NotesIntroduction
Dimensions of the Spiritual
1. Rappaport, 1999:1.
2. In Overmyer, 1993:997.
3. James, [1902] 1958:39–42.
4. Durkheim, [1912] 1995:42.
5. Middleton, 1967:ix.
6. Malinowksi, [1948] 1992:19–20.
7. Middleton, 1967:ix.
8. Benedict, 1938:637.
9. Levack, 1995:6. Also see Peters, 1978.
10. Benedict, 1938:637.
11. Weber, [1922] 1993:28.
12. Swanson, 1960:55.
13. Spencer, 1896:747–48.
14. Russell, 1977:32.
15. Tillich, 1951.
16. Finke and Stark, 1992; Stark, 2001a; Stark and Finke, 2000.
Chapter 1
God’s Truth: Inevitable Sects and Reformations
1. Bowker, 1997:805.
2. Constable, 1996; Lambert, 1992; Ozment, 1980.
3. This is not to say that it is the usual state of affairs within monotheisms, as efforts to impose religious monopolies have been usual.
4. Stark, 1983; Stark and Bainbridge, [1987] 1996; Stark and Finke, 2000, 2002; Stark and Iannaccone, 1994.
5. Weber, [1922] 1993:162.
6. Stark and Bainbridge, [1987] 1996; Stark and Finke, 2000, 2002.
7. Stark and Finke, 2000.
8. Burkert, 1987:10–11.
9. Beard, North, and Price, 1998; Burkert, 1985, 1987; Cumont, 1956; James, 1960; MacMullen, 1981; Von Soden, 1994.
10. Johnson, 1963:542.
11. Allport, 1960:122.
12. See Demerath, 1974.
13. See Bangs, 1972.
14. Finke and Stark, 2001, 1992; Iannaccone, 1992, 1994; Olson and Perl, 2001; Perrin and Mauss, 1993; Stark, 1987, 1996; Stark and Finke, 2000, 2002.
15. Riley, 1997.
16. Fragments 11.15, 16.
17. Burkert, 1985.
18. Ibid.:296.
19. Ibid.:297.
20. James, 1960:287.
21. Burkert, 1985:299.
22. Ibid.:303.
23. Tinh, 1982:112.
24. Beard, North, and Price, 1998:289.
25. Johnson, 1963; Niebuhr, 1929; Stark and Bainbridge, 1979, 1985; Stark and Finke, 2000; Troeltsch, [1969] 1931.
26. Stark and Bainbridge, 1985.
27. Stark, 2001a.
28. Lester, 1993:867.
29. Stark, in press.
30. Stark and Bainbridge, 1985, [1987] 1996; Stark and Finke, 2000.
31. Niebuhr, 1929:12.
32. Ibid.:13.
33. Ibid.:15.
34. Ibid.:19.
35. Collins, 1998.
36. Stark, 1965, 1999.
37. Baumgarten, 1997; Blenkinsopp, 1981; Cohen, 1987; Georgi, 1995; Jospe, 1981; Koester, 1982a; Mor, 1992; Neusner, 1990.
38. Hippolytus, The Refutation of All Heresies 9.14.
39. Cohen, 1987.
40. Koester, 1982a:230.
41. Cohen, 1987.
42. Ibid.:147.
43. Blenkinsopp, 1981.
44. Cohen, 1987:147.
45. Cohen, 1987; Niebuhr, 1929; Saldarini, 1988.
46. Baumgarten, 1997:47, 51.
47. Williams, 1996.
48. May, 1987–1988; Quispel, 1987; Williams, 1996.
49. Against Marcion 4.11.
50. Ibid. 7.17.
51. Rankin, 1995.
52. Johnson, 1976:51.
53. In ibid.
54. Quispel, 1987.
55. Rankin, 1995; Trevett, 1996.
56. The Refutation of All Heresies 8.12.
57. Stark, 1996, 2002.
58. Trevett, 1996.
59. Hippolytus, The Refutation of All Heresies 8.12.
60. Eusebius, The Ecclesiastical History 5.18.
61. Henderson, 1998:10.
62. Ormsby, 1984:92.
63. Dabashi, 1989.
64. Ibn Qudama, 1962:42.
65. The same thing occurred in the United States (Stark, 2001a).
66. Farah, 1994; Henderson, 1998; Hodgson, 1974; Payne, 1959; Rahman, 1981; Waines, 1995.
67. Hodgson, 1974, 1:221.
68. Rahman, 1981.
69. Ibid.:917.
70. Ibid.
71. Glock and Stark, 1966; Stark, 2001a.
72. Hume, 1754, vol. 3.
73. Smith, [1776] 1981:789.
74. Stark, 1983, 2001a; Stark and Bainbridge, [1987] 1996; Stark and Finke, 2000; Stark and Iannaccone, 1994.
75. Fletcher, 1997:19.
76. Duffy, 1997:27.
77. Fletcher, 1997:38.
78. Cheetham, 1983; Duffy, 1997.
79. Stark, in press.
80. Johnson, 1976.
81. Bagnall, 1993; Dodds, 1970; MacMullen, 1984; Stark, 1996.
82. Drake, 1999.
83. in Johnson, 1976:97.
84. MacMullen, 1984:91.
85. In ibid.:101.
86. Brown, 1967; Frend, 1984, 1985; Johnson, 1976; Tilley, 1996.
87. From which the word “traitors” derives.
88. See Tilley, 1996.
89. Frend, 1984:655.
90. Johnson, 1976:85.
91. In Frend, 1984:670.
92. Lambert, 1992:25.
93. Ecclesiastical History 1.30
94. Davies, 1996; Jolly, 1996; Milis, 1998.
95. Finke and Wittberg, 2000; Stark and Bainbridge, 1985.
96. Fletcher, 1997; Hannah, 1924; Hickey, 1987; Johnson, 1976; King, 1999; Knowles, 1969; Mayr-Harting, 1993; Smith, 1892.
97. In Duffy, 1997:52.
98. Duffy, 1997; Southern, 1970.
99. Duffy, 1997:57.
100. McBrien, 2000:157.
101. Cheetham, 1983; McBrien, 2000.
102. Cheetham, 1983; Duffy, 1997.
103. Cheetham, 1983:84.
104. Pastor, 1898.
105. Cheetham, 1983.
106. Ibid.:90.
107. Ibid.:87.
108. Costen, 1997; Duffy, 1997; McBrien, 2000; Morris, 1991.
109. In Duffy, 1997:96.
110. All quoted in Moore, 1994:54–55.
111. Chazan, 1986:29.
112. Poliakov, 1965:35.
113. Russell, 1965:103.
114. Brooke, 1971; Costen, 1997; Lambert, 1992; Moore, 1994; Russell, 1965.
115. Russell, 1965:108.
116. Lambert, 1992:25.
117. Stark, 2001a.
118. Chazan, 1986:29.
119. In Poliakov, 1965:48.
120. Constable, 1996.
121. In Payne, 1984:35.
122. Maier, 1994.
123. Ibid.
124. King, 1999; Lambert, 1992; Maier, 1994; Moore, 1995, 1994.
125. Moore, 1994:85.
126. In ibid.
127. In Constable, 1996:34.
128. Lambert, 1992:390.
129. Brooke, 1971; Cheetham, 1983; Costen, 1997; Lambert, 1992; Moore, 1994; Russell, 1965.
130. In Moore, 1994:88.
131. Cheetham, 1983:114.
132. Barber, 2000; Brooke, 1971; Costen, 1997; Lambert, 1998, 1992; Moore, 1994; O’Shea, 2000; Russell, 1965.
133. Lambert, 1998:21.
134. Costen, 1997:65.
135. Lambert, 1998:21.
136. Lambert, 1992:55.
137. Complete text in Russell, 1971:60–68.
138. Lambert, 1998:20.
139. Brooke and Brooke, 1984:99–100.
140. Lambert, 1998:154.
141. Costen, 1997.
142. Ibid.
143. Lenski, 1966.
144. Costen, 1997:70.
145. In ibid.
146. In Barber, 2000:107.
147. Ibid.:109.
148. Brooke, 1971; Cameron, 1984; Lambert, 1992; Moore, 1994; Russell, 1965; Tourn, 1989.
149. Lambert, 1992:69.
150. Ibid.:149, 170.
151. In Johnson, 1976:251.
152. Lambert, 1992:147.
153. Leff, 1967:376.
154. Lerner, 1972:3.
155. Cohn, 1961; Lambert, 1992; Leff, 1967; Lerner, 1972.
156. Cohn, 1961:164.
157. Lambert, 1992.
158. Cohn, 1961.
159. It was not called the “Black Death” until several centuries later (Ziegler, 1971).
160. Cartwright and Biddiss, 1972; Ziegler, 1971.
161. Ziegler, 1971.
162. Tuchman, 1979:115.
163. In Marx and Engels, 1964:98.
164. In ibid.:99–100.
165. In Russell, 1965:231.
166. Cohn, 1961:xiii.
167. Stark and Bainbridge, 1985.
168. Tourn, 1989:49.
169. As late as 1617, Saint Vincent de Paul discovered that his local priest knew no Latin, not even the words of absolution (Delumeau, 1977).
170. Cobban, 1988; Colish, 1997; Daly, 1961; Haskins, 1923; Schachner, 1938.
171. Recently, some historians have identified universities in Ireland as early as the sixth century. The most famous of these was at Clonmacnois, and it drew scholars not only from Ireland and England but from the Continent as well. Indeed, Irish scholars were widely admired at that time and were especially welcome in the cathedral schools of Europe. However, these Irish institutions seem to have been destroyed during the Norse occupation.
172. Grant, 1996; Lindberg, 1992.
173. Grant, 1996; Russell, 1958.
174. Colish, 1997:266.
175. Collins, 1998.
176. Colish (1997:268) called theology at this time “the most high-risk discipline.”
177. Aston, 1984; Dickens, 1991; Lambert, 1992; McFarlane, 1952; McSheffrey, 1995; Plumb, 1986.
178. Lambert, 1992:228.
179. Fines, 1995.
180. Dickens, 1991.
181. Lambert, 1992; Plumb, 1986.
182. McSheffrey, 1995.
183. McFarlane, 1952:180.
184. Dickens, 1991:48.
185. Bartos, 1986; Dickens, 1991; Kaminsky, 1967; Lambert, 1992; Ozment, 1980.
186. Luther, 1915 [1520]:141.
187. In Duffy, 1997:121.
188. Cheetham, 1983:184.
189. Cheetham, 1983; Duffy, 1997; McBrien, 2000.
190. Duffy, 1997:146.
191. Ibid.:135.
192. McBrien, 2000.
193. Cheetham, 1983:199.
194. Collins, 1903:378.
195. Dickens, 1991:18.
196. In Lea, 1902:672.
197. Pastor, 1898, 5:457.
198. Swanson, 1995. If that number seems excessive, that there were so many priests in one archdiocese reflects the overchurching that the laity found so burdensome.
199. King, 1999.
200. In Lea, 1902:674.
201. Epistle 94.
202. In Durant, 1957:20–21.
203. Chadwick, 1972.
204. Duffy, 1997.
205. Coulton, 1938a.
206. Johnson, 1976:267.
207. Hayes, 1917.
208. Durant, 1957.
209. Ozment, 1975.
210. Schwiebert, 1950:312.
211. Dickens, 1991.
212. In Lambert, 1992:73.
213. Ibid.:240.
214. Eisenstein, 1979; Hirsch, 1967.
215. Ozment, 1980.
216. Ibid.
217. Dickens, 1966:51.
218. Johnson, 1976:271.
219. This meaning is close to the way the term is used today by antireligious groups such as the American Humanist Association.
220. Smith, [1923] 1962:1.
221. In Schwiebert, 1950:275.
222. In fact, Aquinas wrote excellent Latin. But it was not the flowery, poetic style prized by Valla and other Humanists. Alfred Crosby (1997:65) described Aquinas’s prose as “a bony minimum stripped of alliteration, figures of speech, or even metaphor, except where tradition demanded otherwise. (He could not very well reject the poetry of the Psalms, but he did criticize Plato for extravagance of language.) His reasoning and language are almost mathematical: our translators sometimes use algebraic letter symbols as the best means to express in twentieth century English what he wrote in thirteenth century Latin.”
223. Bainton, 1969; Durant, 1957; Erasmus, [1500s] 1996; Huizinga, [1924] 1957; Moeller, 1972; Ozment, 1980; Phillips, 1949; Smith, [1923] 1962.
224. Chadwick, 1972:32.
225. See Bainton, 1969.
226. Chadwick, 1972:32.
227. Huizinga, [1924] 1957:85.
228. The appropriate comparison is with the “inside” jokes that ethnic, racial, and religious groups tell about themselves, jokes that would be regarded as very offensive coming from outsiders. Erasmus was, technically, a monk.
229. Monter, 1999:56.
230. Durant, 1957:291.
231. Bainton, [1952] 1985.
232. Ibid.; Chadwick, 1972; Durant, 1957; Elton, 1999; Holborn, 1982, 1969; Kittelson, 1986; Luther, [1520] 1915; McNally, 1969; Moeller, 1972; Oberman, 1992; Ozment, 1975, 1980; Rupp, 1981, 1951; Schwiebert, 1950; Tracy, 1999.
233. Oberman 1992:149.
234. In ibid.
235. Chadwick, 1972:42; also Duffy, 1997:153, and Schwiebert, 1950:310.
236. In Oberman, 1992:188.
237. Schwiebert, 1950:314.
238. McNally, 1969.
239. In Eisenstein, 1979:306–7.
240. Aston, 1968:76.
241. Eisenstein, 1979.
242. In Durant, 1957:352.
243. Luther, [1520] 1915:157.
244. Ibid.:84.
245. Ibid.:138.
246. Ibid.:139.
247. Rupp, 1981:192.
248. Ozment, 1980; Stark, 1999.
249. Brady, 1978; Monter, 1967; Ozment, 1975; Rörig, 1969; Strauss, 1967; Tracy, 1999.
250. Christman, 1982.
251. Pollard, 1903:159.
252. See his remarkable “Nativity Sermons,” some of which have been collected by Roland H. Bainton (1997).
253. Chadwick, 1972; Collinson, 1967; Dickens, 1991; Duffy, 1992; Durant, 1957; Fines, 1981; Hoyle, 2001; MacCulloch, 2000; O’Day, 1986; Scarisbrick, 1984; Tracy, 1999.
254. Dickens, 1991:13–14.
255. O’Day, 1986.
256. Fines, 1981.
257. Dickens, 1991:326.
258. Letters and Papers of Henry VIII, number 6385.
259. Dickens, 1991:128.
260. In Durant, 1957:547.
261. Ibid.:550.
262. Bush, 1999; Dickens, 1991; Dodds and Dodds, [1915] 1971; Hoyle, 2001.
263. Monter, 1999.
264. Dickens, 1991.
265. Durant, 1957; Ozment, 1980; Potter, 1976; Walton, 1967.
266. Protestant: Basel, Bern, Geneva, Schaffhausen, and Zurich; Catholic: Freiburg, Lucerne, Schwyz, Solothurn, Unterwalden, Uri, and Zug; split: Appenzell, Glarus.
267. Basel, Bern, Lausanne, Schaffhausen, and Zurich.
268. Kingdon, 1956, 1981.
269. Bouwsma, 1988; Cottret, 2000; Kingdon, 1956, 1972, 1981; Monter, 1967; Ozment, 1980; Parker, 1975.
270. I was alerted to this by a paragraph in the article on Calvin the The Encyclopaedia Britannica, which was written by Kingdon.
271. Kingdon, 1956:56.
272. Bainton, [1952] 1985.
273. In Kingdon, 1956:56.
274. Ibid.:57.
275. Tracy, 1999.
276. Kingdon, 1956.
277. Chadwick, 1972:156.
278. Ibid.:156–57.
279. Kingdon, 1956:94.
280. Durant, 1957; Holt, 1995; Ladurie, 1974; Monter, 1999; Rörig, 1969; Tracy, 1999.
281. Monter, 1999.
282. Ibid.
283. Kingdon used 20 million as the estimated population of France. Later studies have revised that downward to 16 million.
284. Durant, 1957:505.
285. Monter, 1999.
286. Ladurie, 1974:158–60.
287. Dunn, 1979; Holt, 1995; Kingdon, 1956.
288. Collins, 1903:400.
289. Bainton, [1952] 1985:131.
290. Collins, 1903:400.
291. In Caponetto, 1999:xvi.
292. Bainton, [1952] 1985; Caponetto, 1999; Collins, 1903; Durant, 1957; Tracy, 1999.
293. The first Italian edition appeared in 1992, followed by a revision in 1997, and then by a fine English translation in 1999.
294. Caponetto, 1999:14.
295. Monter and Tedeschi, 1986.
296. Tracy, 1999:390.
297. Monter and Tedeschi, 1986.
298. Caponetto, 1999; Collins, 1903; Tracy, 1999; Trevor-Roper, [1969] 2001; Williams, 1972.
299. Brady, 1978; Durant, 1957; Engels, [1873] 1964; Ozment, 1980; Swanson, 1967; Tracy, 1999; Weber, [1904–1905] 1958; Wuthnow, 1989.
300. Becker, 2000; Braudel, 1977; Jere Cohen 1980; Delacroix and Nielsen, 2001; Fischoff, 1968; Hamilton, 1996; Samuelsson, [1957] 1993.
301. Brøndsted, 1965:312.
302. Ibid.:306–7.
303. Latourette, 1975:732.
304. Ladurie, 1974:159–60.
305. Wuthnow, 1989:105–6.
306. Barrett, 1982; Brøndsted, 1965; Davies, 1996; Jones, 1968; Roesdahl, 1980; Sawyer, 1982; Shepherd, 1980.
307. Austria, ninth; Belgium, seventh; Denmark, eleventh; Finland, thirteenth; France, sixth; Germany, ninth; Great Britain, ninth; Iceland, eleventh; Ireland, fifth; Italy, fourth; Netherlands, eighth; Norway, eleventh; Portugal, fourth; Spain, fourth; Sweden, twelfth; Switzerland, eighth.
308. Data provided by the 1996 Catholic Almanac.
309. Moeller, 1972; Ozment, 1975; Pollard, 1903; Rörig, 1969; Tracy, 1999.
310. Spitz, 1969:145.
311. Rörig, 1969:25.
312. Steven Ozment (1975:124–25) proposed a three-step process by which cities became Protestant. The process began (1) with the arrival of Protestant preachers and agitators who (2) managed to assemble a dedicated public following that (3) won the “grudging support and final sanction by government.” Ozment noted that the reluctance of city council members to declare for Protestantism often reflected not their religious opposition but a preference for proper procedures and orderly change. Of course, some city councils refused to take step three.
313. Moeller, 1972.
314. Rörig, 1969.
315. Chadwick, 1972:26.
316. Durant, 1957:639.
317. Bush, 1967; Hill, 1967.
318. Wuthnow, 1989:90.
319. Chadwick, 1972; Duffy, 1992; Durant, 1957; Latourette, 1975; Ozment, 1975, Roberts, 1968; Tracy, 1999.
320. Latourette, 1975:735.
321. Ibid.:737.
322. Roberts, 1968.
323. Ozment, 1975.
324. Moeller, 1972; Ozment, 1975; Tracy, 1999.
325. Evennett, 1968:3–9.
326. Trent was a small town in northern Italy.
327. Chadwick, 1972; Duffy, 1987; Gentilcore, 1992; Thomas, 1971.
328. Mullett, 1999.
329. Trevor-Roper, [1969] 2001:20–21.
330. Braudel, 1977:66.
331. A case could be made that the post–Vatican II changes introduced by Pope John Paul II constitute a reformation.
Chapter 2
God’s Handiwork: The Religious Origins of Science
1. White, 1896, 2:108–9.
2. It also provides the opening line of that great standard by George and Ira Gershwin, “They All Laughed” (1936): “They all laughed at Christopher Columbus, when he said the world was round.”
3. Grant, 1971, 1994; Hamilton, 1996; Russell, 1991.
4. In Grant, 1994:619.
5. Russell, 1991:10.
6. Ibid.:26.
7. Grant, 1994.
8. Brooke and Cantor, 1998:18; also see Lindberg and Numbers, 1986; Russell, 1991.
9. Albeit a small, very vocal minority of religion-baiters persists.
10. Bloch, [1940] 1961:83.
11. Darwin and Seward, 1903, 1:195.
12. On the Heavens.
13. In Clagett, 1961:536.
14. White, 1896, 1:57
15. Yates, 1964, 1979.
16. As Theodore K. Rabb (1975:274) put it, “The Servetus case seems irrelevant to a discussion of Protestant opposition to science, because surely nobody has questioned that both Calvin and those who led the outcry … were interested only in the punishment of doctrinal heresy. To suggest another issue is to raise a straw man.”
17. Kamen, 1997:134.
18. Monter and Tedeschi, 1986.
19. Boorstin, 1983:100.
20. In its fiftieth anniversary issue, published in September 1998, Archaeology ran a lengthy article entitled “The Not-So-Dark Ages,” summarizing the findings of an immense number of excavations which demonstrate that this era was far more “civilized” than had been admitted in previous generations, and confirmed the historical reassessment crediting this era with having laid the “foundations of modern European culture” (Hodges, 1998:61).
21. Bloch [1940] 1961; Pirenne, [1922] 1955; [1936] 1958.
22. Ferrill, 1986; Grant, 1978; Luttwak, 1976; Wolfram, 1997.
23. Ferrill, 1986; Wolfram, 1997.
24. Gimpel, 1976:x.
25. Ibid.:viii, 1.
26. White, 1940:151.
27. Especially Gies and Gies, 1994; Gimpel, 1976; White, 1962.
28. Hanson, 2001.
29. Montgomery, 1968; White, 1962.
30. Hyland, 1994.
31. Gimpel, 1976:32.
32. Smil, 2000; White, 1962.
33. Gimpel, 1976:32.
34. Gies and Gies, 1994; Gimpel, 1976; White, 1940, 1962.
35. Hime, 1915; Manucy, 1949; Partington, [1960] 1999.
36. Barclay and Schofield, 1981:488.
37. Hitchins and May, 1951; May and Howard, 1981; Needham, 1954–1984.
38. White, 1967.
39. I was taught that when Julius Caesar conquered Britain, the natives were semisavages who painted themselves blue. Yet Caesar’s own account reveals that he had to fight and win a long and closely contested naval battle to cross the Channel. People possessed of a navy able to challenge the Romans could hardly have been rude savages.
40. Dawson, 1950.
41. White, 1967:1203.
42. Crosby, 1997:65.
43. Armitage, 1951; Brooke, 1991; Clagett, 1961; Cohen, 1985a; Crosby, 1997; Gingerich, 1975; Grant, 1994, 1996; Jaki, 1986; Mason, 1962; Neugebauer, 1975; Rosen, 1971.
44. White, 1896:121.
45. Grant, 1996:169.
46. In Clagett, 1961:536.
47. In Grant, 1994:642.
48. Oresme, [ca. 1350–1360] 1968, 1971.
49. In Grant, 1994:550.
50. Danielson, 2000: 98; Mason, 1962:120–21.
51. Crosby, 1997:104.
52. Cohen, 1985a; Gingerich, 1975; Neugebauer, 1975.
53. Cohen, 1985a:107.
54. Cohen, 1985a; Gingerich, 1975; Rosen, 1971.
55. Cohen, 1985a:106.
56. Gingerich, 1975; Jaki, 2000; Rosen, 1971.
57. Jaki, 2000.
58. Colish, 1997:266.
59. Schachner, 1938:3.
60. Grant, 1996:23.
61. Pernoud, 2000:24.
62. Ibid.:21.
63. Lindberg, 1992:230.
64. Ibid.
65. Grant, 1996; Porter, 1998.
66. Porter, 1998:56.
67. Mason, 1962.
68. Porter, 1998.
69. Armitage, 1951.
70. Grant, 1996:205.
71. White, 1896, 2:50.
72. Singer, [1925] 1970:129.
73. O’Malley, 1964; Porter, 1998.
74. Movies and stories concerning “body snatchers” often suggest that their nefarious activities were necessary because of prohibitions on dissection. In fact, body snatching did take place in various times and places—not, however, because human dissection was forbidden, but because of a lack of bodies: families were reluctant to offer their loved ones to disrespectful treatment, or to forgo the comfort of visits to a grave site.
75. Dorn, 1991; Huff, 1993; Lang, 1997; Needham, 1954–1984.
76. Grant, 1996:168.
77. Ben-David, 1990; Cohen 1985a; Collins, 1998; Dorn, 1991; Grant, 1996; Huff, 1993; Jaki, 2000; Kuhn, 1962.
78. In Crosby, 1997:83.
79. Whitehead, [1925] 1967:13.
80. Ibid.:12.
81. Ibid.:13.
82. On Repentance 1.
83. In Lindberg and Numbers, 1986:27–28.
84. De reductione artium ac theologiam.
85. Grant, 1996; Meyer, 1944.
86. Webster, 1986:213.
87. Russell, 1922:193.
88. The quotation from Russell continues, “I have no doubt that if the Chinese get a stable government and sufficient funds, they would, within the next thirty years, begin to produce remarkable work in science. It is quite likely that they might outstrip us …”
89. Needham, 1954–1984, 1:581.
90. Lang, 1997:18.
91. In Mason, 1962:36–37.
92. Grant, 1994, 1996; Jaki, 1986; Lindberg, 1992; Mason, 1962, as well as the cited original sources.
93. Lindberg, 1992.
94. Mason, 1962.
95. Lindberg, 1992:54.
96. In Jaki, 1986:114.
97. Full text in Danielson, 2000:14–15.
98. Lindberg, 1992:42.
99. Jaki, 1986:105.
100. Lindberg, 1992; Mason, 1962.
101. Farah, 1994; Hodgson, 1974; Jaki, 1986; Nasr, 1993; Waines, 1995.
102. Oeuvres 8:61.
103. Farah, 1994:199.
104. Nasr, 1993.
105. Jaki, 2000:207.
106. Grant, 1994.
107. Baker, 1952.
108. Kinser, 1971.
109. Luther, [1520] 1915:146.
110. Eisenstein, 1980:321.
111. Given Merton’s obsession with matters of priority, I find it very peculiar that he was never forthcoming about the extent of his debt to Dorothy Stimson’s prior publication of a relationship between Puritanism and the rise of science. It may be that he wrote his thesis without knowledge of her prior work. But, for all the reasons he advanced in his own writings about priority, he should have clearly stated the facts when he published in 1938, and he certainly needed to do so in later republications of the key excerpt of his thesis. A very tardy discussion of the matter by Bernard Cohen, one of Merton’s greatest admirers, in Clark, Modgil, and Modgil (1990) was not very enlightening. Some historians now attribute the thesis jointly to Merton and Stimson, also without mention of priority (cf. Hunter, 1982; Shapiro, 1968). However, since these same historians reject the thesis, this may have become as insignificant as a dispute about the first claim concerning the existence of phlogiston.
112. Merton, 1938:447, 450–51.
113. Ibid.:445.
114. Merton’s thesis strongly appealed to the anti-Catholic biases of the time. It was an era of very open anti-Catholicism. Indeed, it has been said that in those days anti-Catholicism was the anti-Semitism of liberal intellectuals. Remarkably strident anti-Catholicism was common in the respectable magazines and journals of the 1930s—indeed, until the 1960s.
115. Kearney, 1964:259–60.
116. Collins, 1998.
117. Hunter, 1982, 1989.
118. Kearney, 1964; Rabb, 1965.
119. Shapiro, 1968:288.
120. Feuer, 1963; Hunter, 1982, 1989; Shapiro, 1968.
121. Cohen, 1985a.
122. In contrast, the Random House Webster’s Dictionary of Scientists, in addition to displaying every sin of political correctness, trivializes the word “scientist” by the inclusion of a flock of entries such as “Fixx, James 1932–1984. US popularizer of jogging.”
123. Cheetham, 1983.
124. Some historians have attempted to identify Pierre Gassendi as a skeptic despite his having been a Catholic priest. This seems entirely unfounded, as Sylvia Murr (1993) has demonstrated convincingly.
125. Brooke, 1991; Jaki, 2000.
126. Stark, 1999.
127. Brooke and Cantor, 1998; Langford, 1971; Shea, 1986.
128. Ironically, part of Galileo’s troubles stemmed from renewed efforts to crack down on astrologers, whose claims to predict the future had long been denounced as dangerous superstition (see Chapter 3). Some Churchmen mistakenly equated the claim that the earth moved with doctrines that fate was ruled by the motion of heavenly bodies.
129. Brooke and Cantor, 1998:20.
130. Ibid.:110.
131. Shea, 1986:132.
132. Confessions 12.23–24.
133. Works 1:23.
134. Rousseau, Works 3:183.
135. Burckhardt was also the first to claim that Constantine’s conversion was insincere, a mere pose assumed out of his lust for power. Fortunately, later historians have dismissed this claim, but they have yet to fully detect the similar biases at work in his study of the Renaissance.
136. Essay concerning Human Understanding 3.9.
137. Baumer, 1960:67.
138. Gay, 1966:23.
139. Gay, 1969:145.
140. Ibid.:130.
141. Letters concerning the English Nation, Letter 12.
142. Hume, History of England, vol. 8.
143. Gay, 1969:131.
144. In Hindle, 1956:80.
145. Manuel, 1974:53.
146. Cajori’s translation: Newton, 1934:543–47.
147. In Hurlbutt, 1985:7.
148. Before his death, Newton destroyed a vast collection of papers. Many of the manuscripts he carefully saved he also recopied, as authors did in those days to provide a clean manuscript for the printer.
149. McLachlan, 1941:165.
150. Christianson, 1984; More, 1934.
151. McLachlan, 1941:167.
152. Ibid.
153. Brewster, 1855, 1871.
154. Hurlbutt, 1985:14.
155. In Brewster, 1871:242–45.
156. Ibid.:206; Manuel, 1968, 1974.
157. In Buckley, 1987:310.
158. Marx and Engels, 1964:192.
159. Bell, 1937:96.
160. Cragg, 1964:13.
161. More, 1934.
162. McLachlan, 1941:172.
163. Hall, 1992; Munby, 1952.
164. Munby, 1952:48.
165. Ibid.:41.
166. In addition, there is a very major collection of Newton’s scientific manuscripts at Oxford and another in the Babson College Archives, in Wellesley, Massachusetts.
167. Munby, 1952:41.
168. White, 1997:158–62.
169. Dobbs, 1975, 1991.
170. Over the past four decades, Newton’s theological, alchemical, astrological, and other esoteric manuscripts and notes have been studied with great care, and much has been published—although there remains more to come (cf. Castillejo, 1981; Dobbs, 1975, 1991; Hall and Hall, 1962; McLachlan, 1950).
171. Hovenkamp, 1978:ix.
172. Paley, [1803] 1809:5.
173. Dana, 1858:341.
174. Confessions 12.
175. McGrath, 1999:11.
176. In ibid.
177. Calvin, [ca. 1555] 1980:52–53.
178. In McGrath, 1999:12.
179. I was advised by several colleagues that to criticize evolutionary theory would damage my “career.” This merely hardened my resolve to suffer no more of this arrogant occultism.
180. Dawkins, 1986:287.
181. Dawkins, 1976:1.
182. Dawkins, 1989:34.
183. Dawkins, 1986:241, 251.
184. Gould, 1980:181.
185. Stanley, 1981:104.
186. Eldredge, 1986:145.
187. Some might claim that there are rare exceptions such as when a horse and an ass are bred to produce a mule. But, as in the case of mules, the offspring of such crossbreeding are sterile hybrids.
188. Here I am giving orthodox and neo-orthodox Darwinians a break, since they have not been able to define fitness as other than a relatively higher rate of reproduction, hence making the theory tautological: those that reproduce at a higher rate will reproduce at a higher rate.
189. Darwin, 1993:316.
190. Gruber, 1981:125–26.
191. Darwin, 1993:212.
192. Ibid.:406.
193. Ibid.:414.
194. Stanley, 1979:39.
195. Newell, 1959:267.
196. Gould, 1980:182.
197. In Hull, 1973:146.
198. Desmond, 1997:459.
199. Schwartz, 1999:3.
200. Ruse, 1999; Schwartz, 1999.
201. Schwartz, 1999.
202. This term (“neo” means new) is applied to all evolutionary studies based on Mendelian genetics.
203. Schwartz, 1999:3.
204. Goldschmidt, 1940:390.
205. Mayr, 1970:253.
206. Eldredge, 1971; Eldredge and Gould, 1972; Gould and Eldredge, 1993.
207. Dennett, 1995.
208. Gould, 1980.
209. A skyhook is a magical device, a hook attached to a cable that reaches into the sky and is able to raise and lower loads despite not being hooked to a crane or other mechanical device. When I was in the army, the term was in common usage, and a sergeant might say, “Unless the chaplain can pray us down a skyhook, we ain’t never going to lift that sucker.”
210. Dennett, 1995:298.
211. Indicative of the unscientific character of the Darwinian Crusade, Carl Sagan (1975:82) responded to the fact that “the time available for the origin of life seems to have been short, a few hundred million years at most,” as proof that evolution must be much faster and statistically much more probable than we had thought.
212. Dawkins (1986) “solves” this problem by introducing an unidentified editor who lets the monkey know each time it has a correct letter in the correct space, thus providing for a quite rapid accomplishment of the lines. I find this remarkable in someone who essentially makes his living from atheism, since any educated Creationist would gladly embrace this version of “directed” evolution.
213. Hoyle and Wickramasinghe, 1981.
214. Szathmaŕy, 1999.
215. Huxley, 1960:1.
216. Gould, 1977:7.
217. In Barrow and Tipler, 1986:85.
218. Dawkins, 1986:6.
219. Desmond, 1997; Eiseley, 1958; Irvine, 1955.
220. Desmond, 1997.
221. Ibid.; MacKenzie and MacKenzie, 1977; Wilson, 1999.
222. Desmond, 1997:245.
223. McLellan, 1987:3n.
224. Wilson, 1999.
225. Barlow, [1958] 1993.
226. In Desmond, 1997:253.
227. Lucas, 1979:329.
228. Tyndall, 1874:44.
229. In Gould, 1977:77.
230. A survey of students at five leading American Protestant divinity schools, conducted in the late 1920s, found that 94 percent agreed “[t]hat the idea of evolution is consistent with belief in God as Creator,” and only 5 percent agreed “[t]hat the creation of the world occurred in the manner and time recorded in Genesis” (Betts, 1929).
231. In Desmond, 1997:544.
232. Sidgwick, 1898:433–34.
233. Brix, 1984; Dennett, 1995; Desmond, 1997; Desmond and Moore, 1991; Irvine, 1959; Richards, 1987; Wilson, 1999.
234. Irvine, 1959:6.
235. Brix, 1984:15, 135.
236. Macmillan’s Magazine, October 1898.
237. Brooke and Cantor, 1998; Cohen, 1985b:597.
238. Darwin, 1896, 2:117–18.
239. Ibid.:124–25.
240. Cohen, 1985b.
241. Lucas, 1979.
242. Ibid.:329–30.
243. Desmond, 1997:256.
244. Rudwick, 1986:302.
245. That it was remembered at all was due to its being included in a marginal note in some editions of the King James Version of the Bible.
246. Numbers, 1986.
247. Finke and Stark, 1992.
248. Larson, 1997.
249. Ibid.
250. Popper, 1957, 1962, [1976] 1996.
251. Olson, 1960:523.
252. Larson and Witham, 1997; Witham, 1997.
253. Galton, 1875; Hilts, 1975.
254. Reprinted in Bottomore and Rubel, 1956.
255. Galton, 1875:97.
256. Pearson, 1914–1930.
257. A cross-sectional sample of Protestant ministers in Chicago in the late 1920s revealed that, while all expressed their belief “[t]hat God exists,” only 64 percent agreed “[t]hat prayer has the power to change conditions in nature.” The same study also surveyed students at five theological schools, of whom only 21 percent agreed with the item on prayer (Betts, 1929). In a 1968 sample of Protestant clergy in California, only 45 percent of pastors of the United Church of Christ could agree to the statement “I know God really exists and I have no doubts about it” (Stark et al., 1971). Of Methodist clergy, 52 percent agreed. Notice that this item is much less stringent than the one used by Leuba, since clergy were free to define God as they wished. Given that the majority of these same clergy doubted the divinity of Jesus, one must suppose that many of them asserted their beliefs in a rather remote and vague conception of God, not one who hears and answers prayers.
258. Leuba, [1916] 1921:280.
259. Larson and Witham, 1997.
260. Leuba [1916] 1921, 1934; Thalheimer 1973.
261. Feldman and Newcomb, 1970.
262. Bird, 1993.
263. Wuthnow, 1985:191.
264. Wallace, 1966:265.
265. This is not surprising, for Sarton remained a staunch supporter of A. D. White and his claim that religion is the natural enemy of science (see Sarton, 1955).
266. Manuel, 1974:27.
267. Regis, 1987:24.
268. Clark, 1971:18–19; Regis, 1987:24.
269. Clark, 1971; Snow, 1967.
270. Davies, 1983.
271. Polkinghorne, 1998.
272. Townes, 1995.
273. Einstein, 1954:46.
Chapter 3
God’s Enemies: Explaining the European Witch-Hunts
1. Guazzo [1608] 1972:16.
2. The most important of these is Étienne-Léon de Lamothe-Langdon’s three volume history of the French Inquisition (1829), which claimed that at least a thousand witchcraft trials and huge numbers of executions had occurred in Toulouse and Carcassonne between 1320 and 1350. He included lengthy excerpts from official court records. Subsequent scholars treated this as the “most important single body of sources for early European witch trials” (Kieckhefer, 1976:16). I find it incredible that nearly 150 years passed before anyone wondered how there could have been so many trials here when there were virtually none taking place elsewhere, or about the fact that all of the original documents cited by Lamothe-Langdon had “disappeared’ before anyone else could see them, or about the anachronistic use of terms that did not come into use until far later than the alleged date of the documents, or the fact that Lamonthe-Langdon was known to have produced a number of other forgeries, such as fake memoirs by eighteenthcentury celebrities. It was not until the mid-1970s that witchcraft scholars caught on. Norman Cohn (1975, 2000) and Richard Kieckhefer (1976) are to be congratulated for exposing this rat who caused a great deal of scholarly effort to be wasted on efforts to account for things that never happened.
3. Dworkin, 1974.
4. Daly, 1978.
5. Hughes, 1952:195.
6. Davies, 1996:567.
7. The total of nine million deaths can be traced back to Matilda Joslyn Gage, in Woman, Church and State, an early feminist work published in 1893. Gage appears simply to have intuited this figure, offering no basis for it whatever. It has since lived on, often without specific citation—Andrea Dworkin (1974:130) merely calls her all-female version of it “the most responsible estimate.” Indeed!
8. Briggs, 1998; Katz, 1994; Levack, 1995.
9. Assuming an average population total of 35 million for Europe during these three centuries (Russell, 1958) and that, given prevailing life expectancy, the population would have turned over three times a century, 315 million people were at risk of execution for witchcraft.
10. Hyslop, 1925:4.
11. Moreover, “witches” were hanged, not burned, in England.
12. Ewen, 1929; Levack, 1995; Thomas, 1971.
13. Henningsen, 1980.
14. Robbins, 1959.
15. Ankarloo, 1990.
16. Lea, 1906–1907.
17. Larner, 1981.
18. Trevor-Roper, [1969] 2001:141–43.
19. Briggs, 1996:8.
20. Katz, 1994; Levack, 1995.
21. In the most carefully studied and documented of all witch-hunts, 162 persons were accused of witchcraft in Salem, Massachusetts. Of these, 76 were tried, 30 were convicted, and 20 were executed (Levack, 1995).
22. Ibid.; Kamen, 1993, 1997; Katz, 1994.
23. Weisser, 1979.
24. Briggs, 1998:262.
25. Monter, 1999.
26. Hansen, 1969:12.
27. Levack, 1995.
28. Haliczer, 1990; Hamilton, 1981; Henningsen, 1980; Kamen, 1997, 1993.
29. Levack, 1995:92.
30. Briggs, 1989:65.
31. Levack, 1995.
32. Thomas, 1971:438.
33. Summers, 1926, 1927.
34. Murray, 1921, [1933] 1970; also Hughes, 1952; Rose, 1962.
35. Cohn, 1975:109.
36. Briggs, 1998; Cohn, 1975, 2000; Kieckhefer, 1976; Parrinder, 1958; Robbins, 1959; Rose, 1962; Russell, 1972; Thomas, 1971; Trevor-Roper, [1969] 2001.
37. Murray, 1921.
38. Murray, 1954.
39. Russell, 1972:40.
40. Briggs, 1989.
41. Kittredge, 1929:130.
42. Kamen, 1993:238–39.
43. Thomas, 1971:511.
44. Ibid.:508.
45. Monter, 1976:199.
46. Alexander and Selesnick, 1966; Bromberg, 1959; Cartwright and Biddiss, 1972; Freud, [1921] 1959; Sarbin, 1969; Zilboorg, 1935.
47. Midelfort, 1972; Spanos, 1978.
48. Ben-Yehuda, 1981.
49. Although some psychiatric historians suggest that it did, based on circular reasoning from the eruption of witchcraft accusations (see Alexander and Selesnick, 1966).
50. Rosen, 1968.
51. Monter, 1976.
52. Spanos, 1978.
53. Barstow, 1995; Hughes, 1952; Larner, 1984.
54. Barstow, 1995:12.
55. Kra¨mer and Sprenger, [1487] 1928:47.
56. Briggs, 1998; Levack, 1995.
57. Cohn, 1975:xiii.
58. Midelfort, 1972; Trevor-Roper, [1969] 2001.
59. Briggs, 1998; Holmes, 1993.
60. Larner, 1984.
61. Barstow, 1988:17–18.
62. Willis, 1995:13.
63. Levack, 1995.
64. Ibid.:152. Also see Cohn, 2000; Monter, 1976; Thomas, 1971.
65. Rosen, 1968:7.
66. Tillich, 1952:48.
67. Katz, 1994:416n.
68. Walzer, [1963] 1969:140.
69. Ben-Yehuda, 1980:14.
70. Ibid.:24–25.
71. Briggs, 1998:401–2.
72. Macfarlane, 1970.
73. Macfarlane, 1978.
74. Erikson, 1966:4.
75. Ibid.:67.
76. Durkheim, [1895] 1958:67.
77. Coser, 1962; Erikson, 1962, 1966; Homans, 1950.
78. Hirschi, 1973.
79. Gibbs, 1975.
80. Sperber, 1975.
81. Needham, 1972.
82. Currie, 1968; Lea, [1887] 1955; Robbins, 1959.
83. Currie, 1968:21.
84. Cohn, 1975; Read, 1999.
85. Midelfort, 1972.
86. Larner, 1981:116.
87. Henningsen, 1980; Midelfort, 1972; Thomas, 1971.
88. Henningsen, 1980.
89. Thomas, 1971:457.
90. Cohn, 2000:233.
91. Hutchinson, 1720.
92. Trethowan (1963:341) expresses his amazement that there is “a remarkable resemblance” between the discussions of the “psychopathology” of impotence in the Malleus maleficarum and those accepted by him and his fellow Freudians. To anyone but a true believer, that might have been a cause for reflection as to the scientific worth of psychoanalysis.
93. Ibid.:343.
94. Lea, 1867.
95. Robbins, 1959:270.
96. Katz, 1994; Levack, 1995; Monter and Tedeschi, 1986.
97. Kamen, 1993, 1997.
98. Coulton, 1938a:119, 324.
99. Russell, 1972.
100. Trevor-Roper, [1969] 2001:162.
101. Lecky, [1865] 1903.
102. Burckhardt, [1885] 1990.
103. This claim was as fraudulent as those concerning belief in a flat earth or Church opposition to human dissections. For example, in 1619 Pere Gil, rector of the Jesuit College in Barcelona, expressed the orthodox Catholic view that all claims that “witches” could cause bad weather were heretical superstitions, since only God could intervene in the natural causes of storms (Kamen, 1993:241). White was correct that many witches were condemned for causing hailstorms and other bad weather, but this was the work of local, secular courts, or of ignorant and isolated clergy, and was contrary to Church doctrine.
104. Burr, 1897:1.
105. Trevor-Roper, [1969] 2001:163.
106. Ibid.:90.
107. Monter, 1976:29.
108. In Praise of Folly.
109. In Midelfort, 1972:30.
110. William Shakespeare (1564–1616) believed in witches, and so did his audiences (Harris, 1980; Willis, 1995). Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528) did his best to draw accurate portraits of witches revealing their monstrous souls.
111. White, 1997, and Chapter 2.
112. Robbins, 1959.
113. In Ibid.:224.
114. Briggs, 1998.
115. Monter, 1976.
116. Midelfort, 1974; Pagel, 1958.
117. Yates, 1964, 1979.
118. Hobbs, [1651] 1956, 21.
119. Hobbes did not believe that witches truly possessed supernatural powers, but he assumed that they believed they did and tried to use these powers, and therefore were guilty. This leaves his atheism intact but does not qualify him as “enlightened.”
120. Trevor-Roper, [1969] 2001:113.
121. In Preus, 1987:9.
122. Amazingly, having gone on at length about his book on political theory, now largely forgotten and ignored, both the Encyclopaedia Britannica and the New Columbia Encyclopedia fail to mention this, his most influential book by far, in their articles on Bodin.
123. Trevor-Roper, [1969] 2001:112.
124. In Robbins, 1959:54.
125. Feyerabend, 1983.
126. In Jones, 1953:184.
127. LeBon, [1896] 1960.
128. Freud, [1921] 1959.
129. Ibid.:17.
130. Rosen, 1968:5.
131. Cohn, 1975.
132. Turner and Killian, 1987.
133. Midelfort, 1972.
134. Beard, North, and Price, 1998; Cumont, [1912] 1960, [1911] 1956; Mac-Mullen, 1981.
135. In Kieckhefer, 1989:19.
136. Beard, North, and Price, 1998; MacMullen, 1981.
137. Beard, North, and Price, 1998:233.
138. Natural History 30.13.11.3.
139. Beard, North, and Price, 1998.
140. Annals 12.22.
141. Condemnations of love potions, as interfering with freedom of choice and hence being a form of rape, are indistinguishable from contemporary objections to the “date rape drug.”
142. In Thomas, 1971:49.
143. Trevor-Roper, [1969] 2001:85.
144. In Russell, 1972:76–77.
145. Trevor-Roper, [1969] 2001:85.
146. Ecclesiastical History 1.30.
147. Thomas, 1971:48.
148. Brooke and Brooke, 1984.
149. Physica 1.56.
150. In Kieckhefer, 1989:3.
151. In ibid.:4.
152. Porter, 1998.
153. Briggs, 1998:70.
154. In Thomas, 1971:14.
155. Briggs, 1998; Levack, 1995; Russell, 1972; Thomas, 1971.
156. Briggs, 1998.
157. See Russell, 1972:148.
158. Smith, [1776] 1981:792–93.
159. Monter, 1976; Russell, 1972.
160. Text in Kors and Peters, 1972:79.
161. Russell, 1972:151.
162. Ibid.:126–27.
163. Kieckhefer, 1976.
164. Read, 1999.
165. O’Neil, 1984.
166. Thomas, 1971.
167. O’Neil, 1981, 1984, 1987.
168. O’Neil, 1981:19.
169. O’Neil, 1984.
170. O’Neil, 1981:11.
171. Cohn, 1975:169.
172. Kieckhefer, 1976:79–80.
173. Ibid.:22.
174. Midelfort 1981:30.
175. Katz, 1994:417.
176. Henningsen, 1980; Larner, Lee, and McLachlan, 1977; Macfarlane, 1970; Midelfort, 1972; Monter, 1976.
177. Kieckhefer, 1976.
178. Katz, 1994; Levack, 1995.
179. Briggs, 1998:402.
180. Midelfort, 1972.
181. Monter, 1976.
182. O’Neil, 1981, 1984; Kamen, 1993.
183. Norman Davies (1996) gave considerable coverage to the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, but none to these important campaigns.
184. Russell, 1972.
185. Monter, 1976.
186. Midelfort, 1972.
187. Briggs, 1989, 1998.
188. Levack, 1995:102.
189. In Delumeau, 1977:171.
190. Trevor-Roper, [1969] 2001.
191. Katz, 1994:420.
192. Dunn, 1979:295.
193. Kamen, 1993, 1997.
194. Stark, 2001a.
195. Kieckhefer, 1979.
196. Cohn, 1961; Johnson, 1976; Kieckhefer, 1976.
197. Kieckhefer, 1976.
198. Holborn, 1982.
199. Briggs, 1989, 1998; Levack, 1995; Midelfort, 1972; Monter, 1976.
200. Levack, 1995:196.
201. Briggs, 1998; Levack, 1995; Midelfort, 1972; Monter, 1976.
202. Stark, 1998.
203. Robin Briggs (1989:20) suggested that we “regard the whole [witch-hunt] phenomenon as a natural result of powerful tendencies within both Christianity and the development of a higher civilization, and concentrate on explaining why things were not a great deal worse, rather than why they happened at all.”
204. Monter, 1976.
205. Contreras and Henningsen, 1986; Given, 1997; Haliczer, 1990; Henningsen, 1980; Kamen, 1993, 1997; Levack, 1995; Monter, 1990.
206. Lea, 1906–1907, 4:206.
207. Gitlitz, 1996; Netanyahu, 1999.
208. Monter, 1990.
209. Kamen, 1993, 1997.
210. O’Neil, 1987.
211. Ibid.:90.
212. Ibid.
213. Henningsen, 1980; Kamen, 1993, 1997; Levack, 1995; Monter, 1990.
214. Kamen, 1997:237–38.
215. Kamen, 1993, 1997.
216. Kamen, 1993.
217. Bethencourt, 1990:404.
218. Monter and Tedeschi, 1986.
219. Ginzburg, 1983.
220. O’Neil, 1987:94.
221. O’Neil, 1987.
222. Levack, 1995.
223. Ibid.:97.
224. Ibid.:199.
225. Briggs, 1989.
226. Ibid.
227. Levack, 1995:198.
228. Midelfort, 1972:8.
229. Levack, 1995:193.
230. Ibid.:200.
231. Levack, 1995; Monter, 1976.
232. Briggs, 1989.
233. Levack, 1995.
234. Midelfort, 1972:88–90.
235. Ibid.:90–94.
236. Briggs, 1989:92.
237. He did not teach mathematics.
238. Ankarloo, 1990:290.
239. Ankarloo, 1990.
240. Latourette, 1975:738.
241. Johansen, 1990:341.
242. Ibid.
243. Johansen, 1990.
244. Ibid.:348.
245. Naess, 1990.
246. Hastrup, 1990:386; Vésteinsson, 2001.
247. Latourette, 1975.
248. Stark, 2001a; Swatos and Gissurarson, 1997.
249. Hastrup, 1990.
250. Naess, 1990.
251. Ibid.:381.
252. Ibid.
253. Heikkinen and Kervinen, 1990.
254. Ibid., 323–26.
255. Ewen, 1929.
256. Levack, 1995.
257. Thomas, 1971.
258. Lambert, 1992; Latourette, 1975.
259. Robbins, 1959; Thomas, 1971.
260. Thomas, 1971:451.
261. Ibid.:440.
262. In ibid.:441.
263. Levack, 1995:201.
264. Thomas, 1971.
265. Levack, 1995.
266. Latourette, 1975.
267. Ibid.
268. Larner, 1981, 1984.
269. Larner, 1981, 1984; Levack, 1995.
270. Midelfort, 1972:191.
271. Midelfort, 1972; Lea, [1939] 1956, vol.3.
272. Farrington, 1988.
273. Wolfgang, Figlio, and Sellin, 1972.
274. Lea, [1939] 1956, 3:1125.
275. Fischer, 1975.
276. In Robbins, 1959:220–21.
277. Briggs, 1989:59.
278. Barraclough, 1982.
279. Levack, 1995.
280. Thomas, 1971:576.
281. Levack, 1995:240.
282. I am sure others must have objected to witch-hunting earlier, but they are not mentioned in the literature. I omit Michel de Montaigne because his “attack” in the essay “Of Cripples” is so elliptical, amounting to little more than the line, so revered by the proponents of the thesis that it was the Humanists who saved Europe from more witch-hunts, that “it is putting a high price on one’s conjectures to have a man roasted alive because of them.”
283. Kamen, 1993:238.
284. Monter, 1976:32–33.
285. Robbins, 1959.
286. In Robbins, 1959:540.
287. Ibid.:454.
288. Scot, [1584] 1972:7–8.
289. I modernized the spelling.
290. Levack, 1995:239.
291. Briggs, 1998:407.
292. In Kamen, 1997:274.
293. In Robbins, 1959:480.
294. Midelfort, 1972.
295. Thomas, 1971:573.
296. All in Robbins, 1959:45.
297. Monter, 1976:39.
298. Levack, 1995:241.
299. Zwemer, 1921.
300. Abdurrahman, 2000.
301. Zwemer, 1921.
Chapter 4
God’s Justice: The Sin of Slavery
1. Bales, 1999.
2. A subject search through Amazon books produced 2,680 titles.
3. Donald, 1997.
4. Ibid.
5. Patterson, 1982.
6. Boas, 1897:338.
7. Curtis, 1913:74.
8. Fried, 1967:220–23.
9. And what competent sociologist would agree that any societies are not stratified?
10. Rohner and Rohner, 1970:79.
11. During the 1990s, the leading high school textbook for American history, Rise of the American Nation (Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich), flatly asserted that slavery was unknown in North American until introduced by Europeans (Carroll and Shiflett, 2002).
12. See Macleod, 1925, 1928; Nieboer, 1910; Ruby and Brown, 1993; Ruyle, 1973; Siegel, 1945.
13. Suttles and Jonaitis, 1990:87.
14. Donald, 1997:33–34.
15. Nieboer, 1910.
16. During a stay on Debob Bay, an inlet of Puget Sound, my wife and I gathered more than a dozen large crabs in less than fifteen minutes at low tide, using only our bare hands and a sack. The local oysters were so abundant that we could gather them as rapidly as we could pick them up. A crude digging stick sufficed us to obtain a variety of clams. Easily trapped ducks and geese abounded, and the sea was full of fish, including magnificent salmon. An array of wild berries grew all over. If these conditions prevail in modern times, it is impossible to imagine the abundance of the area even a century ago.
17. Gibbon, [1776] 1994, 1:67.
18. Finley, 1980:22.
19. In ibid.:12.
20. Vogt, 1974:25.
21. Finley, 1980:41–42.
22. Ibid.:11.
23. Ibid.:67.
24. Boak and Sinnigen, 1965:157.
25. Grant, 1978:140.
26. Boak and Sinnigen, 1965.
27. Meltzer, 1993.
28. Grant, 1978; Jones, 1956.
29. Gordon, 1924:102.
30. In Meltzer, 1993:150–51.
31. Gordon, 1924:102.
32. Jones, 1956.
33. Meltzer, 1993.
34. Finley, 1981:101.
35. Oratio XXXI 11.
36. In Meltzer, 1993:76.
37. Jones, 1956.
38. Barton, 1993; Beacham, 1999; Finley, 1981; Gordon, 1924.
39. Finley, 1980:149.
40. Thompson, 1957.
41. Davis, 1966:31, 37.
42. Smith, [1776] 1981:389.
43. Cantor, 1993.
44. Dahmus, [1968] 1995.
45. Meltzer, 1993; Phillips, 1998.
46. Bensch, 1998:231.
47. Bloch, [1940] 1961:260.
48. Fogel, 1989:25.
49. Bloch, 1975:23.
50. Bloch, [1940] 1961, 1975; Dahmus, [1968] 1995; Davis, 1966; Pelteret, 1995.
51. Austen, 1979; Curtin, 1969; Gordon, 1989; Lewis, 1990; Lovejoy, [1983] 2000; Mauny, 1970; Segal, 2001; Thomas, 1997.
52. Gordon, 1989:4.
53. Ibid.:57.
54. Gordon, 1989; Lewis, 1990; Lovejoy, [1983] 2000; Segal, 2001.
55. Grun, 1982.
56. Hanson, 2001.
57. Lovejoy, [1983] 2000.
58. Austen, 1979.
59. Ibid.
60. Gordon, 1989:149.
61. Cohn, 1998:290.
62. Segal, 2001:5.
63. Salahi, 1995:375.
64. Gordon, 1989; Lewis, 1990.
65. Lewis, 1990.
66. Gordon, 1989:5.
67. Lovejoy, [1983] 2000; Manning, 1990; Thornton, 1998a.
68. Thornton, 1998b:27.
69. Rodney, 1984.
70. Les Six Livres de la République.
71. In Elkins, [1959] 1976:69.
72. Watson, 1989.
73. This was the famous Somersett decision. I find it difficult to explain why so many historians insist that this was the first great step toward abolition, when there were far earlier European precedents of which the English court seems to have been fully aware. David Brion Davis ([1975] 1999:505) covers his flank by admitting that “seeming precedents” for the Somersett decision could be found in French law, but dismisses these by noting that “the Code Noir of 1685 authorized chattel slavery in the colonies,” which has nothing whatever to do with the free soil principle in France itself. In the same sentence in which he acknowledges “seeming precedents” Davis wrote that “the British were contemptuously amused by pretensions of liberty in Bourbon France,” which would seem adequate evidence of his fundamental anti-Catholic and Anglophile biases.
74. Blackburn, 1998:62.
75. Diamond, 1998; McNeill, 1976.
76. I omitted one African price since it was an order of magnitude higher than the other twelve and was based on only one source.
77. Bean, 1975.
78. Thomas, 1997.
79. Curtin, 1969.
80. Later separated into Haiti and the Dominican Republic.
81. Fogel, 1989.
82. Higman, 1976.
83. Gay, 1969:411. He did go on to admit that “its promulgation marked the beginning of some constraint on masters.”
84. Davis, 1966:258.
85. Goveia, 1969:132.
86. Scarano, 1998:140.
87. Schafer, 1994:2–3.
88. Fifty-two Sundays and thirty-five holy days.
89. Tannenbaum, [1946] 1992.
90. Turley, 2000:58.
91. Goveia, 1969.
92. Schmidt-Nowara, 1999.
93. Klein, 1969:145.
94. Klein, 1967; Meltzer, 1993; Thomas, 1997; Turley, 2000.
95. Dunn, 1972.
96. Harris, 1964:70.
97. Dunn, 1972.
98. Beckles, 1989; Dunn, 1973; Goveia, 1969; Sheridan, 1974; Watson, 1989.
99. In Dunn, 1972:239.
100. Fogel, 1989:36.
101. Dunn, 1972.
102. Goveia, 1969:126.
103. Dunn, 1972:243.
104. Johnston, 1910:231.
105. Mathieson, 1926:38–40.
106. Ibid.:245.
107. Ibid.:244.
108. Craton, 1998; Dunn, 1972.
109. Beckles, 1989; Curtin, 1969; Dunn, 1972.
110. In Elkins, [1959] 1976:77.
111. Johnston, 1910:89.
112. Actually, Manoel de Oliveira Lima (1914) and Gilberto Freyre (1922) anticipated Tannenbaum.
113. Tannenbaum, [1946] 1992.
114. Ibid.:88.
115. Elkins, [1959] 1976:71.
116. See Genovese, 1969b; Goveia, 1969; Klein, 1967, 1986.
117. Harris, 1963, 1964.
118. Genovese, 1969b.
119. See Schwartz, 1992.
120. Davis, 1966:228–29.
121. Ibid.:243.
122. Finley, 1969:260.
123. Fogel and Engerman, 1974.
124. Finley, 1980.
125. Dunn, 1972:225.
126. Emmer, 1998.
127. Elkins, [1959] 1976:77.
128. Green-Pedersen, 1971, 1981.
129. Conrad, 1993, 1983, 1974; Drescher, 1988; Karasch, 1987; Schwartz, 1998, 1992, 1985; Toplin, 1972, 1981.
130. Panzer, 1996:30.
131. Curtin, 1969.
132. Conrad, 1974.
133. Schwartz, 1998:101.
134. Karasch, 1987.
135. Schwartz, 1998.
136. Turley, 2000.
137. Watson, 1989:98.
138. Boxer, 1962; Davis, 1966.
139. See Davis, 1966.
140. Curtin, 1969; Dunn, 1972.
141. Higman, 1976.
142. Fogel, 1989; Fogel and Engerman, 1974.
143. Fogel, 1989.
144. Cobb, [1858] 1968.
145. Morris, 1996.
146. Morris, 1998:257.
147. Data for cities are reconstructed from county data.
148. Ingersoll, 1999.
149. Foner, 1970; Genovese, 1974; Koger, 1985; Menn, 1964; Mills, 1977.
150. Tillich, 1951.
151. Suttles, 1990.
152. Albright, 1957:265.
153. The City of God 1.17–23.
154. Mendelsohn, 1949:123.
155. Schlaifer, 1936.
156. Davis, 1966:66.
157. The emphasis on “classical” education in Britain makes it probable that at least some of the legislators were aware of this Grecian principle.
158. Schlaifer, 1936.
159. Ibid.
160. Politics 1.1254.
161. Schlaifer, 1936:199.
162. In Meltzer, 1993:96.
163. See Blackburn, 1998; Davis, 1966; Meltzer, 1993.
164. In Meltzer, 1993:44.
165. The Dead Sea scrolls, which most authorities associate with the Essenes, include legal codes that did permit slavery of nonbelievers (Vermes, 2000).
166. Every Good Man Is Free 79.
167. On the Contemplative Life 70.
168. See Hurbon, 1992; Noonan, 1993.
169. Maxwell, 1975.
170. Attwater and John, 1995; Thomas, 1997.
171. Brett, 1994; Panzer, 1996.
172. Brett, 1994:57, 78.
173. Summa q.3, a.3.
174. Ibid. q.92, a, 1–2.
175. In Panzer, 1996:8.
176. Cantor, 1993:38.
177. Auping, 1994; Panzer, 1996.
178. Stanley M. Elkins ([1959] 1976:69) knew of these bulls, having written, “[T]he papacy itself would denounce it [slavery] in various ways in 1462, 1537, 1639, 1741, 1815, and 1839.” But that was it! No quotations. No indication of contents or contexts. Nothing. Frank Tannenbaum also knew of these bulls: “The slave trade had been condemned by Pius II on October 7, 1462, by Paul III on May 29, 1537, by Urban VIII on April 2, 1639, by Benedict XIV on December 20, 1741, and finally by Gregory XVI on December 3, 1839. The grounds of the condemnation were that innocent and free persons were illegally and by force captured and sold into slavery, that rapine, cruelty, and war were stimulated in the search for human beings to be sold at profit.” A bit fuller treatment than Elkins gave it, but very little, nonetheless. However, even Elkins gave far more coverage to papal bulls against slavery than have most historians. The only entry for “pope” in the index of David Brion Davis’s celebrated intellectual history of slavery in Western culture (Davis, 1966) is the British poet Alexander Pope. Precisely the same can be said of Robin Blackburn’s extensive study (1998). As for Milton Meltzer (1993), his index doesn’t even include Alexander Pope. Nor is any mention made of popes in Drescher and Engerman’s encyclopedic A Historical Guide to World Slavery (1998), although there are lengthy sections devoted to “Moral Issues” and to “Religion.”
179. Panzer, 1996:19–21.
180. Ibid.:22.
181. Ibid.:33.
182. Ibid.: Appendix C.
183. Latourette, 1975:944.
184. Delumeau, 1977; Genovese, 1974.
185. Auping, 1994:13.
186. Genovese, 1974:179.
187. Blackburn, 1998:291.
188. Blackburn, 1998; Davis, 1966, [1975] 1999; Drescher and Engerman, 1998; Meltzer, 1993; Turley, 2000.
189. Goveia, 1969; Morris, 1996; Schafer, 1994; Watson, 1989.
190. Beckles, 1989; Dunn, 1979.
191. Abou, 1997; Boxer, 1962; Caraman, 1975; Furneaux, 1969; Graham, 1901; Mörner, 1965.
192. The meaning here is similar to that used in cooking, as in reducing a sauce, based on the fact that the Jesuits had concentrated the Guaraní in far denser settlements than those they had inhabited before.
193. In Abou, 1997:65.
194. Garay, [1900] 1965; Madariaga, [1948] 1965; see a summary in Caraman, 1975.
195. Abou, 1997; Caraman, 1975.
196. Murphy, 2001.
197. Hanke, 1951.
198. In Fox, 1913:40.
199. Fiske, 1899:108.
200. Lewis, 1990; Watt, 1961, 1965.
201. In Gordon, 1989:19.
202. I should qualify this assertion by noting the ability of many Protestant theologians to “get around” the fact that Jesus drank wine.
203. Saunders, 1982.
204. Drescher, 1987.
205. McCloy, 1961.
206. Leslie, 1740.
207. Yazawa, 1998:3.
208. Woolman, [1754] 1969.
209. Soderlund, 1985.
210. In Brookes, 1937:475–77.
211. Soderlund, 1985.
212. Davis, 1966.
213. Soderlund, 1985.
214. Auping, 1994; Barnes, [1933] 1964; Strong, 1999.
215. Kraditor, 1967; Mayer, 1998; Nye, 1955.
216. In Ruchames, 1963:78.
217. Mayer, 1998.
218. Auping, 1994.
219. Barnes, [1933] 1964; Strong, 1999.
220. In Auping, 1994:109–10.
221. Auping, 1994.
222. Finney, [1876] 1960:344.
223. Hammond, 1974.
224. Auping, 1994.
225. Asbury, 1958, 2:151.
226. Beard, 1927.
227. Craven, 1942.
228. Fox-Genovese and Genovese, 1987; Mathews, 1977.
229. Ahlstrom, 1972; Anstey, 1975; Barnes, [1933] 1964; Coupland, 1933; Fogel, 1989.
230. Davis, 1966:90.
231. Ibid.:91.
232. Anstey, 1975; Blackburn, 1988; Clarkson, 1808; Drescher, 1987; Eltis, 1987, Temperley, 1998; Walvin, 1981.
233. Green, 1964; Smith, 1986.
234. Anstey, 1975:249.
235. Clarkson, 1808, 1:228–29.
236. Since women were unable to vote, it was thought that their opinions would carry little weight with elected officials.
237. Eltis, 1987.
238. My calculation based on population data from Mitchell, 1962.
239. Fogel, 1989:219.
240. Drescher, 1977.
241. Drescher, 1987:71–72.
242. Drescher, 1987; Green, 1964; Smith, 1986.
243. Temperley, 1998:14.
244. Blackburn, 1988; Daget, 1980; Drescher, 1987; Jennings, 2000.
245. Blackburn, 1988.
246. Jennings, 2000:3–4.
247. Daget, 1980:72.
248. Jennings, 2000.
249. Ibid.:54.
250. Jennings, 2000.
251. Blackburn, 1988; Klein, 1986; Schmidt-Nowara, 1999.
252. Schmidt-Nowara, 1999:7.
253. Conrad, 1993, 1983, 1974; Drescher, 1988; Karasch, 1987; Schwartz, 1998, 1992, 1985; Toplin, 1972, 1981.
254. Drescher, 1988:21.
255. Fogel, 1989.
256. Conrad, 1993; Schwartz, 1998.
257. Merrick and Graham, 1979.
258. Toplin, 1972.
259. Gay, 1969:410.
260. Davis, 1966:391.
261. Gay, 1969.
262. Seeber, 1937.
263. In Davis, 1966:398.
264. Davis, 1966.
265. Paley, [1785] 1827, 87–88.
266. Even in the United States in 1776 they made up only 10 percent of all congregations (Stark and Finke, 1988).
267. Branch, 1988; Fogel, 2000; Morris, 1984.
268. Smith, [1776] 1981:99.
269. In Thomas, 1963:326.
270. Helper, 1857.
271. Olmsted, 1861.
272. Temperley, 1977:105.
273. Davis, [1975] 1999:348–49.
274. Williams, [1944] 1994:135.
275. Ibid.
276. Conrad and Meyer, 1958; Easterlin, 1961; Fogel and Engerman, 1974.
277. Davis, [1975] 1999:233.
278. Ibid.:251.
279. Ibid.:467.
280. Ibid.:350.
281. Ashworth, 1992:182.
282. Haskell, 1992:117.
283. Fogel, 1989:410.
Postscript
Gods, Rituals, and Social Science
1. Durkheim, [1886] 1994:19.
2. Durkheim, [1912] 1995:227.
3. Strenski, 1997.
4. Radcliffe-Brown, 1939:25.
5. Radcliffe-Brown, 1952:155.
6. Yerkes, 1952:4.
7. Freud, [1912–1913] 1950.
8. Money-Kyrle, 1929.
9. Morris, 1987:159.
10. Needham, 1972.
11. Price, 1984.
12. Sperber, 1975:5.
13. Geertz, 1966:19–20.
14. Bellah, 1970:220.
15. Barrett, in press, 2000; Barrett and Lawson, 2001; Lawson and McCauley, 1990.
16. Barrett, in press.
17. They are “smart Gods” according to Barrett.
18. Smith, 1889:53.
19. Durkheim, [1886] 1994:21.
20. Malinowski, 1935:viii.
21. Tylor, [1871] 1958:446.
22. Spencer, 1896, 2:808–9.
23. Mills, 1922:121.
24. Fortune, 1935:357.
25. Benedict, 1938:633.
26. Barton, 1946.
27. Lawrence, 1964.
28. Douglas, 1975:77.
29. MacMullen, 1981:58.
30. Ibid.:53.
31. MacMullen, 1981; Meeks, 1993; Stark, 1996.
32. Stark, 2001b.
33. Chen, 1995; Green, 1988; Lang and Ragvold, 1993.
34. However, this does not mean that the effects of images of God will always outweigh those of religious participation, if for no other reason than that such things as voting or fertility may be more a result of “social” exposure to a particular group than the product of a purely “religious” influence.