Photos and figures indicated by italicized page numbers.
Aberfan, Wales school, 17
Aberthaw limestone, 148
acoustics of concrete, 80, 241
in the Sydney Opera House, 288, 294, 299
impact of outside noise, 296
and the Unity Temple, 257
Adler and Sullivan (company), 248, 249
adobe brick. See brick; clay Aelian Bridge, 339
high aggregate lime in Roman cement, 36, 83, 89, 98
hopper to accurately measure (“aggremeter”), 274
pottery fragments used as, 76, 78, 109, 148
rocks and stones used as, 81, 82, 89
kurkar aggregate, 101–102, 104, 107
shale aggregate, 308
use of by Wright, 255
in the Unity Temple, 258, 271–72
use of different aggregates in the Pantheon, 132
use of in Edison's cement houses, 238, 239, 241
volcanic pumice used as, 132
See also pozzolana “aggremeter,” first, 274
agriculture as a basis for modern civilization, 27, 33, 35, 41, 54
leading to development of writing, 55–56
Agrippa, Marcus, 93–100, 95, 133
Agrippa II (king), 105
Agrippina (empress), 109
Alcantara Bridge, 330
Alexander (son of Herod), 104
Alexander I (tsar), 164
Alexander the Great, 100
Alexandria, Lighthouse of, 74
alkalinity
and iron oxidation, 319–20, 323
use of alkaline wastes in Aspdin's cement, 199
Allen, Geoff, 204
Alsen'sche Portland Cementfabrik, 203
aluminosilicates, 63, 69, 204, 205, 212
aluminum bronze alloys, 336, 337, 338, 342
Alvord Lake Bridge (pedestrian tunnel), 311, 313, 322
damaged state of, 326
world's oldest surviving reinforced concrete structure, 225
American Concrete Institute, 308
American Interstate Highway System, 273
American Portland Cement Association, 184
American Society of Civil Engineers, 225, 329–30
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 241
Anastasius (emperor), 106
Anatolia. See Çatalhöyük; Çayönü; Göbekli Tepe; Lepenski Vir; Nevali Çori
Andernach and discovery of trass, 143–45
Anderson, W. P., 231
Anderson and Eisner (company), 231
Antoninus Pius (emperor), 123
APCM. See Associated Portland Cement Manufacturers
Apollodorus of Damascus, 120, 122, 127–28, 134
archaeolgical data, 108
Bristol, England dockyard floor, 204
Çatalhöyük, 34–35, 37, 40, 49, 54
Çayönü, 32–35, 36–37, 40, 44, 45, 47, 49, 54
Göbekli Tepe, 30–32, 38–40, 42, 45–46, 49
Golden House in Rome, 112
Lepenski Vir, 54
on Roman use of varieties of concrete, 108
archaeomineralogists, study of kilning of limestone, 40–54
Archimedes, 184
architects and engineers working with concrete. See Brunel, Marc Isambard; Coignet, François; Crampton, Thomas; Dobbs, Edgar; Edison, Thomas; Francis, Charles; Frost, James; Giocondo, Giovanni; Jessop, William; Lambot, Jean-Louis; Lockwood, William; Monier, Jacques; Pasley, Charles William; Pulham, James; Ransome, Ernest; Ransome, Frederick; Smeaton, John; Vicat, Louis; Vitruvius Pollio, Marcus; White, Canvass; White, John Bazley; Wright, Frank Lloyd; Wyatt, Charles; Wyatt, Samuel
Architecture hydraulique (Bélidor), 144
Arctic Oil Company Works, 225, 312–13
Aristobulus IV, 104
Armstrong, William, 171
Arnold, Philip, 221
Aspdin, James, 190
Aspdin, Ord & Co., 196
Aspdin, Thomas, 184
Aspdin, William, 171, 185, 188–90, 204, 209, 211, 221
Aspdin, William Altona, 202
Associated Portland Cement Manufacturers, 213
Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal, 36
Augustus Caesar (emperor), 84, 90, 90, 93, 100, 127
Ausgeführte Bauten und Entwürfe von Frank Lloyd Wright [Studies and Executed Buildings of Frank Lloyd Wright] (Wright), 260
Australia
producing own cement, 214
Sydney Opera House, 287–300, 297
Australian Liberal Party, 296–98
Babbage, Charles, 184
“bad asphalt,” 25
Baudot, Anatole de, 273
Bayonne, NJ, borax refinery, 227, 303–304
beauty, concrete's potential for, 128, 132, 299, 339
Beeching, Richard, 339
Bekins Van and Storage Company 308–309, 311–13
Bélidor, Bernard Forest de, 144
Bellefontaine, OH, and first concrete street, 273, 338
betonite clay, Edison's use of, 239
Beverley, William, 189
Bleibtreu, Leopold, 211
Bloch, Ernest, 288
bone dust, 198
Bourn and Wise winery building, 226
Braidwood, Linda and Robert, 32–35, 37, 40, 45
Branner, John Casper, 310
breakwaters. See harbors and breakwaters
Breasted, James, 33
brick, 185
adobe brick, 34–35, 48, 56, 58–59, 61, 80
ease of access through walls made of, 80
brickdust as major ingredient in caementis, 109, 148, 151, 157. See also Roman cement
covering brick
with granite or marble for elegance, 22, 93, 110
use of stucco over, 155
fireproof nature of, 157, 302–303
impact of 1906 earthquake on, 308–313, 315–17
burned bricks as clinkers, 188. See also clinkering
Monadnock Building, 228
Roman brick
and the Colosseum, 115
and the Pantheon, 118, 131, 133–34
and the Roman Senate House, 134
used over concrete, 110–11, 273, 279, 339
in Thames Tunnel, 166–69, 173–75, 179–80, 204
used to make kilns, 43
use of by Wright
in Johnson Wax building, 273, 279
in the Midway Gardens, 261
in the Peacock Room, 269
bridges and locks, 18, 273, 301, 319, 328, 330, 334–35, 337, 342
and reinforced concrete, 338–41
care of steel bridges, 320. See also Golden Gate Bridge
comparison of various rebars use in, 337, 342
current state of repair of US bridges, 328–29
Smeaton's version of, 146
world's first concrete bridge, 206. See also Souillac Bridge
world's first reinforced concrete bridge, 225
world's oldest surviving reinforced concrete structure, 225. See also Alvord Lake Bridge
See also Aelian Bridge; Alcantara Bridge; Charles Bridge; Coldstream Bridge; Fra Giocondo's Bridge; London Bridge; Panama Canal; Perth Bridge; Risorgimento Bridge; Westminster Bridge
impact of World Wars on cement production, 214
use of clay mixed with lime (Roman cement), 152–53, 156–58, 186–189, 198, 200–201, 205–207, 216
using term Portland cement, 171, 184, 186–200, 203–206, 208
See also Aspdin, Joseph; Aspdin, William; Brunel, Marc Isambard; Frost, James; Pasley, Charles William; Roman cement; Smeaton, John; Wyatt, Charles; Wyatt, Samuel
British Cement Makers Federation, 184
“British marble,” 207
British Society for Extending the Fisheries and Improving the Seacoasts of This Kingdom, 153
bronze. See aluminum bronze alloys
Brunel, Isambard Kingdom, 171, 174–80, 183, 195, 204
Brunel, Marc Isambard, 158–65, 172, 182–84, 195, 211, 317
and the building of the Thames Tunnel, 166–82
knighting of, 182
Builder (periodical), 194
Buschbaum, Alfred, 200
caementis [rocky stuff], 82. See also lime; Roman cement
Caesar, Julius, 134
Caesarea
building the Harbor of Caesarea, 91–106, 96, 108
capture by Crusaders in 1099, 106
calcium carbonate, 25–26, 29, 51, 57, 148, 187, 205, 331
calcium oxide, 16, 29, 44, 51, 76, 187, 331
calcium phosphate, 198
California Academy of Sciences display hall, 226
California Portland Cement Company, 223
See also Erie Canal; Forth and Clyde Canal; Lee Navigation; Panama Canal; Ripon Canal
cantilevered floors of Fallingwater, 276–77
large CO2 emissions from concrete manufacturing, 22, 330–31
carbon fiber rebar, 335–36, 338
Carlton, Julian, 263
Carnegie, Andrew, 228
Carpentier, François, 159–60 Cassius Dio Cocceianus, 133
cast concrete, 208–209, 336–37
use of by Wright, 250–52, 255–56, 269, 271
cast ornamental embellishments, 252, 258, 261–62, 268, 271
use of Portland cement, 218, 222
See also Ennis House; form-construction; Imperial Hotel in Tokyo, Peacock Room; Larkin office building; Sweeney Observatory
Castries, Charles de la Croix, marquis de, 159
Çatalhöyük, 34–35, 37, 40, 49, 54
Cato the Elder, 77–80, 82–83, 87, 90, 157, 205
Çayönü, 32–37, 40, 44, 45, 47, 49, 54
cement. See British cement; hydraulic mortar, stucco, and cement; natural cement; Portland cement; Roman cement
Cement and Engineering News (periodical), 314
cement-mixer truck, first, 274
CEMEX (company), 215
temperatures for crafts requiring kilning, 49
Charles Bridge [Karl
v most] in Prague, 342
Charles Francis & Son, 197
Cheney, Martha Borthwick “Mamah,” 260, 263
Chicago, IL
Oak Park's Unity Temple, 253–57
Chicago Architectural Club, 250
Chichen Itza, 269
Childe, V. Gordon, 33
chlorides
and oxidation, 319. See also calcium chloride; sodium chloride
steel vulnerable to, 334
Churchill, Winston, 204
Cincinnati Planning Commission and the Ingalls Building, 231–32
Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra, 288
cistern on island of Rhodes, 70, 75, 88, 107
Citizen Kane (movie), 275
City Hall (San Francisco), 314–15
Claudius (emperor), 104–105, 107, 109
adobe brick, 34, 35, 48, 56, 58–59, 61
ease of access through walls made of, 80
and aluminosilicates, 212
betonite clay, Edison's use of, 239
and cuneiform writing, 55–56 and fly ash, 69. See also pozzolana
in Aberthaw limestone, 148
kilned clays, 109, 148–49, 155, 157
classified as pozzolana, 69
replacing with fly ash and slag, 332
rotary kilns, 215–16, 220, 228, 236
used in Portland cement, 212. See also Portland cement
mixed with lime (Roman cement), 205–206, 331. See also Portland cement
creating a natural cement, 149
rediscovered by Smeaton, 148–49, 151, 188
used at ancient sites, 35, 42, 49, 63–64, 100, 138, 204, 438
use of by Bleibtrau, 211–12 use of by Vicat, 205–206 use of by White, 219
use of in variations of British cement, 152–58, 186–89, 198, 200–201, 205–207, 216
used in bowls and figurines, 28, 35, 37, 48. See also ceramics
use of in molds, 208. See also cast concrete
clay brick. See adobe brick
Cleopatra (queen), 99
clinkering, 188, 192, 207, 216
and Portland cement, 196–98, 203–206
coffers, use of in the Pantheon, 125, 131–32
Coignet, François, 217
Coldstream Bridge, 146
cold twisting used to reinforce concrete, 224–25. See also Ransome, Ernest; reinforced concrete
Colosseum of Rome, 113–17, 115
Colossus of Rhodes, 74
Columbia State University, 64
compressive strength of concrete. See strength of concrete
concrete. See British cement; cast concrete; curing and concrete; exfoliation; “high-strength” concrete; hydraulic mortar, stucco, and cement; lime; limestone; longevity of concrete; Minoan concrete; Portland cement; pozzolana; pyramids; reinforced concrete; restoration of concrete structures; Roman cement; Roman concrete; strength of concrete; world imagined without concrete
concrete artifacts. See archaeolgical data
concrete homes. See houses made of concrete
containment methods used in building of the Harbor of Caesarea, 100–103
Copeland, Aaron, 288
Coplay Cement Company, 228
copper metallurgy, appearance of in Neolithic Age, 48
temperatures for crafts requiring kilning, 49
copper sulfate, 197
corrosion and reinforced concrete, 16, 319–25, 333
as an electrochemical process, 333–34
examples of disintegration, 323, 324
higher when “high-strength” concrete cement used, 329
ways to prevent corrosion, 321
See also restoration of concrete structures
Cosa (Portus Cosanus), 76
Country Party of Australia, 296–98
Courland, Robert, 17
Crampton, Thomas, 216
Crowley, Aleister, 290
Curia Julia. See Roman Senate House [Curia Julia]
curing and concrete, 212, 231, 320, 323, 327–28
Dadiwan culture, excavations of, 54
dams. See Grand Coulee Dam; Hoover Dam; Kemal Atatürk Dam; Three Gorges Dam
Das System Monier (Wayss), 217
De Agricultura [On Farming] (Cato), 77–78, 90
De Architectura [On Architecture] (Vitruvius Pollio), 83–85, 87, 90, 108, 140, 142
1511 edition of, 151
1771 edition of, 258
Delabigarre, Pierre, 162
de La Croix, Charles. See Castries, Charles de la Croix
dendriform columns, 280
Denial of Disaster (Hansen and Condon), 306
Denmark, producing own cement, 214
Der Eisenbetonbau—Seine Theorie und Anwendung [Reinforced Concrete Construction—Its Theory and Application] (Mörsch), 304–305
De Re Rustica [On Rural Affairs] (Cato). See De Agricultura [On Farming] (Cato)
Diocletian (emperor), 134
pyramid of, 58
Dodd, Ralph, 165
domes and vaults, building of, 134
Pantheon's dome, 124, 125, 128, 130–33
Domitian (emperor), 113, 117, 122, 127
Domus Aurea [“Golden House”], 110–12
Drexel University, 64
Dulague, Vincent, 159
Dutch. See Holland
Earthquake Damage and Earthquake Insurance (Freeman), 315
earthquakes
and reinforced concrete as earthquake proof, 301–305
Hansen study of impact of earthquakes, 305–306
damaging Harbor of Caesarea in 130 CE, 105–106
Great Kanto earthquake of 1923, 267, 269–70
San Francisco earthquake of 1906, 18, 233, 235, 303, 305–311, 318
Szechuan earthquake of 2008, 17, 18
Wright's desire to build to withstand, 264–68
Edison, Thomas, 146, 229, 235–45, 244, 245, 246
Edison Ore Mining Company, 236
Edison Portland Cement Company, 236
Église Saint-Jean-de-Montmartre, 273
Egypt and use of concrete, 57–67
Ehrenwiesen, Hildegard Anna Augusta Elizabeth Freiin Rebay von. See Rebay, Hilla
Einstein, Albert, 275
elasticity vs. rigidity question, 268, 310–11
El Campani bell tower, 313
Elizabeth II (queen), 299
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 249
Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911 edition), 304
engineers. See architects and engineers working with concrete
English Heritage, 339
environmental aspects of concrete manufacture
concrete's reuse of chips from making millstones, 143–44
concrete's reuse of slag and fire ash from coal-powered plants, 331–32
large CO2 emissions, 22, 330–31
Ernest L. Ransome (company), 222
Evans, Robert, 32
exfoliation, 111, 157, 302, 304, 312
Experiments and Observations Made with the View of Improving the Art of Composing and Applying Calcareous Cements, and of Preparing Quicklime (Higgins), 151
Fair, James, 221
Fallingwater, 248, 276–77, 279, 282, 283–84, 327
“Father of Modernism.” See Sullivan, Louis
Favorinus of Arelata (Arles), 125
Fawcus, Robert, 200
Ferro-Concrete Constuction Company, 232
fire-load analysis, 16
Fire Prevention and Fire Protection as Applied to Building Construction (Freitag), 304
“fireproofing” and use of reinforced concrete, 225, 301–305
failure to prove, 304–305, 314
Pacific Coast Borax Company's refinery fire, 303–304
fires. See Great Fire of 1871 (Chicago Fire); Great Fire of 64 CE (Rome); Pacific Coast Borax Company's refinery; San Francisco, CA, earthquake of 1906
Fitzpatrick, F. W., 316
Flavian Amphitheater. See Colosseum of Rome
Flood, James, 221
fly ash
and clay, 69. See also pozzolana
reuse of to make concrete, 332
Fondaco dei Tedeschi, 142
forest fire and the calcination of limestone, 50–51
form-construction, 16, 63, 81, 99, 101–103
Edison's problems with, 238–40
efforts to use in Sydney Opera House, 294
“shuttering,” 89
used to make the dome of the Pantheon, 128, 132, 139
use of in building of the Harbor of Caesarea, 100–103
Forth and Clyde Canal, 146
Fotherby, Mary, 185
Fountainhead, The (Rand), 277
Four Books on Architecture [I Quattro Libri dell'Architettura] (Palladio), 85
Fox and Taylor (company), 163
Fradkin, Philip L., 306
Francis, A. C., 203
Francis & White Roman cement, 168–69, 174, 195–97, 207
Franz Ferdinand (archduke), 237
Frederick C. Robie House, 259
Freeman, Frederick, 306
Freeman, John R., 315
Freitag, Joseph, 304
freshwater, 333
impact when added to gypsum, 57
impact when added to lime, 15–16, 25, 28–29, 42, 44, 51, 53
use of in concrete in seawater environment, 321–22.
Freud, Sigmund, 301
Frisbees®, 23
Fröbel, Friedrich, 247
fulgurite, 52
furniture
Frank Lloyd Wright's designs of, 280
Future of an Illusion (Freud), 301
Gebrüder Heyn Portland cement plant, 201
Geopolymeric concrete theory of Davidovits, 62–67
Geopolymer Institute, 62
German Archaeological Institute, 39
German Portland cement, high quality of, 211–15, 217
use of vertical shaft kiln, 216
Gibbon, Edward, 122
Giorgione, 142
Girls' Dormitory (Roble Hall) at Stanford University, 226, 313
Giza. See Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza
Gladiator (movie), 114
glass-fiber reinforced polymer rebar. See GFRP rebar
Globe Mills grain annex, 311–12
Göbekli Tepe [“potbellied mount”], 30–32, 38–40, 42, 45–46, 49
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 249
Golden Gate Bridge, 321
Golden Gate Park, 322
Alvord Lake Bridge, 225, 311, 322, 326
Sweeney Observatory, 226, 305, 308–311
“Golden House” [Domus Aurea], 110–12
Goodwin, George, 194
Goossens, Eugene Aynsley, 287–88, 290
Grand Coulee Dam, 274
use of in Eddystone Lighthouse, 148–49
use of in Pantheon, 129
use of in the Great Pyramid of Khufu, 66
as veneer for concrete structures, 22
gravel
grouted gravel, 205
and Thames Tunnel, 174–75, 179
SS Great Britain (first propeller-driven oceangoing vessel), 204
Great Earthquake and Firestorms of 1906, The (Fradkin), 306
Great Fire of 1871 (Chicago Fire), 248, 303
Great Fire of 64 CE (Rome), 110–13
Great Kanto earthquake of 1923, 267, 269–70
Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza, 59, 61
Davidovits Geopolymeric concrete theory, 62–67
Great Western Dockyard, 204
“Great Workroom” in Johnson Wax Building, 279–80, 281, 282
Greece
contributions to Western civilization, 72–73, 75–76
not interested in manufacturing trades, 86
Parthenon, 80
Rhodes, island of
Colossus of Rhodes, 74
use of concrete in, 75
“green” cement, 332
Gropius, Walter, 233, 260, 274
grouted gravel, 205
Gruben und Frabrikanlagen, 212
Grundy, John, 144
Grundy, John, Jr., 144
Guggenheim, Solomon R., 284–86
Guggenheim Museum, 22, 278, 283, 284–86
Gutike, Paul, 212
gypsum, 57, 61, 76, 212, 238, 239
use of in plaster of paris, 57, 208
Hadrian (emperor), 120, 121, 122–23, 125, 127–29, 131, 133–34, 339
Hadrian's Wall, 123
Hall of Records in San Francisco, 315
Hamburg, Germany, William Aspdin in, 199–202, 211
harbors and breakwaters, use of concrete, 75, 84, 89, 91, 154, 162, 239
built by Claudius in Ostia, 107–108
dangers of silting, 97
first large-scale use of concrete at Caesarea, 91–108, 150
Harris, Roy, 288
Haven, Kendall F., 184
Haviland, Stanley, 291
Hawkins, John Isaac, 166
Hearst, George, 221
heat
flameless heat of lime and water, 15–16, 28–29, 41–42, 53
impact of extreme heat on concrete, 111, 302, 304, 312. See also exfoliation
use of brick dust, 157
kiln-level heat, 15–16, 43, 45, 47, 48, 49, 157, 215
necessary to produce lime, 42–43, 49
temperature needed to calcify limestone, 50–53
Hennebique, François, 219–20, 225, 232
Heracleia (Peisander), 70
Herod Agrippa (grandson of Herod), 104–105, 107
Herod the Great (king), 95, 127
and the building of the Harbor of Caesarea, 91–106
rebuilding of the Temple of Jerusalem, 92
Heron of Alexandria, 130
Hesiod, 70
high aggregate lime in Roman cement. See aggregates
“high-strength” concrete cement, dangers of, 328–29
Hinzenberg, Olivanna Lazovich, 276, 278
Hobbs, Linn, 65
Hockley Viaduct (example of unreinforced concrete bridge), 338–39, 340, 341
Holland and use of trass with lime, 144–45
Hollyhock House, 271
Homer, 70
Homo floresiensis, 40
horsepower as a term, 145
houses made of concrete, 209
Edison's efforts, 237–42, 244–45
Wright's Fallingwater, 248, 276–77, 279, 282, 284
Hughes, Robert, 293
Humphrey, Richard Lewis, 308–309, 311–12, 322
hydrated lime. See lime
hydraulic mortar, stucco, and cement, 74, 149, 151, 153, 155, 207–208
hydraulic cements
hydraulic properties of, 205
Jessop's hydraulic cement, 207–208
Portland cement as a hydraulic cement, 184, 186–87, 197, 205, 207. See also Portland cement
pozzolana as a hydraulic element, 69, 70
in Rhodes stone cistern, 70
used by Romans, 76, 82, 88–89, 91, 117, 148. See also Caesarea; Roman concrete
use of by Smeaton, 146, 148–51, 188, 205
use of in building Thames Tunnel, 166, 168–69, 172, 174, 183
hydraulic properties of natural cement, 219
hydraulic stucco, 153, 155–56, 184
use of trass to create, 143–45, 148
Iannelli, Alfonso, 262
Imamura, Akitsune, 264–65, 270
Imhotep, 60
Imperial Hotel in Tokyo, 264–69, 267, 275
impact of Great Kanto earthquake of 1923, 269–70
Incan culture, 66
industry firsts for concrete, 274
Ingalls, Melville Ezra, 231–32
Ingalls Building, 228–33, 230, 237, 255, 273, 310
not showing excessive damage to, 326–27
Interface Analysis Centre, University of Bristol, 204
“International Style,” 274
I Quattro Libri dell Architettura [Four Books on Architecture] (Palladio), 85
Iris & B. Gerald Cantor Center for the Visual Arts, 227
rusted rebar used in reinforced concrete, 323
See also corrosion and reinforced concrete
iron oxide suggested to prevent cracking, 321
Itzehoer Nachtrichten (newspaper), 202–203
Jackson, Peter, 224
Japan
Imperial Hotel in Tokyo, 264–69, 267, 275
Japanese influence on Frank Lloyd Wright, 255, 262
Jeanneret, Charles-Édourd. See Le Corbusier
J. M. Maude, Son & Co., 192–94
Johnson, Herbert “Hib,” 278, 280, 283
Johnson, Isaac Charles, 197–98, 203–204
Johnson, S. C., 278
Johnson Wax Administration Building, 278–83, 281, 284
Jones, William Henry, 194
Jordan, David Starr, 307, 309–12
Josephus, 93
Journal of the American Ceramic Society, 65
Juba II (king), 85
Karlüv most [Charles Bridge] in Prague, 342
Kaufmann, Edgar, Sr., 276
Kemal Atatürk Dam, 38
Khufu (pharaoh), 61
Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza, 59, 61
Davidovits theory of construction of, 62–67
Ki-en-gir. See Sumer
kilns, 22, 41, 48, 96, 156–57, 236
and brickmaking, 56. See also brick
clinker kilns, 302. See also clinkering
development of rotary kilns, 215–16, 220
early failure to develop cement rotary kilns, 216
rotary cement kilns bringing prices down, 228
for extracting lime, 40–54, 56
Burgundy bottle shape of, 43, 79, 157
Cato's description of a limekiln, 78–79, 80
need for in building harbor at Caesarea, 98–100
William Aspdin's process for, 185–87, 201
wood needed to kiln lime, 98–99, 139
kilned ceramics and pottery, 35, 48, 56. See also ceramics
kilned clays, 64, 109, 148–49, 155, 157. See also clay
classified as pozzolana, 69
replacing with fly ash and slag, 332
used in Portland cement, 212. See also Portland cement
use of pottery shards and brick dust, 109
kiln-level heat, 15–16, 43, 45, 47, 49, 157, 215
and smelting copper, 48
technological progression after discovery of, 49
vertical shaft kilns, 216
Kingdom, Sophia, 160, 162–63, 183
Kipling, Rudyard, 221
Kirkaldy, David, 219
Klueudgen & Co., 200
Krakatoa, eruption of in 1883, 68
kurkar aggregate. See aggregates
Lambie, Frank D., 239–40, 242–45, 246
Lambie Concrete House Corporation, 243
Lambot, Jean-Louis, 218
Lamp, Robert M., 251
“Land of the Lords of Light.” See Sumer
Larkin office building, 259
Lawson, Andrew, 307
lead
toxic properties of, 86
use of in Imperial Hotel, 266
Leadman, Jane, 190
Lee Navigation (canalization of River Lee), 146
Leland Stanford Junior Museum of Art, 227, 313, 322
L'Enfant, Pierre, 161
Lepenski Vir, 54
lighthouses. See Alexandria, Lighthouse of; Eddystone Lighthouse
lightning and the calcination of limestone, 51–53
lignite, 211
“lily pads” in Johnson Wax Building, 279–80, 281, 283
Cato's description of uses of, 78–80
hydrated lime, 88
impact of water when added to lime, 15–16, 25, 28–29, 42, 44, 51, 53
kilns for extracting lime, 40–54, 56
Burgundy bottle shape of, 43, 79, 157
Cato's description of a limekiln, 78–79, 80
need for in building harbor at Caesarea, 98–100
William Aspdin's process for, 185– 87, 201
wood needed to kiln lime, 98–99, 139
lime concrete and mortar, 22, 78, 155, 259. See also clay; Roman concrete
arenatum [sandy stuff], Roman name for lime mortar, 81–82
caementis [rocky stuff], Roman name for lime concrete, 15, 82
life expectancy of lime mortar, 155, 259
possessing limited strength, 80–81
used in ancient times, 37, 40, 42, 57, 64, 69, 75, 77–78, 80–83, 87–89, 91, 107, 109, 114
used to develop modern version of Roman cement, 89, 150, 205. See also British cement; Roman cement
mixed with pozzolana, 69. See also pozzolana
technological progression after discovery of, 49
use of in plaster in Mesoamerica, 138
use of with sand, 42, 70, 78, 81–82, 185, 193
“dishonest” mortar (sea sand and lime) and the earthquake of 1906, 316
replaced by fly ash, 332
replaced by trass, 144
replacing with pozzolana, 90–91
Roman lime mortar known as arenatum [sandy stuff], 81–82
weight of lime used in Harbor of Caesarea, 98–99
See also limestone
limekilns. See kilns, for extracting lime
limestone, 25–29, 204–205, 219, 331–32
in ancient times, 25–26, 31, 35, 38–45, 56–66
“campfire on limestone” theory of discovery of lime, 27–29, 41–42
technological progression after discovery of, 49
use of in Rome, 83, 87–88, 111, 114–15
judging purity of, 148
possible sources of heat to convert to lime, 49–54
temperature needed to calcify, 50–53
testing for hydraulic properties, 205–206. See also hydraulic mortar, stucco, and cement
use of by Mesoamericans, 138–39
use of by Thomas Edison, 236
use of by Wright, 260
use of in variations of British cement, 152–57, 186–88
and slurry mixing, 188–89, 198
William Aspdin stealing limestone, 185–86, 196
limestone artifacts
found at Neolithic archaeological sites, 35, 37–39
development of kilning of limestone, 40–54
Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza, 61
pyramid of Pharaoh Djoser, 60–61
Lockwood, William, 188, 208–209
London Bridge, 320
London, Great Exhibition of 1851, 196 of 1862, 212
longevity of concrete, 17, 21, 337, 342
concern about relative shortness of for modern concrete structures, 341–42
use of GFRP to extend life and reduce maintenance costs, 335
use of “green” cement to provide compressive strength and durability, 332
Louis XII (king), 141
Mann & MacNeille (company), 237, 239–40, 242
Mann Act, 276
manufacturing of concrete
industry firsts, 274
and large CO2 emissions, 22, 330–31
reuse of chips from making millstones, 143–44
reuse of slag and fire ash from coal-powered plants, 331–32
Marcus Aurelius (emperor), 123
Mariamne, 104
Mark Antony, 99
Marlborough-Blenheim Hotel, 273
mastabas. See pyramids
Maude, George, 194
Maude, John Milthorpe, 192, 194
Mausoleus's sepulcher, 74
influence on work of Wright, 251, 255, 262, 268–69, 271–72
McKay, John, 221
McLaren, John Hays, 225
Medici, Lorenzo, 16
Meiggs, Henry, 221
Mellaart, James, 34
See also Aztec culture; Incan culture; Mayan culture; Olmec culture; Teotihuacán culture
Mexico, producing own cement, 215
Michelangelo Buonarroti, 16, 118
Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig, 274, 326
Mills College, 313
Minotaur, 67
MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), 65
molds, use of in concrete. See cast concrete; form-construction
Monadnock Building (first skyscraper), 228–29
Monte Albán culture, 138
Morris, Margie, 63
clay mortar, 56
dishonest mortar blamed for damage in San Francisco earthquake, 316
gypsum as mortar, 57
earliest known, 70
pozzolana as a hydraulic element, 70
used by Romans, 91, 117, 148. See also Caesarea; Roman concrete
use of by Smeaton, 146, 148–51, 188, 205
use of in building Thames Tunnel, 166, 168–69, 172, 174, 183
use of by Romans, 77–82, 87–91, 109, 117
use of trass in, 144
pozzolana as an ingredient in, 69. See also pozzolana
tar as mortar, 57
Moses, Robert, 286
Mount Vesuvius. See Vesuvius, Mount, eruption of in 79 CE
Nakamura, T., 316
“Narrative of the Building and a Description of the Construction of the Eddystone Lighthouse with Stone, A” (Smeaton), 151–52
Nashville, TN, and replica of the Parthenon, 262
National Association of Cement Users, 308
National Party of Australia, 296
natural cement, 25, 145, 155, 208
becoming known as “Roman cement,” 153–56. See also Roman cement
hydraulic properties of, 219
limestone adulterated with clay, 149, 152
and Louis Vicat, 205
Smeaton's discovery of, 146–50
natural disasters
impact on reinforced concrete buildings, 16–17
potentials for, 17–18 See also earthquakes; volcanism
Natural History (Pliny the Elder), 107–108
naumchii staged at the Colosseum of Rome, 116–17
Neolithic (New Stone) Age, 27, 29, 40–41, 139
archaeological digs of Neolithic sites, 29–40
findings of use of lime at, 35, 37–39, 44
development of kilning of limestone, 40–54
technological progression after discovery of lime, 49
use of natural cement, 148
See also archaeological data Nero (emperor), 109, 122, 127
statue of near Colosseum, 113
Nerva (emperor), 123
Neva River in St. Petersburg, tunnel under, 164
New South Wales Conservatory of Music, 287
New Stone Age. See Neolithic (New Stone) Age Newton, William, 151
9/11 Memorial (Pentagon), 16
nonferrous rebar. See reinforced concrete, nonferrous rebar
Norton, Rosaleen, 290
Notre Dame Cathedral, 141
Old North Waterfront of San Francisco, 311
Old Stone Age. See Paleolithic (Old Stone) Age
Omori, Fusakichi, 264–65, 270, 310, 316
On Architecture [De Architectura] (Vitruvius Pollio), 83–85, 87, 90, 108, 140, 258
1511 edition of, 142
1771 edition of, 151
100 Greatest Britons (BBC program), 204
100 Greatest Science Inventions (Haven), 184
On Farming [De Agricultura] (Cato), 77–78, 90
On Rural Affairs [De Re Rustica] (Cato). See On Farming [De Agricultura] (Cato)
On Stones (Theophrastus of Lesbos), 75–76
Ord, Augustus William, 196
Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, 29–31
Our Lady of the Angels school, 17
Ove Arup & Partners (company), 293–96, 298
oxidation process. See corrosion and reinforced concrete
Pacific Coast Borax Company's refinery, 227
surviving Bayonne, NJ, fire in 1897, 303–304
Pacific Rolling Mill Company, 223
Pacific Stone Company, 220, 222
Paleolithic (Old Stone) Age, 27, 28
and discovery of lime, 26, 42, 44
possibility of lightning producing lime, 52–53
importance of limestone in, 40–41
See also archaeological data
Palladio, Andrea, 84
Pan-American Exposition of 1901, 250–51
Pantheon, 16, 23, 95, 118–34, 122, 135, 257, 302
as example of durability of unreinforced concrete, 338
floor plan of, 126
use of Agrippa's dedicatory inscription, 133
Pantheon: Triumph of Roman Concrete, The (Moore), 119
Parker and Wyatt Cement and Stucco Manufacturers, 154, 166, 194
Parler, Peter, 342
Parthenon, 80
replica of in Nashville, TN, 262
Pasley, Charles William, 206–207
patents
Dobbs's for cement, 207
Edison's concrete formula, 239
Ernest Ransome's for cold twisting (Ransome system), 224, 232
for Francis and White Roman cement, 156
Frederick Ransome's rotary kiln, 216
Frost's for British cement without alumina, 206
Higgins's for calcareous cement, 151
Monier's for reinforced concrete, 217
Parker's for “Roman cement,” 153
dubious nature of, 155
for Portland cement, 184–87, 205
made from alkaline wastes, 199
misuse of by William Aspdin, 193–94
White's for a natural cement formula, 219
Wilkinson's for reinforced cement, 218
Peacock Room. See Imperial Hotel in Tokyo
Peel, Robert, 195
Peisander, 70
Pentagon Memorial, relative shortness of lifespan of, 341
Percy and Hamilton (company), 224
Perret, Auguste, 71
Perth Bridge, 146
Petaluma, CA, after 1906 earthquake, 317
petroleum
as a geopolymer, 62
tar as mortar, 57
Pharoux, Pierre, 161
Phelan, James, 221
phosphate of lime. See calcium phosphate
Piggott, Stuart, 33
Piston, Walter, 288
Pittsburgh Crucible Steel Company, 243
Pliny the Younger, 141
Ponte Sant'Angelo bridge (built by Hadrian). See Aelian Bridge, 341
Pont Notre-Dame, 142
Portland cement, 184, 189, 204–205, 228
Aspdin probable inventor of, 171
claims made by advocates of, 301–305
and clinkering, 196–98, 203–206
fight against “green” cement, 332
German Portland cement, high quality of, 211–15, 217
use of vertical shaft kiln, 216
as a hydraulic cement, 184, 186–87, 197, 205, 207
Ransome's use of, 223
and Thomas Edison, 229, 235–45
use of bone dust, 198
use of name by Lockwood, 188, 208
use of name by Smeaton, 188
use of slag and fire ash to replace kilned clay, 332
use of to build concrete homes
Edison's efforts, 237–42, 244–45
See also British cement; Roman cement
Portus Augusti. See Caesarea
pottery fragments. See aggregates
addition of to lime concrete and mortar, 82. See also Roman concrete
replacing sand with, 90
and the building of the Harbor of Caesarea, 96
from Vesuvius region, 107
sponge stone [spongia], 88
trass as pozzolana for making concrete, 143–45
use of for hydraulic properties, 149
use of in Rhodes stone cistern, 70
“Prairie house” style of Wright, 250, 256–59, 261
prefabrication and the Sydney Opera House, 295–96
prestressed concrete, first use of, 274
pseudo-concrete, 25
Pulham, James, 208
See also pozzolana
pyramids, 74
first known pyramid, 60
Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza, 59, 61
and Davidovits Geopolymeric concrete theory, 61–67
mastabas as precursors of, 58–60
of Mesoamerica, 138
and reinforced concrete, 217
Pyramids: An Enigma Solved, The (Davidovits and Morris), 63
quicklime. See lime
Raffles, Sophia, 176
Raffles, Thomas Stamford, 176
Ralston, William, 221
Rameses (pharaoh), 63
Rand, Ayn, 277
Ransome, Ernest, 220–27, 229, 303, 308, 312–13
and crack-proofing, 322
development of cold twisting (Ransome system), 224
and the Ingalls Building, 228–33
Ransome, Frederick, 216
special formula for cement, 220, 223
Ransome and Smith Company, 227, 232
Reagan, Ronald, 227
rebar. See reinforced concrete
Reiner, Fritz, 288
reinforced concrete, 16–17, 217–20, 334
analysis of strength of, 219
and corrosion, 16, 319–25, 329, 333
costs to repair damages, 325, 330
efforts to restore damaged buildings, 325–27
as an electrochemical process, 333–34
examples of disintegration, 323, 324
ways to prevent, 321
Ernest Ransome's work with, 220–27
and “fireproofing,” 225, 301–305
failure to prove, 304–305, 314
Pacific Coast Borax Company's refinery fire, 303–304
“firsts”
first concrete street, 273
first reinforced concrete bridge, 225
first reinforced concrete church, 273
lifespan of, 17
and nonferrous rebar
aluminum bronze alloys, 336, 338, 342
carbon fiber rebar, 335–36, 338
stainless-steel rebar, 320, 334, 336–37, 337, 342
actual damage caused by 1906 earthquake, 311–17, 318
costs to repair infrastructure, 330
efforts to restore damaged buildings, 325–27
examples of disintegration, 323, 324
poor longevity of “high-strength” cements, 328–29
rusted rebar used in reinforced concrete, 323
question of needing in all concrete structures, 337–41
Hockley Viaduct (example of unreinforced concrete bridge), 338–39, 340, 341
rigidity vs. elasticity question, 268, 310–11
safety of, 18
claims made by advocates of, 301–305
Hansen study of impact of earthquakes, 305–306
Jordan report on 1906 earthquake, 307, 309–312
USGS report on 1906 earthquake, 307–309
what really happened in 1906 earthquake, 311–17
stainless-steel rebar, 333
Sydney Opera House, 287–300, 297
techniques used for reinforcements
early versions of, 217–25, 317
use of tie beams, 224
Imperial Hotel in Tokyo, 264–69
Johnson Wax Administration Building, 278–83
Unity Temple, 253–57, 253, 254
use of in homes
Edison's efforts to build concrete houses, 237–42, 244–45
Lambie's efforts to build concrete houses, 242–45
use of in skyscrapers and large buildings
Ingalls Building, 228–33, 255, 273, 310
Marlborough-Blenheim Hotel, 273
Monadnock Building (first skyscraper), 228–29
Terminal Station (Atlanta, GA), 273
Weaver Building, 232
See also Edison, Thomas; Wright, Frank Lloyd
Reinforced Concrete Construction—Its Theory and Application [Der Eisenbetonbau—Seine Theorie und Anwendung] (Mörsch), 304–305
relieving arches, 131
restoration of concrete structures, 23
at ancient sites, 66, 75, 106, 133
costs to repair damages, 325, 330
of modern reinforced concrete projects, 147, 326–27, 339
restoration at Wright's projects, 255, 259, 270, 325–27
Rhodes, island of
cistern on, 70
Colossus of Rhodes, 74
rigidity vs. elasticity question, 268, 310–11 Ripon Canal, 146
Risorgimento Bridge, 274
roads
Cahill Expressway in Sydney, 295
reinforced concrete roads in US, 322, 338, 373
American Interstate Highway System, 273
crumbling highway system, 329–30
freeze-thaw cycle and reinforced concrete roads, 322
and Thames Tunnel, 183
in a world without concrete, 22
Wright's proposed road to Sugarloaf Mountain ziggurat, 285
Robert M. Lamp House, 251
Roberts, Charles E., 253
Robespierre, Maximilien de, 160, 162
Robie, Frederick C., 259
Robins, William, 194
Roble Hall (Girls' Dormitory) at Stanford University, 226, 313
Roman brick. See brick
high aggregate lime in, 36, 83, 89, 98
made of clay mixed with lime, 205 206, 331. See also Portland cement
creating a natural cement, 149. See also natural cement
rediscovered by Smeaton, 148–49
used at ancient sites, 35, 42, 49, 63–64, 100, 138, 204
natural cement name changed to, 153–56
popularity of as a mortar and stucco, 187, 189, 191
in France, 206
and varying quality, 204
use of clay limestone for, 156–57, 205–206
use of in building Thames Tunnel, 166, 168–69, 172, 174, 183
See also British cement; Portland cement
Roman concrete, 131
building Roman walls
using lime concrete and mortar, 80–83
using Roman concrete, 89
concrete engineering projects in Rome
building of the Colosseum, 113–17
building of the Harbor of Caesarea, 91–106
rebuilding of Rome after Great Fire of 64 CE, 110–12
Roman Senate House, 23, 134–35
first large-scale use of at Caesarea, 91–106
formula lost, 135
hydraulic version of lime concrete and mortar, 82
longevity of, 23, 71–72, 302, 330
quality of sand used in making Cato's formula, 79–80
question of Greece passing information on to Romans about, 76
reintroduction of in Renaissance, 141–42
used in Roman walls, 16, 80, 82–83, 89, 110–11, 131
use of in Roman roads, 74, 87, 104
Roman Senate House [Curia Julia], 23, 134–35
contributions to Western civilization, 72–76
strong interest in technology and crafts, 86–87
finding of trass, 143
influence on work of Wright, 257–61, 263
Roman names for lime stone concrete and mortar
arenatum [sandy stuff], as name for lime mortar, 81–82
caementis [rocky stuff] as name for lime concrete, 15
rotary kilns, 215–16, 220, 228, 236
Royal Society, 147
rust. See corrosion and reinforced concrete
Saarinen, Eero, 291
safety of reinforced concrete, 18
claims made by advocates of, 301–305
Hansen study of impact of earthquakes, 305–306
Jordan report on, 307, 309–312
what really happened in 1906 earthquake, 311–17
St. Mary of the Angels and Martyrs [Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri], 134
St. Paul's Cathedral, 217
saltwater, 333
disintegration of concrete in, 325
use of freshwater in concrete when placed in, 321
use of in stuccos, 150
Salway, Peter, 74
sand
lightning striking, 52
in Minoan concrete, 69
quality and source of, 79–80, 87
use of sand and cement to make cast concrete, 208
use of with lime, 42, 70, 78, 81–82, 185, 193
“dishonest” mortar (sea sand and lime) and the earthquake of 1906, 316
replaced by fly ash, 332
replaced by trass, 144
replacing with pozzolana, 90, 91
Roman lime mortar known as arenatum [sandy stuff], 81–82
See also brick
San Francisco, CA
and development of reinforced concrete, 221–27
earthquake of 1906, 18, 233, 235, 303, 306–307, 318
Hansen study of impact of, 305–306
Jordan report on, 307, 309–311
San Francisco Is Burning (Smith), 18, 306
Çanliurfa Museum, 39
Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri [St. Mary of the Angels and Martyrs] basilica, 134
Santorini, island of (Thera), destroyed by volcano in 1640 BCE, 68, 69
Schliemann, Heinrich, 32
S. C. Johnson (company), 278. See also Johnson Wax Administration Building
seawater, effect on concrete, 150
impact on aluminum bronze alloys, 336
impact on reinforced concrete, 319, 321–22
ways to prevent corrosion, 321. See also corrosion and reinforced concrete
Sebastos Harbor at Caesarea. See Caesarea
“seismic separation joints,” 266
Sewell, John Stephen, 307–309, 312
Sforza, Ludovico, 141
Silsbee, Joseph Lyman, 248, 272
silting, dangers of, 92, 94, 97, 108
skyscrapers. See Ingalls Building; Monadnock Building (first skyscraper); Terminal Station (Atlanta, GA); Weaver Building
slag, reuse of to make concrete, 332
slurry mixing, 188–89, 191–92, 198, 205, 207–208
Smeaton, John, 145–52, 155, 158, 170, 188, 205–206, 211
Smeaton's Coefficient, 145
Smith, Francis Marion, 221, 227
Smith, William, 167–69, 173, 180
Society of Civil Engineers (Japan), 71
sodium carbonate, 63
sodium chloride, 30, 222, 319, 321
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. See Guggenheim Museum
Sorrows of Young Werther (Goethe), 249
Souillac Bridge (world's first concrete bridge), 206
Spencer, George, Lord Althorp, 163
sponge stone [spongia]. See pozzolana
Spreckel, Claus, 221
stainless-steel rebar, 320, 333–34, 336–37, 342
Stanford Memorial Chapel, 313
damage done to buildings on campus by 1906 earthquake, 313
Statilius Taurus (amphitheater), 113
rusted rebar used in reinforced concrete, 323
See also corrosion and reinforced concrete
steel reinforcement of concrete. See reinforced concrete
“steening,” use of in Thames Tunnel, 175–76
Stettin, Germany, cement factory in, 211–12
Streamline Moderne movement, 279
strength of concrete
compressive, 64, 67, 81, 130–31, 212, 280, 319–20, 328
and question ofneeding reinforced concrete, 338–41, 340
tensile
and reinforced concrete, 219, 224, 246, 250, 277, 285, 317, 319, 338
stuccos, 84
use of at Golden House, 110
use of in Mesoamerica, 13, 138–39
waterproof, 109
use of in the Golden House, 110
Studies and Executed Buildings of Frank Lloyd Wright [Ausgeführte Bauten und Entwürfe von Frank Lloyd Wright] (Wright), 260
Sugarloaf Mountain project, 285
Sutter Street office building, 311–12
Sweeney, Thomas, 226
Sweeney Observatory, 226, 305, 313
collapse of in 1906 earthquake, 308–309, 311–12
Sydney Opera House, 22, 287–300, 297
Sydney Sun (newspaper), 290
Szechuan, earthquake of 2008, 17–18
Taliesin estate, 260–61, 263, 275–78
tar, 57
Technical Society of the Pacific Coast, 224
Ten Commandments, The (movie), 63
tensile strength of concrete. See strength of concrete
Teotihuacán culture, 138
Terminal Station (Atlanta, GA), 273
“terras.” See trass
Tesdorpf, Adolph, 201
Tesla, Nikola, 247
and William Aspdin, 191, 194–95
Thera. See Santorini, island of
Theseus, 67
Thomas Aquinas (Saint), 140
Thoreau, Henry David, 249
Three Gorges Dam, 274
Thurman, John, 161
Tiberius (emperor), 122
tie beams used to reinforce concrete, 224
RMS Titanic, 336
titanium oxide, 272
Titian, 142
Tobin, Catherine “Kitty,” 250, 263, 275
Tobriner, Stephen, 315
Tokyo University, 264
Trajan (emperor), 123, 127, 134, 141
trass, 143–45, 148–49, 153, 156, 208
Dutch changing name to “terras,” 144
Trevithik, Richard, 165–67, 175
Tugendhat House, 326
tunnels. See Alvord Lake Bridge; Neva River in St. Petersburg, tunnel under; Thames Tunnel
United Shoe Company, 233
United States Geological Survey. See US Geological Survey (USGS)
Unity Temple, 253–58, 269, 271, 327
restoration efforts, 325
Universal Portland Cement Company, 250–51, 260
University of Bristol, Interface Analysis Centre, 204
University of California at Berkeley, 307–308
University of Chicago, Oriental Institute, 29–31, 36
University of Heidelberg, 37
University of Istanbul, 29–31, 36–37
Urfa. See Çanliurfa
US Army Corp of Engineers, 307
US Department of Interior and concrete dam construction, 132
US Environmental Protection Agency, 332
US Federal Highway Administration, 328
US Geological Survey study (USGS) of San Francisco earthquake, 307–309, 312, 315
Jordan report on, 307, 309–312
US National Materials Advisory
Board, 329
Utzon, Jan, 300
V 52/1. See Göbekli Tepe
Variations on a Theme (Goossens), 288
vaults. See domes and vaults, building of
Vazie, Robert, 165
vertical shaft kilns, 216
Vesuvius, Mount, eruption of in 79 CE, 69, 108
Vicat, Joseph, 206
Vicat S. A. (company), 206
Villa Savoye, 326
Vitruvius Pollio, Marcus, 83–91, 90, 108–109, 146, 258, 322
rediscovery of in Renaissance, 140–42
volcanic pumice. See aggregates
volcanism, 50, 68–69, 87–88, 143. See also pozzolana
Wakefield Journal & West Riding Herald (newspaper), 190
walls, Roman, 16, 80, 82–83, 89, 110–11, 131
influence on work of Wright, 257–61, 263
Ward, William E., 219
water. See freshwater; saltwater
Watt, James, 145
Wayss, G. A., 217
Weaver Building, 232
Welles, Orson, 275
Westminster Bridge, 149
“wet process” of cement mixing, 188
White, John Bazley, 156–58, 196–97
Wiggen, Switzerland (world's first reinforced concrete bridge), 225
Wilkinson, William Boutland, 218–19
William E. Ward House. See Ward's Castle
William H. Winslow House, 258
Winstanley, Henry, 147
world imagined without concrete, 22
World Trade Center buildings, 16
World War I, use of reinforced concrete in, 274
Wright, Frank Lloyd, 22, 246–69, 252, 271–72, 274–87, 325, 327
influences on
Mayan, 251, 255, 262, 268–69, 271–72
marriages and mistresses. See Hinzenberg, Olivanna Lazovich; Noel, Miriam; Tobin, Catherine “Kitty”
“Prairie house” style, 250, 256–59, 261
Wright, William Carey, 246
Wright brothers and Smeaton's Coefficient, 145
Wyatt, Samuel, 154
Yeomans, John, 290
ziggurats
in Babylon, 56
Sugarloaf Mountain project, 285
zinc, use of in steel rebar, 334