SOLOMON MADE AN alliance with Pharaoh king of Egypt and married his daughter. He brought her to the City of David until he finished building his palace and the temple of the LORD, and the wall around Jerusalem. 2The people, however, were still sacrificing at the high places, because a temple had not yet been built for the Name of the LORD. 3Solomon showed his love for the LORD by walking according to the statutes of his father David, except that he offered sacrifices and burned incense on the high places.
4The king went to Gibeon to offer sacrifices, for that was the most important high place, and Solomon offered a thousand burnt offerings on that altar. 5At Gibeon the LORD appeared to Solomon during the night in a dream, and God said, “Ask for whatever you want me to give you.”
6Solomon answered, “You have shown great kindness to your servant, my father David, because he was faithful to you and righteous and upright in heart. You have continued this great kindness to him and have given him a son to sit on his throne this very day.
7“Now, O LORD my God, you have made your servant king in place of my father David. But I am only a little child and do not know how to carry out my duties. 8Your servant is here among the people you have chosen, a great people, too numerous to count or number. 9So give your servant a discerning heart to govern your people and to distinguish between right and wrong. For who is able to govern this great people of yours?”
10The Lord was pleased that Solomon had asked for this. 11So God said to him, “Since you have asked for this and not for long life or wealth for yourself, nor have asked for the death of your enemies but for discernment in administering justice, 12I will do what you have asked. I will give you a wise and discerning heart, so that there will never have been anyone like you, nor will there ever be. 13Moreover, I will give you what you have not asked for—both riches and honor—so that in your lifetime you will have no equal among kings. 14And if you walk in my ways and obey my statutes and commands as David your father did, I will give you a long life.” 15Then Solomon awoke—and he realized it had been a dream.
He returned to Jerusalem, stood before the ark of the Lord’s covenant and sacrificed burnt offerings and fellowship offerings. Then he gave a feast for all his court.
16Now two prostitutes came to the king and stood before him. 17One of them said, “My lord, this woman and I live in the same house. I had a baby while she was there with me. 18The third day after my child was born, this woman also had a baby. We were alone; there was no one in the house but the two of us.
19“During the night this woman’s son died because she lay on him. 20So she got up in the middle of the night and took my son from my side while I your servant was asleep. She put him by her breast and put her dead son by my breast. 21The next morning, I got up to nurse my son—and he was dead! But when I looked at him closely in the morning light, I saw that it wasn’t the son I had borne.”
22The other woman said, “No! The living one is my son; the dead one is yours.”
But the first one insisted, “No! The dead one is yours; the living one is mine.” And so they argued before the king.
23The king said, “This one says, ‘My son is alive and your son is dead,’ while that one says, ‘No! Your son is dead and mine is alive.’”
24Then the king said, “Bring me a sword.” So they brought a sword for the king. 25He then gave an order: “Cut the living child in two and give half to one and half to the other.”
26The woman whose son was alive was filled with compassion for her son and said to the king, “Please, my lord, give her the living baby! Don’t kill him!”
But the other said, “Neither I nor you shall have him. Cut him in two!”
27Then the king gave his ruling: “Give the living baby to the first woman. Do not kill him; she is his mother.”
28When all Israel heard the verdict the king had given, they held the king in awe, because they saw that he had wisdom from God to administer justice.
WHEN SOLOMON WAS born, the prophet Nathan received a message from the Lord declaring his name to be Jedidiah, meaning “the beloved one of Yahweh” (2 Sam. 12:25). The new king ascended by royal and divine sanction, as did the kings of other nations.1 The divine choice of Solomon is confirmed in a dream epiphany in which God grants to him the wisdom he will need to be a successful ruler (3:1–15). The judgment of Solomon in settling the quarrel of the two prostitutes over whose child has survived (3:16–28) serves to exemplify the legendary “wisdom of Solomon.”
The renowned wisdom of Solomon is exemplified in two special collections in the Septuagint (LXX).2 The first collection consists of ten verses after 1 Kings 2:35, the second an additional ten verses after 2:46.3 Both miscellanies are carefully crafted to demonstrate Solomon’s wisdom in his building projects and administrative policies.4 For the ancient translators, these were two primary examples of Solomon exercising wisdom in his rule. Domestic and foreign policies are the fundamental elements of good rule, the way in which justice and peace may be brought to the people. In the Greek Bible this additional commentary serves to introduce the divine legitimation of Solomon.
The Divine Gift of Wisdom (1 Kings 3:1–15)
SOLOMON IS AN eminently successful king renowned for his wisdom and wealth. His success is the result of a superior administration, enabling him to raise revenues far beyond anything previous to that time. The introductory note about Solomon’s marriage to the daughter of Pharaoh (3:1) is significant in relation to his worship at Gibeon and the building of the temple. Solomon has become allied to Pharaoh, likely in connection with Egyptian campaigns into Philistine country (9:16). The daughter of Pharaoh lives in the City of David (the royal fortress on the southeastern hill) until the completion of the royal building projects (9:24). The building of the temple begins in the fourth year of Solomon’s reign (6:1); the death of Shimei takes place at the end of his third year (2:39). The vision at Gibeon takes place in the midst of these complicated political maneuvers. The mention of Pharaoh’s daughter calls attention to Solomon’s prominent international position early in his reign.
It is often suggested that the Greek translators deliberately omit mention of Pharaoh’s daughter (3:1) because they are offended by the thought of a foreign woman in the precincts of the holy city.5 The Greek text does include Pharaoh’s daughter in the first miscellany on wisdom noted above (LXX 2:35–36); the Greek has a completely different arrangement of text rather than a difference in content. The many different details about Solomon’s wisdom, polity, and administration, his visit to Gibeon, and his diplomatic relations with other kings all emphasize the different aspects of Solomon’s wisdom and reign.6 The first part of Solomon’s reign is most magnificent.
Solomon’s choice to worship outside of Jerusalem (3:4) is normal before the completion of the temple (3:2), but the choice of Gibeon is politically expedient.7 Gibeonite territory was one of the first areas to become a part of Saul’s kingdom, and a new king would need to renew the connection with the Gibeonites, possibly through a treaty, in order to become recognized as their ruler.
Gibeon is situated on the western edge of a large and level plateau just over five miles to the west of Jerusalem.8 From Gibeon the roads turns north to Bethel and south to Jerusalem. It guards the roads leading east from the coastal plain through the Aijalon Valley via Beth Horon. Gibeon is the natural hub of conflict between Israel and Judah. It is also home to the largest “high place” (bāmâ) in the country, a prominent location for the worship of Yahweh before worship at the temple in Jerusalem is established.
The bāmâ is a place of worship, but it is not necessarily a “high place.” This English translation is derived from Jerome’s fourth-century Latin, which rendered bāmâ as excelsus (“high, eminent, illustrious”). The term appears over one hundred times in the Bible, primarily for a cultic site of some sort. A comparison of the social context of biblical texts with archaeological evidence of cultic sites indicates that there was a considerable development of worship at such shrines.9
Up until the time of David and Solomon these places of worship are found at locations within Israelite territory as legitimate places of Yahweh worship. They are found within settlements or in the countryside; their architecture ranges from a built-up pilgrimage site (Shiloh) to open-air sanctuaries (Mount Ebal). Sanctuaries excavated from the time of David and Solomon indicate that the bāmâ was usually within a building inside a village or town (Megiddo, Lachish, Beth Shean), often in peripheral locations where ethnically divergent populations may have required special attention to draw them into the Israelite nation. They often include limestone altars and limestone or ceramic stands. These places of worship seem to have become an institution for forging national unification of disparate elements through social and religious control.
This same policy is carried on during the divided monarchy; Dan and Bethel especially are constructed as sites to retain control over northern Israel. But once worship at the temple in Jerusalem is established, these other centers are not regarded as legitimate places for worship of Yahweh. Some of these shrines are not for the worship of Yahweh. Solomon, for example, builds alternate places of worship in Jerusalem for his non-Israelite wives and for the gods of Sidon, Ammon, and Moab (11:7–8). Centuries later, during the times of Hezekiah and Josiah, local places of worship to Yahweh are still in existence, providing certain regional autonomy for disenfranchised priestly groups to conduct worship outside of Jerusalem.
It is not evident that all these shrines can be called a “high place.” Zevit limits the bāmâ to those public places of worship with standing stone pillars called maṣṣebôt.10 The bāmâ is to be distinguished from an altar, as both are said to be present at the same shrine and the former may be found inside a building (2 Chron. 14:2; 31:1; 34:3–4). Sacrifices and offerings are made at or near the high place (1 Kings 3:3; 12:31–32; 22:44), but they are not altars; rather, they only share certain features with altars (cf. 2 Kings 18:22; 21:3). It is a type of platform that could be taken apart stone by stone. It could serve as the base for images and was the location for rituals involving offerings to various deities.
The worship of Solomon at Gibeon may have included a ceremony to achieve political union with a northern territory, but Solomon is also seeking guidance and blessing from Yahweh. Kings were the means of divine blessing, and like other similar royal ceremonies in the ancient Near East, Solomon may have offered his sacrifices in order to receive revelation.
A considerable variety of Assyrian and Babylonian royal inscriptions testify to the experience of a king receiving a message from his god.11 It has been proposed that the entrance of the god into the dream of the king was facilitated by the presence of a statue of the divinity in the temple and particular ritual preparations.12 In the case of Solomon, the presence of the sanctuary, the sacrifices, the night sleep, and a dream are features that have the closest resemblance in Scripture to institutionalized practices designed to receive a divine message.
In Greek practice, rituals referred to as incubation served to facilitate the reception of a divine message (usually for healing). These took place in temples of deceased heroes; purification took place through sacrifice, often accompanied by fasting, special diets, and sexual abstinence. The incubants went to sleep in a special part of the temple that seems to have been an arcade open to the elements on one side. There is little evidence, however, of such practices elsewhere in the ancient Near East; most incidents describe unsolicited dreams with no formal link between any ritual and the dream.13 The sacrifices of Solomon at Gibeon fit this pattern; however, no questions are posed as part of the ceremony, nor is there reference to where he sleeps. From the beginning the divine word determines the structure of the dialogue (v. 5b). Solomon makes his request (vv. 6–9), and God grants the gift (vv. 11–14).
When Yahweh appears in the dream, Solomon makes his request in terms of the covenant relationship established with David his father (v. 6). “Great kindness” is an expression of covenant loyalty, describing integrity in a relationship. David had shown this kind of faithfulness, living before God with equity and justice, so God in turn had been faithful with David in providing a successor to the throne. As a new king Solomon is inexperienced; he is not really a “little child” (v. 7), since he already has a son when he begins his reign. Solomon rules forty years (11:42), and his son Rehoboam is forty-one when he begins to reign (14:21).
As king, Solomon has the well-being of the people at heart; his request is to be able to rule with justice, having the wisdom to hear both sides of every story with a discerning mind (v. 9). As a king whose first concern is the well-being of the people, Solomon is also granted that which he does not request: wealth, honor, and a long life. Though any wise king would receive wealth and honor as a consequence of his good rule, these are given by God in abundant measure, so that Solomon is renowned for the greatness of his kingdom.
After the dream Solomon returns to Jerusalem, where he worships before the ark and has a great feast. Having been assured at Gibeon that his rule is secure, it is only appropriate that he bring offerings before the ark, which contains the words of the covenant with God, and holds a feast with his servants, who will share in his new empire.
Justice of a Wise King (1 Kings 3:16–28)
THE EXCEPTIONAL WISDOM granted to Solomon is next demonstrated in a difficult judicial case. Ancient Mesopotamian kings kept records of exceptional legal cases presented to their deity as a report that they had acted wisely as a just king.14 This report of Solomon’s judicial activity follows a similar practice. The evidence of both parties is presented as given orally before the king (vv. 16–22), and the king sums up the argument (v. 23). It is his responsibility to render a decision when there are no independent witnesses and where there is a great deal of bitterness between the two litigants.
The story has worldwide parallels that have been collocated for comparison.15 It is commonly regarded as a familiar tale that has been linked to Solomon.16 This event is a distinguished example in royal records that demonstrate the fulfillment of the divine promise. The purpose of the prophetic authors in the Bible is not to provide a review of various judicial activities of the king, critical as these are, but merely to illustrate his concern and competence for justice in the exercise of extraordinary wisdom that he has just divinely received.
Several features in the story about Solomon settling the dispute between the two women call attention to his insightful and sympathetic rule. Prostitutes were tolerated as a part of Israelite society, though prostitution was disdained and condemned.17 Ancient prostitutes were generally slaves, often daughters who had been sold by their own parents. Or they were poor women who had never had an opportunity to marry or who had lost their husbands and were not supported by their own families. A levirate marriage (Deut. 25:5–10) required that a widow become the wife of a surviving brother to provide for normal inheritance and to allow the widow to have economic security and the social status of marriage and children. It was possible for a brother to refuse this responsibility.
Prostitutes were most to be pitied as the victims of a society that failed to care for the helpless and the poor.18 Kings were the highest recourse for justice, expected to be in a place of public access to take up the case of the widow, the orphan, and the oppressed. Note how Solomon has time for the most vulnerable of his subjects, not only in terms of their poverty but also in terms of their vices. These victims are not without faults of their own, and in this case at least one woman is prepared to sacrifice the life of a child to spite her housemate and satisfy her own feelings of grief and rage. The story demonstrates not only Solomon’s wisdom, but also a genuine concern for the well-being of all citizens of his kingdom.
The judgment of Solomon shows both mercy and justice—in principle both mutually exclusive, but in practice both indispensably necessary. The Hebrew text makes the circumstances of the death explicit. The two women are together with no “stranger” (zār) present (v. 18); the women have no family, so anyone else in the house would have been a stranger, namely, one of their clients. Since none was present, the death of the infant can only be the responsibility of its mother. The mother of the dead child is charged with being careless, suffocating her child during the night by lying on it (v. 19); this fact can hardly have been known, since the death occurred while the other was asleep. This is a case of the word of one against the word of the other, and there are no witnesses.
There is obviously a lot of animosity between the two women, not surprising in the circumstances in which they live. Solomon’s judgment does not deal with the circumstances of the death of the child or with the various accusations being made. His concern is with the bonding relationship of a mother and her child, which he presumes to be present by virtue of the fact that the case has come before him. The living child has no father, but the true mother is determined to care for her child and to give it hope in this world.
Faced with the horror of watching her child die, the emotions of the true mother compel her to acquiesce to the demands of her wicked partner (v. 26). Once Solomon knows the identity of the true mother, he does not engage in further punishments, either to deal with the cause of the first death or the subsequent criminal actions in switching the children.19 The circumstances of prostitution and the death of the child are regarded as punishment. Justice is best served when tempered with mercy; the life of a child is preserved and the bond of motherhood restored, and there is renewed opportunity to make the best of a bad situation.
The judgment of the new king causes the people to be filled with awe. The response is that of respect due to a king, but there is recognition that this king possesses wisdom beyond that of other mortals. Solomon has received a divine gift that is at work in enabling him to resolve an otherwise impossible case.
Bridging Contexts
WISDOM FOR A KING. The prayer for the heir to the throne, the descendant in the dynasty of David, is that God will grant him the gift of making decisions so the people may live in peace.
Give the king your justice, O God,
and your righteousness to a king’s son.
May he judge your people in righteousness,
and your poor with justice.
May the mountains yield prosperity for the people,
and the hills, in righteousness. (Ps. 72:1–3, NRSV)
Prosperity and peace are possible only when there is justice. It is the responsibility of the king to ensure that justice prevails, particularly for the vulnerable such as orphans and widows. Solomon is fully aware of the difficulty of this great task, and so he prays for wisdom to be able to fulfill his responsibility (3:9). Solomon’s humility in not asking for wealth or the power of vengeance over his enemies becomes the basis for receiving the gift of wisdom (v. 11).
Wealth and honor are benefits for following the ways of wisdom. Wisdom is a tree of life to those who will receive her (Prov. 3:13–18). She is worth more than gold, silver, or pearls, but at the same time she dispenses them; long life is in her right hand, in her left hand wealth and honor (v. 16). Her ways lead to favor, her paths are the way to “prosperity” (šālôm; cf. Ps. 72:3; Prov. 3:17). The person who finds wisdom is called “blessed” (Prov. 3:13; ʾešer). This word needs to be distinguished from declarations of praise or receiving of benefits (bārûk).
This blessedness describes the character and distinction of a person; all nations recognize the stature of a wise king (Ps. 72:17; cf. 1 Kings 10:8).20 The ruler who acts with insight to the poor is so blessed (Ps. 41:1); Yahweh will protect him, preserve him, and declare him fortunate (1:2). The person who does not follow in the paths of the ungodly but who delights in the instruction of Yahweh finds such favor (Ps. 1:1–2).
Proverbs warns against trusting our own wisdom (Prov. 3:7). Those who fear Yahweh will know how to honor him with their wealth (3:9) and will in turn find that God delights in enabling them to be prosperous. Wisdom means first to trust Yahweh in all our ways, not trusting in our own understanding, so that God may direct our paths (3:3–4). The humility of Solomon in asking for wisdom is evidence of his fear of Yahweh.
The ancient Near Eastern kings did not divide their world into the sacred and the profane. The most “profane” experience was religious, for the divine order was always present.21 Wisdom was the expression of trust in God, conduct that would bring honor to God. The fear of Yahweh was the instinctive and intuitive recognition of the total claim of God, which was felt in religious and moral issues.22 Solomon, in his request, is an example of the fear of Yahweh as the beginning of wisdom (Job 28:28; Prov. 1:7; Eccl. 12:13).
Lady Wisdom describes herself as the firstborn of creation; she is the essence of good order (Prov. 8:22–31). Her origin before creation is repeated in relation to various aspects of creation, providing a description of the cosmos, above and below. Lady Wisdom concludes with a statement of her own place in creation:
I was beside him as an ʾmwn,
I was delight day by day,
playing before him all the time,
playing on the surface of his earth,
and my delight (was) with humankind. (Prov. 8:30–31)23
The ʾmwn is either a craftswoman playing a role in the activity of creation or a child delighting in God’s presence. Von Rad viewed Lady Wisdom as a personification of the world order central to sapiential thinking. The most interesting feature “is that this world order turns, as a person, towards men, wooing them and encouraging them in direct address. What is objectified here, then, is not an attribute of God but an attribute of the world, namely that mysterious attribute, by virtue of which she turns towards men to give order to their lives.”24 Wisdom, however, is somehow identified with Yahweh; the call of Lady Wisdom is the call of Yahweh. She is the revelation of God, not merely the self-revelation of creation. In asking for wisdom, Solomon is seeking the will of Yahweh in governing the people.
As von Rad had said earlier, wisdom is the form in which the will of Yahweh and his salvation approaches humankind.
Wisdom is the essence of what man needs for a proper life, and of what God grants him … wisdom is truly the form in which Jahweh makes himself present and in which he wishes to be sought by man. “Whoso finds me, finds life” (Prov 8:35). Only Jahweh can speak in this way. And yet, wisdom is not Jahweh himself; it is something separate from him: indeed, it once designates itself as Jahweh’s creature, albeit the firstborn of all creatures (Prov 8:22), and identifies itself with the thoughts which God cherished in creating the world (Prov 3:19).25
To make a distinction between God and creation in Lady Wisdom is not necessary.26 Ultimately the revelation of creation is the revelation of God. God speaks to humans through his works in creation.
Wisdom may be described as that which is found (Prov. 3:13), but it is received through instruction and teaching, particularly from parents (1:8). The divine gift of wisdom that Solomon receives must be distinguished from the acquisition of wisdom as it is described in Proverbs, but it is not different in kind. It is a special dispensation, granted on the basis of a divine offer as evidence that God has truly ordained Solomon to rule as king. When it comes to the exercise of wisdom, Solomon follows the principles of order and justice. In the case of the two prostitutes, it is evident to Solomon that the love of the true mother for her child is the impetus for this case coming before him. In appealing to those instincts, he is able to restore the child to its true parent without undue harsh punishment on the other angry and grieving mother.
David instructed Solomon to act in wisdom in order to consolidate his reign. Wisdom in that instance was to act prudently in removing rivals such as Joab, who might threaten the stability of the military (1 Kings 2:6), and Shimei, who still had the potential to stir up an insurrection against the throne (2:9). Wisdom to rule as a competent and effective king consisted of much more than acting expeditiously in securing power and control. Control established by coercive force cannot bring about justice and deliverance that characterize the rule of a good king. They might be justified in consolidating rule, but they can never be the means to the goals of good rule. Wisdom adequate for the ideals of kingship must be divinely bestowed and humbly accepted. It is the skill necessary to maintain justice in contentious situations. The legitimation of the reign of Solomon as a wise king is established in a vision that assures him of the wisdom necessary to judge a great and sometimes difficult nation (3:9).27 The challenge of his task and his readiness for it is illustrated in the story of the two prostitutes.
The choice of wisdom is not as obvious as it might appear. Lady Wisdom has prepared a great banquet and sent her maidens asking all to benefit from her feast (Prov. 9:1–6). Lady Folly also stations herself in the marketplace of life, making tantalizing and tempting offers to all who pass by minding their own affairs (9:13–18). She calls from the streets and the door of her house, luring the naïve with promises of pleasure; they follow her enticements without any suspicion that they are on the path of death.
Contrasting David and Solomon. The account of Solomon and the two prostitutes can be contrasted with David and the folly of his actions with Bathsheba (2 Sam. 11–12).28 David and Solomon each make a choice, live with the consequences of their choice, and are scrutinized by the effect their choice has on others. The choice of wisdom or folly involves an act, its consequence, and an evaluation.
David’s folly began with the Ammonite war (2 Sam. 10–12) and resulted in the death of a child and in continual conflict within his family, until it was finally resolved with the execution of Adonijah. The curse of conflict in the house of David was only resolved with the enthronement of Solomon, whose kingship was validated by the giving of wisdom at Gibeon and the celebration before the ark in Jerusalem. In contrast to David’s adultery, Solomon is then confronted with two prostitutes, who are functionally widows, since they have no male to protect them or provide for them. His intervention results in saving the life of a child as well as the unqualified support of all the people for his function as king.
The pattern of act, consequence, and evaluation is totally different for Solomon. Solomon, in seeking divine favor, leaves his capital to offer sacrifices at Gibeon, where wisdom comes to him in a dream. David sleeps by day in his capital and desires what is abhorrent to God. David seeks satisfaction for himself, while Solomon is concerned about duty to the people. The wise king can judge between two prostitutes; the immoral king commits adultery and brings a curse upon his house. The wicked king lives with deceit, trickery, and murder; the wise king receives riches, honor, and a long life. The judgment on the wicked king is brought before “all Israel” (2 Sam. 12:10–12), while “all Israel” holds the wise king in reverence (1 Kings 3:28). These two stories show us that the ways of wisdom lead to life and peace, while the ways of folly lead to destruction and death.
This contrast of folly and wisdom in the birth and accession of Solomon does not determine the final valuation of the lives of David and Solomon. David is the servant king who becomes the standard by which all later kings are measured (1 Kings 15:11; 2 Kings 18:3; 22:2). David’s confession of his sin (2 Sam. 12:13) and his choice of Solomon as king (1 Kings 1:30), who loves the Lord and asks for wisdom, redeems him from the folly of his ways. Solomon, by contrast, does not escape the ways of folly. The verdict on his reign is that he does what is wrong in Yahweh’s opinion (11:6).
The three tasks of a king are saving, ruling, and judging. This is readily seen in the scriptural songs about kingship. In the Song of the Sea (Ex. 15:1–18), the Israelites celebrated the kingship of Yahweh (“the LORD”) over Pharaoh. The song first praises Yahweh as the “man of war” (v. 3), who casts Pharaoh and his armies into the sea. The song goes on to praise Yahweh for the redemption of his people, leading them to his holy place (v. 13); finally the song praises the rule of Yahweh as the eternal king (v. 18).
The same pattern is found in the Psalms. Psalm 98 first praises “the LORD” (Yahweh) as the one who delivers his people and makes known his salvation (98:1–3); it then praises Yahweh as king (vv. 4–6) and finally as the judge who brings justice to all the earth (vv. 7–9).
Psalm 96 has an identical pattern, but the same motifs may be found in all the psalms that praise God as king.29 Saving, ruling, and judging are interrelated functions; the king who exercises judgment over evil and brings justice to the people brings about peace or deliverance. Apart from the coercion of governance there is no control over evil, and there can be no justice or peace. Solomon is introduced as a king endowed with wisdom so these functions can be exercised to the ideal.
Contemporary Significance
PRAYING FOR THOSE in authority. Prayer for those in authority in governance has dimensions in the New Testament that go beyond that of Solomon. Solomon makes his appeal on the basis of covenant fidelity, which Yahweh had shown to his father David in making him king (1 Kings 3:6). Under the new covenant no one government represents the kingdom of God, but government makes possible the advancement of the kingdom.
This is true even when a government is hostile to Christians and restricts or persecutes expression of faith in Christ. The apostle Paul was able to spread the gospel across Asia Minor and as far as Rome because of the security and order provided by pax Romana. The apostle therefore urges prayer and petition, making intercession, and giving of thanks for all persons. This specifically includes kings and all those in a place of preeminence, in order that Christians may lead a quiet and peaceful life with respect and dignity (1 Tim. 2:1–2).
Prayer for government is important not only to provide for good order, but is necessary because it is God’s will that all should be saved and come to knowledge of the truth (1 Tim. 2:3–4). Solomon can assume the loyalty of his people, since all are to be “circumcised in mind” to love (be loyal to) God with all their will and emotion (Deut. 30:6). They shared in the covenant that requires a renewed commitment every seven years (31:9–13).
Such political conditions are never true for the church. The followers of Christ find themselves in a world where their values are often hated, since they do not belong to this world (John 17:14). The place of the Christian is in this world, but Christians must learn to live apart of this world’s values and will need divine protection from evil forces in the world (17:15–18). The Christian is sent into the world to bear witness to the truth revealed in Christ. This includes testimony to those in authority, sometimes charged with the responsibility of opposing what Christians represent, since God desires their salvation as well. The prayers of the Christian are for the kingdom to come to the hearts of those with political power.
Christians are obligated to pray for the kind of order that Solomon desires. Even governments with an ideological antipathy to Christian values have a responsibility to protect the freedom of all citizens of their domain. These governments are God’s provision for life in his world as long as they are there. Prayers and thanksgiving must be made on behalf of all who are in authority (1 Tim. 2:1–2). If God ordains prayer for those leaders hostile to Christian values, it is surely a privilege and responsibility to pray for those leaders who pray themselves. Though the policies of such a leader may be hated, even as there are those who hated Solomon and attempted to displace him, it is important to pray that divine wisdom be granted.
For over half a century now in the United States, the National Prayer Breakfast has been a symbol of the vital place of faith in the life of the nation. It has been a call to leaders of a purpose and power greater than their own. In times of calm and in times of crisis it has called the nation to pray for its leaders. The Office of the Press Secretary posted the following remarks by President George W. Bush at the National Prayer Breakfast of 2002:
In this time of testing for our nation, my family and I have been blessed by the prayers of countless Americans. We have felt their sustaining power and we’re incredibly grateful. Tremendous challenges await this nation, and there will be hardships ahead. Faith will not make our path easy, but it will give us strength for the journey.30
In that same speech the president said the following about the significance of prayer for the presidency and the nation:
Since we met last year, millions of Americans have been led to prayer. They have prayed for comfort in time of grief; for understanding in a time of anger; for protection in a time of uncertainty. Many, including me, have been on bended knee. The prayers of this nation are a part of the good that has come from the evil of September the 11th, more good than we could ever have predicted. Tragedy has brought forth the courage and the generosity of our people.
None of us would ever wish on anyone what happened on that day. Yet, as with each life, sorrows we would not choose can bring wisdom and strength gained in no other way. This insight is central to many faiths, and certainly to faith that finds hope and comfort in a cross.31
No amount of wisdom can protect a nation against the horrors of war and terror, a point that no doubt is well understood by Solomon. At such times the administration of a nation can be most difficult, the issues can be extremely divisive. Solomon’s prayer is at a time when his own nation has considerable internal conflict. His prayer for wisdom is a particular reminder of the importance of recognizing God’s sovereign direction.
Wisdom for daily life. As is demonstrated in Solomon’s prayer, wisdom begins with a choice for God: “The fear of the LORD is the beginning of wisdom, knowledge of the Holy One is understanding” (Prov. 9:10). Such wisdom is called a “tree of life” (Prov. 3:18). The tree of life in the Garden of Eden is forever in the past; in this world we will always be mortals dealing with conflict and death. We look forward to the tree of life in the future, described by John as granting us eternal healing for all that ails (Rev. 22:1–2). There is, however, a tree of life for us now in the present. Wisdom is not simply ability to make right decisions or intelligence to know all the right things. Wisdom begins with the choice of learning to trust God; God in turn makes provision for peace and prosperity.
Wisdom to live this good life has eluded every society of every civilization. Every society has those individuals who have been coerced into a base way of life such as prostitution, or who have found it as the least evil of available choices. Others voluntarily have chosen violence and the violation of others as a way of life. Not all receive much from the tree of life called wisdom. The failure to provide for a good life within societies is also the responsibility of government. Government must make possible conditions in which each person has opportunity to make responsible choices for economic independence. Government must also provide a form of justice in which the grievances of individuals for unjust treatment can be addressed. The reign of Solomon demonstrates both the significant role that good government can have and the limitations every government faces in the complexity of dealing with diverse societies.
Solomon was able to deal with the grievances of two prostitutes, but he was never able to address the evil of prostitution itself. Poor social conditions led to economic prostitution; the presence of the high places and foreign religions led to cultic prostitution. Government, however wise, has its limitations. It is possible, though, for good governors to see the good in people who are otherwise regarded as outside the pale of a good life.
The prostitute in Israel was designated a “strange woman” (zônâ), designating her status as one outside the normal function of society, an outcast though not an outlaw. She was desired and despised, sought after and shunned. The story of the two prostitutes assumes these attitudes towards prostitution. Solomon in his wisdom is able to see individuals, their emotions, and their needs, rather than just another representative of a pitiful class of people. A woman might be a prostitute, but that does not make her less of a caring mother.32 Society as a whole has little ability to make these distinctions, to see the good in the ugly, to distinguish that which must be affirmed from that which is destructive.
Prejudice is a problem that plagues every society within the human race. Prejudice is a problem of generalization. It is the problem of assuming that every individual within a class of people share all the characteristics of that class. Prejudice grows out of a belief in proverbial sayings like “birds of a feather flock together.” It is true that people develop associations with those that share their outlook on life and that individuals within a group reinforce their world view on all the individual members. But it is an error to assume that certain classes of people have somehow abandoned all knowledge of common human values. It takes wisdom to know how to deal with particular individuals in problematic situations. Solomon demonstrates the kind of insight that enables us to respect other individuals no matter what class associations they may happen to have.
It is the dream of all mortals that wisdom will simply come as a divine gift in a dream and enable them to make all the right decisions all of the time. The experience of Solomon is unusual, just as his position is unusual. Wisdom is a choice to follow God, with the knowledge that good choices will be made because of that choice.
This does not make sense to everyone. Christians choose the way of the cross as the wisdom that saves (1 Cor. 1:18–31). This is foolishness to those who seek signs, some miraculous revelation that will bring about knowledge of how to live in this world. This is foolishness to the philosophers who think that human thought will bring about the wisdom required for life in this world. Paul preached Christ crucified, foolishness to the wise of this world, but the power and wisdom of God to those who follow him. Wisdom in the time of Christ is to make a choice to become his disciple in all our other decisions. It may not always be possible to make decisions that are self-evidently the best, but it is possible to know that our values are those that bring about right relationships with God and others.