland developed the Thematic Apperception Test to determine what needs are driving
individuals. The test is a series of pictures, and the test taker has to create a
story about what’s happening in the picture. Through the storytelling, the test taker
will reveal which need is driving his life at that time.
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory states that people will behave based on what they expect as a result
of their behavior. In other words, people will work in relation to the expected reward
of the work. If the attractiveness of the reward is desirable to the worker, she will
work to receive the reward. People expect to be rewarded for their effort.
Management Styles
In addition to these fine theories are several different approaches to managing the
project team. Here’s a quick rundown of the four major management styles:
Autocratic The project manager makes all of the decisions.
Democratic The project team is involved in the decision-making process.
Laissez faire The project manager has a hands-off policy, and the team is entirely self-led regarding
the decision-making process.
Exceptional The project manager pays attention only to the top 10 percent and the bottom 10
percent of the project team performers.
Networking with Stakeholders
Networking and project management is all about meeting people in an organization,
in a professional society, or within a business to find contacts, stakeholders, and
influencers who may affect the project staffing. At the launch of a project, networking
events, such as luncheons, conferences, and meetings, can help the project manager
identify project stakeholders, learn about the project requirements, and influence
project decisions.
Charting the Project Resources
The project manager can utilize several different charts to map the hierarchy of the
project and the roles and responsibilities of the project team. These are the most
common charts:
Organizational charts These charts show how an organization, such as a company or large project team,
is ordered, reporting structures, and the flow of information.
Organizational breakdown structure Although these charts are similar to the WBS, the breakdown is by department, by
units, or by team.
Resource breakdown structure This type of chart breaks down the project by types of resources utilized, no matter
where the resource is being utilized in the project.
Responsibility assignment matrix chart This chart type designates the roles and responsibilities of the project team.
RACI chart This chart designates each team member against each project activity as Responsible,
Accountable, Consult, or Inform (RACI). A RACI chart is technically a type of responsibility
assignment matrix chart.
CERTIFICATION OBJECTIVE 9.03
Preparing for Project Team Management
Organizational planning is part of the overall planning process, so it, too, is iterative.
The outputs of organizational planning should be reviewed periodically throughout
the project to ensure completeness and accuracy. Should events, people, or stakeholders
change during the project, the following outputs of organizational planning should
be updated to reflect the changes.
Creating the Role and Responsibility Assignments
Some slick definitions for roles and responsibilities include the following:
Role Defines the accountable person by label or title
Authority Has the authority to assign project resources, make decisions, and sign off on
project documents
Responsibility Defines the work assigned to a project team member
Competency Determines what skill set is needed to complete an activity
The assignment of the roles and responsibilities determines what actions the project
manager, project team member, or individual contributor will have in the project.
Roles and responsibilities generally support the project scope, since this is the
required work for the project.
An excellent tool that the project manager should create is the responsibility assignment
matrix (RAM). A RAM can be high-level—for example, mapping project groups to the high-level
components of a WBS, such as architecture, network, or software creation. A RAM can
also be specific to the activities within the project work. Figure 9-4 is an example of a RAM.
FIGURE 9-4 A responsibility assignment matrix (RAM) can map work to project team members.
Creating an Organizational Chart
An organizational chart can help the project manager and the project team identify
the reporting relationships among the project team, management, and other key stakeholders.
Figure 9-5 is an example of an organizational chart, or org chart. The org chart can help the
project manager identify what communication protocols are used in a large project.
Org charts can also identify the relationship of team members and contributors in
a smaller project.
FIGURE 9-5 Organizational charts identify reporting relationships within the project.
An organizational breakdown structure (OBS) is also an organizational chart. This
tool, however, identifies the organizational units or departments and what work packages
they are responsible for within the project.
Creating a Staffing Management Plan
The staffing management plan, part of the human resource plan, details how project
team members will be brought onto the project and excused from the project. It also
defines how long the project resources will be needed—something that’s important in
all organizational structures, but especially so in the matrix environment. This subsidiary
plan documents the process the project manager is expected to complete to bring new
project team members aboard based on the conditions of the project.
For example, a project may require an application developer in the third phase of
the project. The project manager may have to complete a job description of what the
application developer will be responsible for, how her time will be used, and how
long the role is needed on the project. HR or other functional managers may have to
approve the request.
Management may also want to see a resource histogram, as Figure 9-6 illustrates, so they may plan employees’ time and activities accordingly. Management
may elect to hold off on the launch of a project based on the requirement for resources
and the conflict with business cycles or other projects with higher priorities within
the organization.
FIGURE 9-6 Resource histograms are bar charts that illustrate the utilization of labor.
Each performing organization will likely have policies and procedures that should
be documented and followed to bring resources onto the project team. In addition,
the organization may have similar ways to excuse project team members from a project
once their contribution has been completed.
The staffing management plan should do the following:
Detail how project team members are brought onto and released from the project
Account for employees’ time on the project
Use employees as needed and when needed
Define timetables outlining when project team members are needed
Provide resource calendars
Define the training needs and plans for the project team
Remove or reduce worries about employment by communicating the expected need for
resources
Define the project’s reward and recognition system
Define the project’s compliance with government regulations, union contracts, and
policies and procedures
Include a staff release plan to define how project team members will be released
from the project so labor costs are recorded accurately
Scheduling unneeded resources is a waste of time and money. Schedule resources on
a project only when they are needed. Functional managers may want you, the project
manager, to schedule resources on a project even though you don’t need them. Not only
is this outside of the staffing management plan, it is a violation of the project
management Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct.
Documenting the Supporting Detail
The details influencing project decisions should be documented. This supporting detail
allows the project manager and management to reflect on why decisions were made. Supporting
details may include the following:
Organizational impact The project manager should identify the reasoning behind the decisions that were
made. Specifically, if alternatives were identified, the project manager should explain
why the alternatives were not selected in lieu of the plans that were created. This
information can prove valuable later in the project if management needs to know the
rationale behind the project manager’s decisions.
Job descriptions These position descriptions define the job requirements, responsibilities, authority,
and other details about the positions within the project team.
Training needs If the project team needs training in any area to complete the required work of
the project scope, the project manager should identify and document the needs of the
project team. Information on the type of training needed, the cost, the modality,
and the reasoning why the training choice was selected should be included in this
documentation.
CERTIFICATION OBJECTIVE 9.04
Acquiring the Project Human Resources
Have you ever managed a project in which the resources you want on the project are
not available? Or have you managed a project in which the resources you’ve been assigned
aren’t the best resources to complete the project work? Staff acquisition is the process
of getting the needed resources on the project team to complete the project work.
Staff acquisition focuses on working within the policies and procedures of the performing
organization to obtain the needed resources to complete the project work. Negotiation,
communication, and political savvy are the keys to getting the desired resources on
the project team.
A project needs a project team. Actually, a project needs a good, qualified, competent project team. Their competency, experience, and availability will directly influence
the success of the project. Armed with this notion, the project manager may rely on
a few different tools and techniques to obtain the needed project team resources.
Referring to the Human Resource Plan
The project manager will rely on the human resource plan as an input to acquiring
project team members. The human resource plan details how project team members will
be brought on to the project and excused from the project as conditions within the
project demand. The human resource plan includes the staffing management plan and
is a subsidiary plan that documents the staffing requirements of the project.
Examining the Staffing Pool
In some organizations, the project manager has little or no say regarding project
team assignments. Not fun. In other organizations, project managers have the ability
to recruit, or at least influence, the project team assignments and should ask questions
about the following:
Availability Will the project team members desired for the project be available? Project managers
should confer with functional managers on the availability of the potential team members.
Ability What is the competency and proficiency of the available project team members?
Experience What is the experience of the project team members? Have they done similar work
in the past—and have they done it well?
Interest level Are the project team members interested in working on this project?
Costs How much will each individual team member cost the project?
When recruitment policies or guidelines are in place within the performing organization,
they act as a project constraint.
Recruiting Project Team Members
The project manager has to follow the rules of the organizations involved in the project.
For example, an organization may forbid a project manager from approaching a worker
directly to discuss her availability and desire to work on a project. The project
manager may instead have to speak with the employee’s functional manager to obtain
the resource.
Working with Preassigned Staff
Project team members are often preassigned to a project for a number of reasons, such
as the following:
The individual is available.
He was promised as part of a competitive contract.
She was required as part of the project charter of an internal project.
The staff member has an opportunity to complete on-the-job training.
Whatever the reasoning behind the assignment of the staff to the project, the project
manager should evaluate the project team for skills gaps, the availability to complete
the project work, and the expectations of the project team members. The project manager
must address any discrepancies between the requirements of the project work and the
project team members’ ability to complete the work.
Negotiating for Resources
Most projects require that the project manager negotiate for resources. The project
manager will likely have to negotiate with functional managers to obtain the needed
resources to complete the project work. The functional managers and the project manager
may struggle over an employee’s time due to demands in ongoing operations, other projects,
and the effective utilization of resources. In other instances, functional managers
may want to assign underutilized resources on projects to account for their employees’
time.
Project managers may also have to negotiate with other project managers to share needed
resources among projects. Scheduling the needed resources between the project teams
will need to be coordinated so that both projects may complete successfully.
An organization’s politics certainly come into play with staff acquisitions. Functional
managers may want project managers to carry extra resources on the project in exchange
for key personnel, added deliverables to the project, or other “favors” for the manager.
In all instances, the project manager should follow the PMI Code of Ethics and Professional
Conduct. We’ll discuss this infamous code of conduct in Chapter 13.
Acquiring Staff
In some instances, the project manager may have no alternative but to procure the
project team or individuals to complete the project work. Procurement will be discussed
in detail in Chapter 12. In regard to project team procurement, reasons why the project manager can use this
alternative include, but are not limited to, the following:
The performing organization lacks the internal resources with the needed skills
to complete the project work.
The work is more cost-effective to procure.
The project team members are present within the organization, but they are not available
for the current project due to their workload in their current job.
The project team members are present within the organization, but they cannot complete
the needed work due to other project assignments.
Working with Virtual Teams
Virtual teams are project teams that share a common goal—to complete the project work—but
they are not collocated and may rarely, if ever, meet face-to-face with other project
team members. The virtual team relies on e-mail, video, and telephone conferences
to communicate on the project. Virtual teams allow the following:
Teams composed of geographically dispersed individuals
The ability to add experts to the project team that may not be in the same geographical
area
The inclusion of workers from home offices
The ability to create project teams of individuals with varying working hours
The inclusion of people with mobility handicaps
The deletion or reduction of travel expenses
Rating Potential Project Team Members
On high-profile projects you may have a need to score the project team members based
on their abilities, availabilities, costs, experiences, and other factors. This approach
to project team creation and selection is sometimes called the multi-criteria decision
analysis because the project management staff can use multiple factors to score values
that are needed for the project. This scoring approach can be used to qualify a person
to be part of the project team, but it could also be used to filter out people who
don’t qualify for the project team based on factors (such as years of experience,
associated costs, or required abilities).
Assembling the Project Team
Congratulations! The project team has been recruited or assigned to the project. With
the project team assembled, the project manager can continue planning, assigning activities,
and managing the project’s progression. Project team members can be assigned to the
project on a full- or part-time basis, depending on the project conditions.
Once the project team is built, a project team directory should be assembled that
includes the following:
Team members’ names
Phone numbers
E-mail addresses
Mailing addresses if not collocated
Contact information for key stakeholders
Any other relevant contact information for each team member, such as photos, web
addresses, and so on
CERTIFICATION OBJECTIVE 9.05
Developing the Project Team
Throughout the project, the project manager will need to develop the project team.
The project manager may have to develop the abilities of the individual team members
so that they can complete their assignments. The project manager will also be required
to develop the project team as a whole so that the team can work together to complete
the project.
In matrix organizations, the project team members are accountable to the project manager
and their functional managers. The development of the project team can prove challenging
because the project team members may feel pulled between multiple bosses. The project
manager must strive to involve and develop the project team members as individuals
completing project work—and as team members completing the project objectives together.
Preparing to Develop the Project Team
The project manager will rely on several pieces of information to prepare for team
development, such as the following:
Staff assignments The assignments of the project team members define their skills, their need for
development, and their ability to complete the project work as individuals and as
part of the collective team.
Human resource plan The human resource plan defines the training needs, the reward and recognition
systems, and the process for disciplinary actions.
Resource calendars Project managers will use the resource calendar to determine when resources are
needed and when they’re available to participate in team development activities.
Leading Project Team Development
Because of the temporary and short-term nature of projects, it can be tough for a
group of strangers to come together, form relationships, and immediately create a
successful project. Team development is the guidance, direction, and leadership the
project manager offers to influence a project team.
The project managers are the power behind the project team. Although the project manager
may encounter some resistance of the project team to cooperate with complete assigned
duties, or participate as requested, the project team should realize that the project
manager is the project authority.
The project manager wields five types of authority:
Expert The authority of the project manager comes from experience with the technology
the project focuses on.
Reward The project manager has the authority to reward the project team.
Formal The project manager has been assigned by senior management and is in charge of
the project; this is also known as positional power.
Coercive The project manager has the authority to discipline the project team members. This
is also known as penalty power. When the team is afraid of the project manager, it’s
coercive, and, as you might guess, this is usually not an effective management style.
Referent There are several different types of referent power, depending on the situation.
The most common definition is that the project team personally knows the project manager.
Referent can also mean the project manager refers to the person who assigned him the
position—for example, “The CEO assigned me to this position, so we’ll do it this way.”
Finally, referent power can also mean the project team wants to work on the project
or with the project manager due to the high priority and impact of the project.
These powers are appropriate by design or by conditions within the project at different
times. At the onset of the project or as part of enterprise environmental factors,
ground rules should be established for the project team. Ground rules set the boundaries,
establish expectations, and ensure that all members of the team are playing by the
same set of rules. Once ground rules have been established and discussed among the
project team, the entire project team—not just the project manager—is responsible
for enforcing the rules.
Creating Team-Building Activities
Team-building activities are approaches to develop the team through facilitated events.
Events can include the following:
Training the project team
Team involvement during planning processes
Defining rules for handling team disagreements
Offsite activities
Quick team-involvement activities
Activities to improve interpersonal skills and form relationships
Naturally Developing Project Teams
There’s a general belief that project teams actually go through their own natural
development processes. These processes can shift, linger, stall, and even regress
based on the dynamics of the project team. This theory of team development was created
by educational psychologist Dr. Bruce Tuckman in 1965. Here are the five phases of
team development that project managers may face:
Forming The project team meets and learns about their roles and responsibilities on the
project. Little interaction among the project team happens in this stage, as the team
is learning about the project and project manager.
Storming The project team struggles for project positions, leadership, and project direction.
The project team can become hostile toward the project leader, challenge ideas, and
try to establish and claim positions about the project work. The amount of debate
and fury varies depending on whether the project team is willing to work together,
the nature of the project, and the control of the project manager.
Norming Project team members go about getting the project work done, begin to rely on one
another, and generally complete their project assignments.
Performing If a project team can reach the performing stage of team development, they trust
one another and work well together, and issues and problems are resolved quickly and
effectively.
Adjourning Once the project is done, the team moves on to other assignments as a unit, or
the project team is disbanded and individual team members go on to other work.
Face-to-face communication is vital to effective communications. Collocation, the
concept of project team members being physically close together, is also known as
a tight matrix. You might know this concept as a war room, the project meeting room,
or the project headquarters. Remember that collocation helps project team members
communicate quickly and through ad hoc conversations.Relying on General Management Skills
A chunk of project management relies on general management skills. Specifically, the
project manager relies on the following:
Leading Leading is the art of establishing direction, aligning people, and motivating the
project team to complete the project work.
Communicating Good project managers are good communicators. Remember that half of communicating
is listening.
Negotiating Project managers will likely negotiate for scope, cost, terms, assignment, and
resources.
Problem solving Project managers must have the ability to confront and solve problems.
Influencing Project managers use their influence to get things done.
Rewarding the Project Team
A reward and recognition system encourages, emphasizes, and promotes good performance
and behavior by the project team. The reward and recognition system should be a formal,
achievable approach for the project team to perform and be rewarded for their outstanding
performance.
The relationship between the requirements for the reward and the power to achieve
should not be limited. In other words, if the project manager is rewarded for completing
a project by a given date, she needs the autonomy to schedule resources and make decisions
so the goal is achievable.
The project team should be rewarded for good work and not for bad. For example, a
project team should not be rewarded for completing a crucial assignment on schedule
if the work is unacceptable because of quality issues.
Finally, the culture in which the project is taking place should also be considered.
It may be inappropriate to reward individual team members over an entire group, or
vice versa. The project manager should be aware of the cultural environment and operate
within the customs and practices of the environment to reward the project team without
causing offense.
Dealing with Team Locales
Collocated teams work physically close together to improve team dynamics and team
relations. On large projects, it may be particularly valuable to bring all of the
project team members together to a central location to work collectively on the project.
A project headquarters or war room may be ideal.
When collocation is not feasible, the project manager must make attempts to bring
the project team together for team interaction, face-to-face meetings, and other avenues
of communication to bolster relations.
Training the Project Team
The project team may require training to complete the project work, function as a
project team, or participate in management skills such as finance or formal communications.
Training can include the following:
Formal education
Classroom training
On-the-job training
Cross training (shadowing)
Examining the Results of Team Development
Team development is an ongoing process. Optimum team performance doesn’t happen on
the first day of the project, but hopefully it does kick in well before the final
day of the project. The primary goal of team development is to improve project team
performance. Improvements can include the following:
Individuals Improvements to individual skill sets may allow the individual to complete his
assigned work better, faster, or with more confidence.
Team Improvements to the project team may allow the team to perform with a focus on
technical requirements, project work, and working together (in harmony) to complete
the project work.
Individuals and team Improvements either to team members or to the project team as a whole may lead
to the better good of the project by finding better ways of completing the project
work.
Another result of team development is the input to performance reviews of the project
team members. Hopefully, all goes well and the project manager can report successful,
willing, and cooperative team members. Honesty is paramount in reporting the performance
of project team members.
CERTIFICATION OBJECTIVE 9.06
Managing the Project Team
Wouldn’t it be great if the project team just did what was assigned to them and did
it well? And the project manager could then just organize, document, and plan for
future phases of the project? Sure, it would—but then project management would be
way, way too easy. One of the trickiest parts of project management is managing the
project team, which involves the following (and then some):
Tracking individual project team members’ performance
Providing feedback to the project team members about their performance and project
work
Finding solutions and facilitating conversations to find solutions for project issues
Managing changes to the project and project processes to improve overall project
performance
Providing communications among the project team, project stakeholders, and in a
matrix structure, communicating with functional managers
Communicating with the Project Team
We’ll dive into communications in detail in the next chapter, but there are some obvious
demands on the project manager to communicate with the project team members to manage
them. Before talking, however, the project manager needs to observe the project team
members. This means paying attention to the work, the work results, the attitude,
project team accomplishments, and any interpersonal issues among team members. Knowing
what to discuss with the project team is more important than just talking. Communication
is a paramount factor in project team management.
Completing Project Performance Appraisals
Project team members need feedback. They need to know when they’re doing a good job
and a not-so-good job. But before the project manager can begin offering appraisals,
organizational policies and procedures must determine the type of appraisals the project
manager provides. The project manager should understand the organizational policies,
labor contracting requirements, and whether the project even qualifies for formal
appraisals. Smaller, lower-priority projects may not need appraisals at all.
One popular approach for completing project team member appraisals is the 360-degree
feedback approach. This method offers appraisals from more than just the project manager.
They can also come from peers, supervisors, managers, and even project team members’
subordinates.
Dealing with Team Disagreements
In most projects, there will be instances when the project team, management, and other
stakeholders disagree on the progress, decisions, and proposed solutions within the
project. It’s essential for the project manager to keep calm, lead, and direct the
parties to a sensible solution that’s best for the project. Following are seven reasons
for conflict:
1. Schedules
2. Priorities
3. Resources
4. Technical beliefs
5. Administrative policies and procedures
6. Project costs
7. Personalities
So what’s a project manager to do with all the potential for strife in a project?
A project manager can take five different approaches to conflict resolution:
Problem solving This approach confronts the problem head-on and is the preferred method of conflict
resolution. You may see this approach as “confronting” rather than problem solving,
however. Problem solving calls for additional research to find the best solution for
the problem and should be a win-win solution. It should be used if there is time to
work through and resolve the issue. It also serves to build relationships and trust.
Forcing The person with the power makes the decision; the person with the power “forces”
their way onto the other parties. The decision made may not be the best decision for
the project, but it’s fast. As expected, this autocratic approach does little for
team development and is a win-lose solution. It’s used when the stakes are high and
time is of the essence, or if relationships are not important.
Compromising This approach requires that both parties give up something. The decision made is
a blend of both sides of the argument. Because neither party really wins, it is considered
a lose-lose solution. The project manager can thus use this approach when the relationships
are equal and no one can truly “win.” This approach can also be used to avoid a fight.
Smoothing Smoothing “smoothes” out the conflict by minimizing the perceived size of the problem.
It is a temporary solution but can calm team relations and boisterous discussions.
Smoothing may be acceptable when time is of the essence or when none of the proposed
solutions will settle the problem. This can be considered a lose-lose situation because
no one really wins in the long term. The project manager can use smoothing to emphasize
areas of agreement between disagreeing stakeholders, thus minimizing areas of conflict.
It’s typically used to maintain relationships and when the issue is not critical.
Withdrawal This is the worst conflict resolution approach because one side of the argument
essentially walks away from the problem, usually in disgust. The conflict is not resolved,
and it is considered a yield-lose solution, because the “loser” in the argument yields
to the other person’s point of view. The approach can be used, however, as a cooling-off
period or when the issue is not critical.
INSIDE THE EXAM
Most project managers taking the PMP exam can rely on their practical experience to
ace these questions. But as reinforcement, let’s examine some key issues you should
know going into the examination. Project human resource management questions on the
exam center around four big points:
Role Defines the accountable person by label or title
Authority Provides the authority to assign project resources, make decisions, and sign off
on project documents
Responsibility Describes the work assigned to a project team member
Competency Determines what skill set is needed to complete an activity
Because project managers are responsible for the success of the project, they have
power that they can exert over the project team. Table 9-1 is a quick list of project manager powers. You may encounter six organizational theories
on the exam:
TABLE 9-1 The Powers of the Project Manager
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs People don’t work for money, but for self-actualization.
Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation The presence of hygiene factors doesn’t motivate people; the absence of hygiene
factors, however, hinders people’s performance.
McGregor’s Theory of X and Y X people are lazy and do not want to work. Y people are self-led, motivated, and
want to accomplish tasks.
Ouchi’s Theory Z Workers and management cooperate for the good of the organization. Everyone wins!
McClelland’s Theory of Needs People have three needs: achievement, affiliation, and power. One of these needs
drives the person’s actions.
Expectancy Theory People expect to be rewarded for their behavior.
Many methods can be used to resolve conflicts in a project. Table 9-2 lists various resolution methods you should know.
TABLE 9-2 Various Conflict Resolution Methods
CERTIFICATION SUMMARY
Project human resources management requires that the project manager lead and direct
the project team, customers, and other stakeholders in unison to complete the project
scope. It requires working within the confines of the organizational policies, as
well as the ability to relate to the concerns and expectations of the stakeholders.
Perhaps most importantly, it is tightly integrated with project communications management.
The PMP candidate should be familiar with several human resource theories to pass
the PMP examination successfully. Here’s a quick listing of these theories and their
core beliefs:
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs People work for self-actualization.
Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation Hygiene agents are expected by workers and can demotivate only if they aren’t present.
Motivating agents include the opportunity both to exceed and advance, and to acquire
rewards other than mere financial gain.
McGregor’s Theory of X and Y This is a management theory that believes X people have to be micromanaged and
distrusted and Y people are self-led and motivated.
Ouchi’s Theory Z Workers are motivated by a sense of commitment, opportunity, and advancement. This
theory centers on lifetime employment.
McClelland’s Theory of Needs People have three needs: achievement, affiliation, and power. One of these needs
drives the person’s actions.
Expectancy Theory People behave based on what they expect as a result of their behavior.
Within a project are roles and responsibilities. A role can be defined as “who does
what,” and a responsibility can be defined as “who decides what.” A responsibility
assignment matrix (RAM) can map project work to specific project team members. This
matrix clarifies which project team member is responsible for what actions within
the project.
The RAM can help the project manager determine which resources are needed for which
activities, but can also ensure that the adequate amount of resources is assigned
to the project work. The project manager must work to ensure that extra resources
are not assigned to project activities. It is wasteful to add unneeded resources to
project work.
The staffing management plan dictates how resources are brought on to the project—and
taken off the project. The plan serves as an input to staff acquisition. Should a
functional manager want to add unneeded team members, the staffing management plan
can restrict the functional manager. The plan should work with the operational policies
of the performing organization.
KEY TERMS
If you’re serious about passing the PMP exams, memorize these terms and their definitions.
For maximum value, create your own flashcards based on these definitions and review
them daily. You can find additional information on these terms in the project glossary.
360-degree appraisal A performance review completed by a person’s peers, managers, and subordinates.
It’s called a 360-degree appraisal because it’s a circle of reviews by people at different
levels of an organization.
adjourning The final stage of team development; once the project is done, the team moves on
to other assignments as a unit, or the project team is disbanded and individual team
members go on to other work.
autocratic The project manager makes all of the decisions.
coercive power The project manager uses fear and threats to manage the project team.
collective bargaining agreements Contractual agreements initiated by employee groups, unions, or other labor organizations;
they may act as a constraint on the project.
compromising A conflict resolution approach that requires both parties to give up something.
The decision ultimately made is a blend of both sides of the argument. Because neither
party completely wins, it is considered a lose-lose solution.
democratic The project team is involved in the decision-making process.
exceptional The project manager pays attention only to the top 10 percent and the bottom 10
percent of the project team performers.
Expectancy Theory People will behave on the basis of what they expect as a result of their behavior.
In other words, people will work in relation to the expected reward of the work.
expert power A type of power in which the authority of the project manager comes from experience
with the area that the project focuses on.
forcing A conflict resolution method whereby one person dominates or forces his point of
view or solution to a conflict.
formal power The type of power with which the project manager has been assigned by senior management
to be in charge of the project.
forming The initial stage of team development; the project team meets and learns about
their roles and responsibilities on the project.
halo effect When one attribute of a person influences a decision.
Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation Posits that there are two catalysts for workers: hygiene agents and motivating
agents. Hygiene agents do nothing to motivate, but their absence demotivates workers.
Hygiene agents are the expectations all workers have: job security, paychecks, clean
and safe working conditions, a sense of belonging, civil working relationships, and
other basic attributes associated with employment. Motivating agents are components
such as reward, recognition, promotion, and other values that encourage individuals
to succeed.
human resource plan Defines the management of the project human resources, timing of use, and enterprise
environmental factors to which the project manager must adhere in the organization.
laissez faire The project manager has a hands-off policy, and the team is entirely self-led regarding
the decision-making process.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs A theory that states that all humans have five layers of needs: physiological,
safety, social, esteem, and the crowning jewel, self-actualization.
McClelland’s Theory of Needs A theory that states that all humans have three needs: achievement, affiliation,
and power. One of the needs drives the person’s actions.
McGregor’s Theory of X and Y This theory states that X people are lazy, don’t want to work, and need to be micromanaged.
Y people are self-led, motivated, and strive to accomplish.
norming Project team members go about getting the project work, begin to rely on one another,
and generally complete their project assignments.
organizational breakdown structure Though these charts are similar to the WBS, the breakdown is by department, unit,
or team.
organizational charts These show how an organization, such as a company or large project team, is ordered,
its reporting structures, and the flow of information.
Ouchi’s Theory Z This theory posits that workers are motivated by a sense of commitment, opportunity,
and advancement. Workers will work if they are challenged and motivated.
performing If a project team can reach the performing stage of team development, they trust
one another, they work well together, and issues and problems get resolved quickly
and effectively.
problem solving The ability to determine the best solution for a problem in a quick and efficient
manner.
RACI chart This chart designates each team member against each project activity as Responsible,
Accountable, Consult, or Inform (RACI). It is technically a type of responsibility
assignment matrix chart.
referent power Power that is present when the project team is attracted to or wants to work on
the project or with the project manager. Referent power also exists when the project
manager references another, more powerful person, such as the CEO.
resource breakdown structure This type of chart breaks down the project by types of resources utilized on the
project no matter where the resource is being used in the project.
resource histogram A bar chart reflecting when individual employees, groups, or communities are involved
in a project. It’s often used by management to see when employees are most or least
active in a project.
responsibility The person who decides what will happen in a project regarding a particular area.
responsibility assignment matrix chart A chart type designating the roles and responsibilities of the project team.
reward power The project manager’s authority to reward the project team.
role Designates the type of activities a person performs in a project.
smoothing A conflict resolution method that smoothes out the conflict by minimizing the perceived
size of the problem. It is a temporary solution, but it can calm team relations and
reduce boisterousness of discussions. Smoothing may be acceptable when time is of
the essence or when any of the proposed solutions would work.
staffing management plan This subsidiary plan documents how project team members will be included in the
project and excused from the project. This plan is included in the human resources
plan.
storming The second stage of team development; the project team struggles for project positions,
leadership, and project direction.
virtual teams Project teams that are not collocated and that may rarely, if ever, meet face-to-face
with other project team members. The virtual team relies on e-mail, video, and telephone
conferences to communicate on the project.
war room A centralized office or locale for the project manager and the project team to
work on the project. It can house information on the project, including documentation
and support materials. It allows the project team to work in close proximity.
withdrawal A conflict resolution method that is used when the issue is not important or the
project manager is outranked. The project manager pushes the issue aside for later
resolution. It can also be used as a method for cooling down. The conflict is not
resolved, and it is considered a yield-lose solution.
TWO-MINUTE DRILLPreparing for Human Resource Planning
Project human resource management focuses on utilizing the people involved in the
project in the most effective way. These people include more than just the project
team members, although they’re the most obvious. The project manager must involve other stakeholders: customers, management, individual
contributors, the project sponsor, and any other stakeholder unique to the project.
Organizational planning calls on the project manager to identify the roles and responsibilities
of the project and the reporting relationship within the organization.
Organizational structures affect the amount of power a project manager wields in
project decisions. Project managers have the least amount of authority in a functional
environment and the largest amount in a projectized environment.
Completing Organizational Planning
Because projects are often similar, the project manager can rely on templates to
re-create the success of historical projects. Reporting structures, role and responsibility
matrixes, and other human resource models can be replicated and adjusted between projects.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs says that people work for five needs: physiological,
safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization.
Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation says that hygiene agents do not promote performance,
but their absence can lower performance. Motivating agents, such as rewards and recognition,
can improve performance.
McClelland’s Theory of Needs states that people are driven primarily by one of three
needs: achievement, affiliation, or power.
McGregor’s Theory of X and Y states that management believes there are two types
of workers. X workers are lazy, unproductive, and need to be micromanaged. Y workers
are self-led, productive, and want the organization to succeed.
Expectancy theory states that people will behave based on what they expect as a
result of their behavior.
William Ouchi’s Theory Z is based on the participative management style of the Japanese.
This theory states that workers are motivated by a sense of commitment, opportunity,
and advancement.
Preparing for Project Team Management
The staffing management plan describes the process that the project manager must
follow to bring resources on to a project or to dismiss them from a project when the
resources are no longer needed.
The policies and procedures of the performing organization should be documented
within the staffing management plan to ensure that the guidelines are followed as
management intends.
The staffing management plan also details the policies regarding how the project
manager can recruit project team members. In addition, the plan may detail the procedure
to procure resources for the project from vendors or consultants.
Acquiring the Project Human Resources
The staffing management plan, part of the human resource management plan, defines
how members will be brought on to the project team and how the team members will be
released from the project once their work has been completed. It’s not cost-effective
to keep project team members on the project once their work has been completed. This
plan is based on the project’s resource requirements.
Virtual teams are project teams that are not collocated and may rarely, if ever,
meet face-to-face with other project team members. The virtual team relies on e-mail,
video, and telephone conferences to communicate on the project. Communication demands
increase when working with virtual teams.
Developing the Project Team
Ideally, the project is collocated and has access to a war room to refer to project
information, research, schedules, and other project team members.
The goal of team development is outstanding performance for the good of the project.
Through training, the project team may increase their ability to work together and
individually, with a higher level of confidence, performance, and teamwork.
A reward and recognition system can help the project manager motivate the project
team to perform as required.
The project manager must be certain to involve the entire project team when team
members are scattered geographically. The project manager can rely on face-to-face
meetings, videoconferences, or teleconferences to promote non-collocated teams.
The result of team development is project performance improvements. The improvements
should be noted in an honest appraisal of the project team members’ efforts and contributions
to the project.
Managing the Project Team
Communicating is an important factor in managing the project team. The project manager
must communicate the expectations, responsibilities, and performance of the project
team members so they can work accordingly.
Problem solving is a conflict resolution method by which both parties work together
to find a solution. This approach is also known as confronting.
Forcing is a conflict resolution approach whereby the person with the power forces
her decision.
Compromising requires that both parties give up something they want to reach a resolution.
Smoothing smoothes out the issue by minimizing the perceived size of the problem.
It is a temporary solution but can calm team relations and boisterous discussions.
Smoothing may be acceptable when time is of the essence or when none of the proposed
solutions will settle the problem.
Withdrawal happens when one party retreats from the conflict and avoids a resolution.
SELF TEST
1. You are the project manager for the JHG Project. This project requires coordination
with the directors of manufacturing, human resources, the IT department, and the CIO.
This is an example of what type of input to organizational planning?
A. Organizational interfaces
B. Technical interfaces
C. Interpersonal interfaces
D. Human resource coordination
2. You are the project manager of the GHY Project. This project will remove old lights
throughout your building and replace the fixtures with new, cost-saving lights. In
this project you’ll work with internal and external vendors. Your project requires
an electrician at month eight. This is an example of which of the following?
A. Organizational interfaces
B. Resource requirements
C. Contractor requirements
D. Resource constraints
3. You are the project manager of the PUY Project. This project requires a chemical
engineer for seven months of the project, but there are no available chemical engineers
within your department. This is an example of which of the following?
A. Organizational interfaces
B. Resource requirements
C. Contractor requirements
D. Resource constraints
4. As a PMP you need to recognize the different organizational structures and the
expected amount of authority a project manager will have in these environments. For
example, pretend you are the project manager in an organization with a weak matrix.
Who will have the authority on your project?
A. The project manager
B. The customer
C. Functional management
D. The team leader
5. You are the project manager for the LMG Project. Your project will have several
human resource issues that must be coordinated and approved by the union. Which of
the following statements is correct about this scenario?
A. The union is considered a resource constraint.
B. The union is considered a management constraint.
C. The union is considered a project stakeholder.
D. The union is considered a project team member.
6. You are the project manager of the PLY Project. This project is similar to the
ACT Project you completed earlier. What method can you use to expedite the process
of organization planning?
A. Use the project plan of the ACT Project on the PLY Project.
B. Use the roles and responsibilities definitions of the ACT Project on the PLY Project.
C. Use the project team reward structure of the ACT Project on the PLY Project.
D. Use the project team of the ACT Project on the PLY Project.
7. In your organization, management is referred to as coaches. As a project manager,
you are referred to as a project coach. A human resource document should be created
to handle this scenario. What should it cover?
A. How coaches are separate from managers
B. How coaches are the same as managers
C. How a coach is to complete his job
D. How the project team is to work for a coach
8. You are the project manager of the JQA Project. This project will last for eight
months, and you have 12 project team members. Management has requested that you create
a chart depicting all of the project resource needs and the associated activities.
Management is looking for which type of chart?
A. A roles chart
B. A roles matrix
C. A roles and responsibilities matrix
D. A Gantt chart
9. Many theories and philosophies can affect the approach a manager uses to lead and
manage the project team. Based on your knowledge of the different management theories,
which of the following is an example of the X in Theory of X and Y?
A. Self-led project teams
B. Micromanagement
C. Team members able to work on their own accord
D. EVM
10. You are the project manager of the PLN Project. The team members are somewhat “afraid”
of you as project manager because they see you as management. They know that a negative
review from you about their project work will affect their yearly bonus. This is an
example of which of the following?
A. Formal power
B. Coercive power
C. Expert power
D. Referent power
11. You are the project manager of the MMB Project. The president of the company has
spoken to the project team about the confidence and respect he has in you to lead
the project to a successful completion. The project manager has what type of power
on this project?
A. Formal power
B. Coercive power
C. Expert power
D. Halo power
12. Management has approached Tyler, one of your project team members. Tyler is a database
administrator and developer whose work is always on time, accurate, and of quality.
He also has a reputation of being a “good guy” and is well liked. Because of this,
management has decided to move Tyler into the role of a project manager for a new
database administration project. This is an example of which of the following?
A. Management by exception
B. The halo effect
C. Management by objectives
D. McGregor’s Theory of X and Y
13. Susan is the project manager for the PMG Project. She makes all decisions on the
project team, regardless of the project team’s objections. This is an example of which
of the following management styles?
A. Autocratic
B. Democratic
C. Laissez faire
D. Exceptional
14. You are a new project manager in your company. Many of the project team members
do not know you, haven’t worked with you before, and don’t seem interested in working
on the project goal now. Some problems have come up in the project and need to be
addressed immediately for the project to be successful. Which problem-solving technique
is the best for most project management situations?
A. Confronting
B. Compromising
C. Forcing
D. Avoidance
15. Harold is an outspoken project team member. All of the project team members respect
Harold for his experience with the technology, but things usually have to be done
as Harold sees fit; otherwise, things don’t go well. During a discussion on a solution,
a project team member throws up her arms and says, “Fine, Harold, do it your way.”
This is an example of which of the following?
A. A win-win solution
B. A leave-lose solution
C. A lose-lose solution
D. A yield-lose solution
16. You are the project manager for the GBK Project. This project affects a line of
business, and the customer is anxious about the success of the project. Which of the
following is likely not a top concern for the customer?
A. Project priorities
B. Schedule
C. Cost
D. Personality conflicts
17. As a project manager in a projectized organization, you believe that projects operate
better when the project team is involved in the management processes. You like to
include the project team in decisions, listen to their input, and create a familial
environment. Which theory believes that workers need to be involved with the management
process?
A. McGregor’s Theory of X and Y
B. Ouchi’s Theory Z
C. Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation
D. The Expectancy Theory
18. Employees and employers enter into the employment contract with certain obligations.
The employee is obligated to work and perform according to requirements. The employer
is obligated to abide by the employment offer and pay the worker accordingly. Which
of the following states that as long as workers are rewarded they will remain productive?
A. McGregor’s Theory of X and Y
B. Ouchi’s Theory Z
C. Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation
D. The Expectancy Theory
19. You are the project manager for the Industrial Lights Project. You have been hired
by your organization specifically because of your vast experience with the technology
and with projects of this nature. The project team is aware of your experience. You
likely have what type of power on this project?
A. Formal power
B. Coercive power
C. Expert power
D. Referent power
20. You are the project manager for the GHB Project. You have served as a project manager
for your organization for the past ten years. Practically all of your projects are
completed on time and on budget. The project team has worked with you in the past,
and they consider you to be an expert project manager. They also like working with
you. Given all of this, you likely have what type of power on this project?
A. Formal power
B. Coercive power
C. Expert power
D. Referent power
21. Several types of power can be used in project management. Some of the powers are
based on the project manager’s experience, knowledge, perception, or even relationship.
Which of the following scenarios is an example of coercive power?
A. A project manager who has lunch with the project team every Thursday
B. A project manager who will openly punish any team member who is late with an activity
C. A project manager who has worked with the technology on the project for several
years
D. A project manager who is friends with all of the project team members
22. Charles is the project manager for the WAC Project. The customer and a project
team member are in conflict over the level of quality needed on a sampling. Charles
decides to split the difference between what the two stakeholders want. This is an
example of which of the following?
A. A win-win solution
B. A win-lose solution
C. A lose-lose solution
D. A leave-lose solution
23. Mike is the project manager for a project with a very tight schedule. The project
is running late, and Mike thinks that he does not have time to consider all the possible
solutions that two team members are in disagreement over. Mike quickly decides to
go with the team member with the largest amount of seniority. This is an example of
which of the following?
A. Problem solving
B. Compromising
C. Forcing
D. Withdrawal
24. You are a project manager in a projectized organization. Your job as a project
manager can be described best by which of the following?
A. Full-time
B. Part-time
C. Expeditor
D. Coordinator
25. You are the project manager of the NHH Project for your organization. This project
will span three countries and utilize four languages: English, Flemish, French, and
Spanish. In this project you’ll rely heavily on a virtual project. Of the following,
which one is a benefit of using a collocated team?
A. The project team is dispersed, so the team is self-led.
B. The project team is dispersed, so communication increases.
C. The project team is in the same physical location, so their ability to work as
a team is enhanced.
D. The project team is in the same physical location, so project costs are greatly
reduced.
SELF TEST ANSWERS
1. You are the project manager for the JHG Project. This project requires coordination
with the directors of manufacturing, human resources, the IT department, and the CIO.
This is an example of what type of input to organizational planning?
A. Organizational interfaces
B. Technical interfaces
C. Interpersonal interfaces
D. Human resource coordination
A. The reporting interfaces for this project—the directors of manufacturing, human resources,
the IT department, as well as the CIO—are examples of the organizational interfaces.
B is incorrect. Technical interfaces are the technical gurus for the project, such
as the engineers and designers. C, the interpersonal interfaces, is not the best choice because this relationship describes
the different individuals working on the project. D, human resource coordination, is also incorrect, as human resource coordination is
not a project management input for organizational planning.
2. You are the project manager of the GHY Project. This project will remove old lights
throughout your building and replace the fixtures with new, cost-saving lights. In
this project you’ll work with internal and external vendors. Your project requires
an electrician at month eight. This is an example of which of the following?
A. Organizational interfaces
B. Resource requirements
C. Contractor requirements
D. Resource constraints
B. Because the project requires the electrician, a project role, this is a resource
requirement.
A is incorrect because it does not accurately describe the situation. C is incorrect. Contractor requirements would specify the procurement issues, the minimum
qualifications for the electrician, and so on. D is incorrect because a resource constraint, while a tempting choice, deals more with
the availability of the resource or the requirement to use the resource.
3. You are the project manager of the PUY Project. This project requires a chemical
engineer for seven months of the project, but there are no available chemical engineers
within your department. This is an example of which of the following?
A. Organizational interfaces
B. Resource requirements
C. Contractor requirements
D. Resource constraints
B. The project needs the resource of the chemical engineer to be successful. When the
project needs a resource, it is a staffing requirement.
A, C, and D are all incorrect. This is not a situation describing an organizational interface
or contractor requirement. Resource constraints might include a requirement to use
a particular resource or that a resource must be available when certain project activities
are happening.
4. As a PMP you need to recognize the different organizational structures and the
expected amount of authority a project manager will have in these environments. For
example, pretend you are the project manager in an organization with a weak matrix.
Who will have the authority on your project?
A. The project manager
B. The customer
C. Functional management
D. The team leader
C. In a weak matrix structure, functional management will have more authority than the
project manager.
A, B, and D are all incorrect because they do not have as much authority on a project in a weak
matrix environment as functional management will have.
5. You are the project manager for the LMG Project. Your project will have several
human resource issues that must be coordinated and approved by the union. Which of
the following statements is correct about this scenario?
A. The union is considered a resource constraint.
B. The union is considered a management constraint.
C. The union is considered a project stakeholder.
D. The union is considered a project team member.
C. In this instance, the union is considered a project stakeholder because it has a
vested interest in the project’s outcome.
A is incorrect because the union is not a resource constraint—it is interested in the
project management methodology and the project human resource management. B is incorrect. The union is the counterweight to the management of the organization—not
to the project itself. D is also incorrect. The union is not a project team member.
6. You are the project manager of the PLY Project. This project is similar to the
ACT Project you completed earlier. What method can you use to expedite the process
of organization planning?
A. Use the project plan of the ACT Project on the PLY Project.
B. Use the roles and responsibilities definitions of the ACT Project on the PLY Project.
C. Use the project team reward structure of the ACT Project on the PLY Project.
D. Use the project team of the ACT Project on the PLY Project.
B. When projects are similar in nature, the project manager can use the roles and responsibilities
definitions of the historical project to guide the current project.
A is incorrect. The entire project plan of the ACT Project isn’t needed. Even the roles
and responsibilities matrix of the historical project may not be an exact fit for
the current project. C is also incorrect because copying the project team reward structure is not the best
choice of all the answers presented. D is incorrect because using the same project team may not be feasible at all.
7. In your organization, management is referred to as coaches. As a project manager,
you are referred to as a project coach. A human resource document should be created
to handle this scenario. What should it cover?
A. How coaches are separate from managers
B. How coaches are the same as managers
C. How a coach is to complete his job
D. How the project team is to work for a coach
C. When project managers, or managers in general, are referred to by different terms,
a job description is needed so that the project manager can successfully complete
the required obligations.
A and B are incorrect choices. The project manager must know what the specific responsibilities
are, not the similarities and differences between the current role and management.
D is also incorrect. By the project manager knowing how to complete his job, the role
of the project team should be evident.
8. You are the project manager of the JQA Project. This project will last for eight
months, and you have 12 project team members. Management has requested that you create
a chart depicting all of the project resource needs and the associated activities.
Management is looking for which type of chart?
A. A roles chart
B. A roles matrix
C. A roles and responsibilities matrix
D. A Gantt chart
C. Management is looking for a roles and responsibility matrix. This chart lists the
roles and responsibilities, and depicts the intersection of the two.
A and B are incorrect. Management is looking for more than a listing of the roles and the
associated responsibilities. D is not an acceptable answer for the scenario presented, as Gantt charts are visual
representation of the flow and duration of the project work against a calendar.
9. Many theories and philosophies can affect the approach a manager uses to lead and
manage the project team. Based on your knowledge of the different management theories,
which of the following is an example of the X in Theory of X and Y?
A. Self-led project teams
B. Micromanagement
C. Team members able to work on their own accord
D. EVM
B. The X in the Theory of X and Y states that workers have an inherent dislike of work
and will avoid it if possible. Micromanagement is a method with regard to X that helps
to make certain workers complete their work.
A and C are actually examples of McGregor’s Theory of X and Y. D is incorrect because EVM is not directly related to McGregor’s Theory of X and Y.
10. You are the project manager of the PLN Project. The team members are somewhat “afraid”
of you as project manager because they see you as management. They know that a negative
review from you about their project work will affect their yearly bonus. This is an
example of which of the following?
A. Formal power
B. Coercive power
C. Expert power
D. Referent power
B. When the project team is afraid of the power the project manager yields, this is
called coercive power.
A, C, and D are incorrect because these describe assigned, referential, and technical powers
over the project.
11. You are the project manager of the MMB Project. The president of the company has
spoken to the project team about the confidence and respect he has in you to lead
the project to a successful completion. The project manager has what type of power
on this project?
A. Formal power
B. Coercive power
C. Expert power
D. Halo power
A. The company president has assigned you to the position of the project manager, so
you have formal power.
B is incorrect because coercive power is the associated fear of the project manager.
C is incorrect because expert power is derived from the project manager’s experience
with the technology being implemented. D is also incorrect. Halo power is not a viable answer to the question.
12. Management has approached Tyler, one of your project team members. Tyler is a database
administrator and developer whose work is always on time, accurate, and of quality.
He also has a reputation of being a “good guy” and is well liked. Because of this,
management has decided to move Tyler into the role of a project manager for a new
database administration project. This is an example of which of the following?
A. Management by exception
B. The halo effect
C. Management by objectives
D. McGregor’s Theory of X and Y
B. The halo effect is the assumption that because a person is good at a certain technology,
she will also be good at managing a project dealing with said technology.
A, C, and D are all incorrect because these do not describe the halo effect.
13. Susan is the project manager for the PMG Project. She makes all the decisions on
the project team, regardless of the project team’s objections. This is an example
of which of the following management styles?
A. Autocratic
B. Democratic
C. Laissez faire
D. Exceptional
A. Susan is an autocratic decision maker.
B is incorrect because a democracy counts each project team member’s opinion. C is incorrect because laissez faire allows the project team to make all the decisions.
D is also incorrect. This is not exceptional project management.
14. You are a new project manager in your company. Many of the project team members
do not know you, haven’t worked with you before, and don’t seem interested in working
on the project goal now. Some problems have come up in the project and need to be
addressed immediately for the project to be successful. Which problem-solving technique
is the best for most project management situations?
A. Confronting
B. Compromising
C. Forcing
D. Avoidance
A. Confronting is the best problem-solving technique, since it meets the problem directly.
B is incorrect. Compromising requires both sides of an issue to give up something.
C is incorrect. Forcing requires the project manager to force a decision based on external
inputs, such as seniority, experience, and so on. D is also incorrect. Avoidance ignores the problem and does not solve it.
15. Harold is an outspoken project team member. All of the project team members respect
Harold for his experience with the technology, but things usually have to be done
as Harold sees fit; otherwise, things don’t go well. During a discussion on a solution,
a project team member throws up her arms and says, “Fine, Harold, do it your way.”
This is an example of which of the following?
A. A win-win solution
B. A leave-lose solution
C. A lose-lose solution
D. A yield-lose solution
D. When Harold always has to win an argument and team members begin to give in to Harold’s
demands simply to avoid arguments rather than to find an accurate solution, this is
a yield-lose situation.
A is incorrect because both parties do not win. B is incorrect because the project team member did not leave the conversation, but
rather ended it. C is also incorrect. A lose-lose solution is a compromise in which both parties give
up something.
16. You are the project manager for the GBK Project. This project affects a line of
business, and the customer is anxious about the success of the project. Which of the
following is likely not a top concern for the customer?
A. Project priorities
B. Schedule
C. Cost
D. Personality conflicts
D. Personality conflicts are likely a concern for the customer but are not as important
as project priorities, schedule, and cost. The customer hired your company to solve
the technical issues.
A, B, and C are all incorrect because these are most likely the top issues for a company in a
project of this magnitude.
17. As a project manager in a projectized organization, you believe that projects operate
better when the project team is involved in the management processes. You like to
include the project team in decisions, listen to their input, and create a familial
environment. Which theory believes that workers need to be involved with the management
process?
A. McGregor’s Theory of X and Y
B. Ouchi’s Theory Z
C. Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation
D. The Expectancy Theory
B. Ouchi’s Theory Z states that workers need to be involved with the management process.
A is incorrect. McGregor’s Theory of X and Y posits that X workers don’t want to work
and need constant supervision. Y workers will work if the work is challenging, satisfying,
and rewarding. C is also incorrect because Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation describes the type of people
and what excites them to work. D, the Expectancy Theory, describes how people will work based on what they expect because
of the work they do.
18. Employees and employers enter into the employment contract with certain obligations.
The employee is obligated to work and perform according to requirements. The employer
is obligated to abide by the employment offer and pay the worker accordingly. Which
of the following states that as long as workers are rewarded they will remain productive?
A. McGregor’s Theory of X and Y
B. Ouchi’s Theory Z
C. Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation
D. The Expectancy Theory
D. The Expectancy Theory describes how people will work based on what they expect because
of the work they do. If people are rewarded because of the work they complete and
they like the reward (payment), they will continue to work.
A, B, and C are all incorrect because these theories do not accurately describe the scenario
presented.
19. You are the project manager for the Industrial Lights Project. You have been hired
by your organization specifically because of your vast experience with the technology
and with projects of this nature. The project team is aware of your experience. You
likely have what type of power on this project?
A. Formal power
B. Coercive power
C. Expert power
D. Referent power
C. You, the project manager, have expert power on this project because of your experience
with the technology and with projects that are similar in nature.
A, B, and D are all incorrect. These project management powers do not accurately describe the
scenario. Formal power is appointed power. Coercive power describes fear of the project
manager. Referent power describes power by association and personal knowledge.
20. You are the project manager for the GHB Project. You have served as a project manager
for your organization for the past ten years. Practically all of your projects are
completed on time and on budget. The project team has worked with you in the past,
and they consider you to be an expert project manager. They also like working with
you. Given all of this, you likely have what type of power on this project?
A. Formal power
B. Coercive power
C. Expert power
D. Referent power
D. This is referent power because the project team knows you, the project manager, personally.
A and B are incorrect choices because they do not describe the scenario. C is incorrect because expert power does not deal with the ability to lead and complete
a project, but instead focuses on being an expert with the technology that the project
deals with.
21. Several types of power can be used in project management. Some of the powers are
based on the project manager’s experience, knowledge, perception, or even relationship.
Which of the following scenarios is an example of coercive power?
A. A project manager who has lunch with the project team every Thursday
B. A project manager who will openly punish any team member who is late with an activity
C. A project manager who has worked with the technology on the project for several
years
D. A project manager who is friends with all of the project team members
B. Coercive power is the power a project manager yields over the project team, which
is essentially formal authority.
A is incorrect. Only referent power may come through lunch meetings. C is incorrect because experience is expert power. D is incorrect because interpersonal relationships are examples of referent power.
22. Charles is the project manager for the WAC Project. The customer and a project
team member are in conflict over the level of quality needed on a sampling. Charles
decides to split the difference between what the two stakeholders want. This is an
example of which of the following?
A. A win-win solution
B. A win-lose solution
C. A lose-lose solution
D. A leave-lose solution
C. When both parties give up something, it is a compromise. A compromise is an example
of a lose-lose solution.
A is incorrect. Win-win is accomplished through confrontation. B is incorrect because win-lose allows only one party to get what she wants from the
scenario. D is incorrect because a leave-lose solution occurs when one party walks away from
the problem.
23. Mike is the project manager for a project with a very tight schedule. The project
is running late, and Mike thinks that he does not have time to consider all the possible
solutions that two team members are in disagreement over. Mike quickly decides to
go with the team member with the largest amount of seniority. This is an example of
which of the following?
A. Problem solving
B. Compromising
C. Forcing
D. Withdrawal
C. Forcing happens when the project manager makes a decision based on factors not relevant
to the problem. Just because a team member has more seniority does not mean this individual
is correct.
A is incorrect because problem solving is not described in the scenario. B is incorrect because compromising happens when both parties agree to give up something.
D is incorrect because withdrawal happens when a party leaves the argument.
24. You are a project manager in a projectized organization. Your job as a project
manager can be described best by which of the following?
A. Full-time
B. Part-time
C. Expeditor
D. Coordinator
A. Project managers are typically assigned to a project on a full-time basis in a projectized
organization.
B, C, and D are incorrect because they do not accurately describe the work schedule of a project
manager in a projectized environment.
25. You are the project manager of the NHH Project for your organization. This project
will span three countries and utilize four languages: English, Flemish, French, and
Spanish. In this project you’ll rely heavily on a virtual project. Of the following,
which one is a benefit of using a collocated team?
A. The project team is dispersed, so the team is self-led.
B. The project team is dispersed, so communication increases.
C. The project team is in the same physical location, so their ability to work as
a team is enhanced.
D. The project team is in the same physical location, so project costs are greatly
reduced.
C. When a project team is collocated, all of the project team members are in the same
physical location, which increases their ability to work as a team.
A and B are incorrect. Collocated teams are not dispersed. D is incorrect because a collocated team does not ensure that costs are reduced. In
some situations, costs may be increased due to the travel expenses of bringing all
the team members together to complete the project.
