CHAPTER 2
ETHNIC DIVERSITY
K. V. KRISHNAMURTHY,1 BIR BAHADUR,2 and S. JOHN ADAMS3
1Consultant, R&D, Sami Labs, Peenya Industrial Area, Bangalore–560058, Karnataka, India
2Department of Botany, Kakatiya University, Warangal–506009, India
3Department of Pharmacognosy, R&D, The Himalaya Drug Company, Makali, Bangalore, India
CONTENTS
2.2Peopling of Western Ghats and West Coast of Peninsular India
ABSTRACT
This chapter summarizes the basic information related to the most important ethnic/tribal communities of Western peninsular India. The history of peopling of this region is provided in the introductory part, followed by a description of the most important tribes. The focus is on their population size, way of life, ethnic knowledge on plants and socio-cultural characteristics. The importance of this study is given at the end.
2.1INTRODUCTION
There are two conflicting models on the origin, evolution and spread of modern human species. According to the multiregional model, archaic humans originated in the African continent, migrated throughout the Old World over a million years ago and then evolved into the modern humans many times in different parts. Hence, according to this model, the East Asians, Australians, Europeans and Africans have had separate ancestries, although with subsequent enough gene flows between them to prevent speciation (Thorne and Wolpoff, 1992). According to the very widely supported recent model of human evolution, all modern humans had a relatively recent African origin (about 200 thousand years ago), followed by a subsequent dispersal throughout the Old World, that completely replaced the existing archaic human population (Disotell, 1999). A single migration out of Africa, however, received less support initially based on fossil and genetic studies and, at least, two geographical routes were suggested to have been taken by the early migrants out of Africa (Cavalli-Sforza et al., 1984; Lahr and Foley, 1994). The first route led up to Nile valley, across the Sinai Peninsula and north into the Levant (Middle East); these migrants might have died out quickly in the Levant and did not proceed further anywhere from Levant. The second route was from North Africa (i.e., the mouth of Red Sea between the Horn of Africa and Arabia) to Arabia by using primitive boats; from Arabia the humans migrated to Central Asia from where they then dispersed to various parts of the World. This migration, through the second route, took place around 70,000 to 50,000 years ago.
The Indian subcontinent possesses the greatest of ethnic diversities of the World, probably because of its strategic position at the trijunction of African, north Eurasian and Oriental realms. All the discussions on Indian Ethnodiversity so far made have been on three basic approaches: racial, linguistic and religious. The existing confusion and controversies have largely been due to mixing up of the discussion involving more than one of the above three approaches. The racial groups involved are Caucasoid, Negrito, Australoid, Mangolioid and Negroid, the linguistic groups involved are Austro-Asian, Indo-European, Dravidian and Sino-Tibetan, and the religious groups involved are Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs, Parsis and Jews. It is most likely that the first entry of modern human species into India must have been around 70,000 to 50,000 years before the present. According to Gadgil et al. (1998) the likely major migrations of modern humans into India include the following linguistic groups: (i) Austro-Asian language speakers around 65,000 years ago, probably from the North-East. These were the earliest to arrive in India prior to the beginning of agriculture. Many hunter-gatherer tribes of present-day India are descendants of these people. These people also have the most diverse vocabulary; (ii) Dravidian language speaking in several waves around 6,000 years ago from the Middle East. The bulk of present-day Indian mainland populations is constituted by the descendants of these people. They came with knowledge of crop cultivation and animal husbandry. A number of tribes of India belong to the Dravidian group. As an example, we may cite the Kanis of southernmost Western Ghats (W. Ghats, hereafter); (iii) Indo-European speakers in several waves around 4,000 years ago. These people are mostly nomadic. As an example, we may cite the Pardhis. These people have the least diverse vocabulary; and (iv) Sino-Tibetan speakers in several waves around 6,000 years ago. Fairly recently, Reich et al. (2009) and Thangaraj (2011), based on a detailed analysis of different ethnic populations of India with reference to their evolutionary genetic markers, such as mtDNA and Y chromosome, have shown that small groups of ancestors founded most Indian groups, which then remained largely isolated with limited cross gene-flow for long periods of time. According to Thangaraj (2011), there are two main ancestral groups for the present Indian population, an “Ancient North Indian (ANI)” and an “Ancestral South Indian (ASI)” groups. The former is directly related to the Middle East, Central Asia and Europe, while the latter is not related to groups outside India. Thangaraj and his group, however, have suggested only three early major migrations from Africa [in contrast to the four suggested earlier by Gadgil et al. (1998)] into India: (i) via sea to Andamans; (ii) via land to S. India through W. Coast (ASI populations); and, (ii) via land into N. India (ANI populations). From ANI and ASI groups, the populations of all parts of India were then derived. It is very likely that some present-day South Indian populations were derived from Middle East People, who came to S. India (and Sri Lanka) via the Arabian Sea around 6,000 years back or even earlier. However, there are evidences of a genetic mixing of these two ancestral groups mentioned above, which was reported to have been initiated around 4,200 years ago, when the Indus Valley Civilization was waning, followed by huge migrations within India. This mix-up stopped to a great extent around 2,000 years ago, probably due to Manusmriti (written around 100 BCE) resulting in the evolution of caste system. There are then many still-unanswered questions pertaining to how the Indian subcontinent was peopled.
2.2PEOPLING OF WESTERN GHATS AND WEST COAST OF PENINSULAR INDIA
It is very difficult to correctly explain how the W. Coast and W. Ghats were peopled in the historic period after the first entry of modern human species into India around 70,000 to 50,000 years ago. It is most likely that this peopling was effected in waves at different times of past history of human civilization into different parts of India. The Austro-Asian and Sino-Tibetan language speakers are absent in the W. coast region, while the descendants of other two groups (Indo-European and Dravidian) are widely present in this region (Gadgil et al., 1998). The Indo-Europeans are predominantly present in the north and the Dravidians in the middle and south of western peninsular India. Peopling of this part of India would not have happened before 20,000 years from the present as is at this period that the monsoons became distinctly weak at the height of glaciation in the northern latitudes (Gadgil and Thapar, 1990). Initially, peopling must have been sporadic and thin in different parts of this region but the density and area of occupation gradually increased in the subsequent historical periods.
Archaeological data of 23,050 ± 200 BCE on human presence are available from late prehistoric sites in Maharashtra region (Sali, 1989). Around 10,000 BCE there was an increase in the number of sites and occupation in a range of diverse ecological sites by communities using microlithic implements (Chakrabarti, 1999). Along the Konkan Coast these groups settled in hill terraces and rocky outcrops near the sea coast, further suggesting the exploitation of marine resources by the settled communities. The Indo-European descendants must have become hunter-gatherer and nomadic tribes/ethnic communities of northern W. Ghats, while the Dravidians must have become cultivators of plants and cattle breeders, although there might have been exceptions of some Dravidians becoming hunter-gatherers, in southern W. Ghats. Although it has been claimed that in northern W. Ghats cultivations must have started around 4,000–3,000 years ago and in Southern W. Ghats around 2,000 years ago (Gadgil et al., 1998), Tamil literary, archaeobotanical and epigraphic evidences indicate simultaneous cultivation efforts throughout southern W. Ghats around 4,000 years ago (Krishnamurthy, 2006).
Increased aridity in the climate of Indus Valley, salinity rise in the lakes and the drying up of the Saraswati river during the fourth millennium before the present may have caused a migration of the agropastoral Harappan people in large numbers towards the W. Coast and W. Ghats due to latter’s strategic position, the relatively humid climate (Subash Chandran, 1997) as well as the availability great biodiversity and bioresources. This larger migration happened in the megalithic period. Harappan civilization experts have shown that the Late Harappan culture had extended so far south as the Krishna river valley of the Belgaum region. The suspected objects of Harappan worships like the Mother Goddess, the prototype of Lord Shiva, the humped bull, the serpent, etc. are also seen in the northern and middle W. Ghats region. Many sacred groves of W. Ghats have a rich deposit of ancient terracotta figures characteristic of the Harappan civilization (Subash Chandran, 1997). The partially wild land race of rice of Late Harappan farmers might have given rise to the salt-tolerant rice land race of W. Coast region around 3,500 years before the present. From around 2000–1000 BCE there were temporary or permanent settlements of trading people from many countries (see details in Chapter 3 of this Volume).
2.3MAJOR ETHNIC COMMUNITIES
‘People of India Project’ of the Anthropological Survey of India has recognized 4,635 communities with about 50 to 60 thousand endogamous groups in India (Gadgil et al., 1998). This project also enumerated 461 tribal ethnic communities of which 174 have identified subgroups. More than 40 indigenous tribes occur in W. Ghats. Some of them occur in more than one state of W. Ghats region. The most important tribal ethnic communities are described here.
2.3.1KANIS
Also known as Kanikkars, the Kanis form an important tribal community of southernmost W. Ghats, which occurs both in Tamil Nadu (Bhagat Singh, 2015) and Kerala (Figure 2.1). Kanis occur in families of 5 to 56 in this hill range. The total number of individuals range from 1,500 to 2,000. Some of them are hunter-gatherers (gathering mainly wild edibles and honey), cultivators of crops (particularly manioc in recent years) or are involved in inland fishing. According to Viswanathan (2010) they use 352 medicinal plants, although Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu (2011) report their using only 90 plant species. In Kulathupuzha of Kerala they use around 120 plant species for medicinal purposes. The most important among them is Trichopus zeylanicus ssp. travancoricus, which is considered to be equivalent to Ginseng.
FIGURE 2.1(a) Kani man collecting mushrooms; (b) Kani women cooking. (Source: Sargunam et al., 2012; used with permission from S. S. Davidson, India.)
2.3.2KURICHIYAS
Also known as Kurichans, the kurichiyas live in Waynad and adjacent Kannur forests (Figure 2.2). They form 9% of the tribal population of Kerala. Traditionally specialists in archery (as the name indicates) and martial arts they were used by the king to combat British colonists, but now have become settled agriculturalists. They live in clusters of houses called Mittam or Tharavadu and their head is Karanavar or Pittan. The kurichiyas are a matrilineal society, deeply religious (worshipping village deities, particularly Kaali) (Ayappan, 1965) bury their dead with a grand funeral function and speak kurichiya language which is related to Malayalam. They retain their worldviews very strongly and are not affected much by modern trends. Their population as per 2001 census is 32,746. Kurichiyas are reported to use a number of ethnomedicinal plants including 70 species for skin problems alone and 40 species for ethnoveterinary purposes. They also have knowledge about 72 wild varieties of food plants.
FIGURE 2.2Kurichiyas tribal women (Source: http://www.ayurvedayogaretreat.com/tribes-wayanad/).
2.3.3PANIYAS
The Paniya tribe mainly inhabits Waynad area of Kerala and Nilgiris of Tamil Nadu. It is also seen in Kannur and Malappuram. Paniyas are short, dark-skinned, broad-nosed, curly-haired people. Some consider them as African in origin but it is contested by many. Traditionally the people of this tribe have been bonded labors and were once sold along with the plantations by landlords. Being agricultural laborers as their name indicates the Paniyas have great knowledge on ethnoagricultural practices. They live in bamboo huts covered with mud and charcoal powder mixture. Paniyas constitute 22.4% of the tribal population of Kerala and are a poor and depressed people. Now-a-days, they are involved in the cultivation of cardamomum, pepper, ginger and coffee. They also collect tubers, potherbs and mushrooms. They speak corrupted Malayalam-Tamil mixture. Women wear munda cloth and wear ear rings in big ear-holes tucked with palm leaf rolls. Their original religion is animism but worship Bagawati or ‘Kuli’ (a god of neither sex). Their priests are Nolumbukaran. They do not have rituals connected to birth, puberty or marriage. They bury the dead (Figure 2.3).
FIGURE 2.3Men and Women of Paniyas tribes (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paniya_people).
2.3.4PULAYAS
Also known as Cherumas, Pulayas are one of the earliest inhabitants of Kerala region (Krishna Iyer, 1967; Anantha Krishna Iyer, 1909). Their language is a primitive form of Tamil mixed with Malayalam words. Pulayas are considered as Protoaustraloids, and are black, short and with flat nose and long mandibles. They are believed to have come and settled in Kerala during the Middle Ages and were originally hunter-gatherers; they were living in Kerala from c 4,000 BCE onwards. Soon they became land-owners and, in fact, were the original land owners of this region. They claim themselves to be descendants of the Chera kings, the Tamil rulers of the Chera kingdom (now Kerala), as their name Cherumas indicated. Their supremacy declined with the arrival of Aryan peoples, were made to forego the lands they owned and were forced to be agrestic slaves to work as agricultural labors. Pulayas have excellent knowledge on ethnic agricultural practices and crops. They worship in Kavus (=sacred groves) and their deities include Kaali and Chattan, besides ancestral spirits.
2.3.5EZHAVAS
The Ezhavas form a very important ethnic community of not only southern Kerala but also of bordering Tamil Nadu, historically called Nanjil nadu. In fact, many consider Ezhavas of Kerala as migrants from Tamil Nadu; many of them speak both Tamil and Malayalam. They have very rich knowledge of traditional system of medicine, perhaps the ancient Siddha system of medicine, as well as on traditional medicinal plants. Achuden, the chief architect of Hortus Malabaricus (see details in a later chapter of this volume) is an Ezhava. Ezhavas were traditionally toddy collectors. They are matrilineal and are organized under five clans. They are exogamous and non-vegetarians.
2.3.6CHOLANAIKKARS
The Cholanaikkars or Malainaikkars are one of the most primitive tribes. They number only around 360. Their name indicates that they inhabit in the interior forest ‘cholas’ or ‘sholas’ (=valley); the post-fix ‘naikkars’ means kings. It is believed that they migrated from adjacent Karnataka forests to the forests of Silent Valley in Kerala. They are one of the last-remaining hunter-gatherers of South India. They speak the Cholanaikkan language with a mixture of Malayalam words. They refrain themselves from contacting other communities. They are usually of a short stature but are well-built and dark-complexioned. They live in rock shelters called “kallulai.” Each group of cholanaikkars is called chemmam. They strictly follow the traditional rules fixed by their ancestors. Now-a-days they gather minor forest produce for their subsistence.
2.3.7KADARS
Kadars are found not only in the Anamalais of Tamil Nadu (Bhagat Singh, 2015) but also in the adjacent W. Ghats of Kerala and Karnataka (Figure 2.4). Kadars are considered as belonging to the negrito tribal category of the African descent and are one of the most ancient tribals of not only W. Ghats but of entire India. However, no folk story is available with them about their origin. They live deep inside forests as their name 'Kadars' indicate. Kadars are also known as Kadins, Kadans and Kadane. They are hunter-gatherers and practice this mode of life even till recently and some families still practice it and ardently follow their traditional culture. As per 2011 census there were 650 people (male 325 and female 325). They speak Tamil mixed with Malayalam or Kannada. Kadars are classified by UNESCO as one of the PTG (particularly vulnerable tribal groups) category of the tribals. It is on the verge of extinction. The huts of Kadars are located in hill slopes. Each village has about 15 huts built of bamboos and with straw roofs. These huts are built under huge trees. The villages are very much separated from one another and the members of the community meet only in weekly markets or sandhis. They use vessels made of bamboos, especially to store honey, water and oil. They make many more items out of bamboo. Kadars are hunters and gather many forest products like honey, wax, cardomum, and shikakkai. In recent years they have started cultivating millets, sorghum and ragi and also have started to work as laborers. The village of Kadars is known as Mooppan. The society of Kadars is patriarchal and endogamous and marriages are arranged. During betrothal function the bridegroom should give as gift a comb made of bamboo to the bride and it is a very important symbolic gesture. The thaali or sacred thread on the neck of bride is black-beaded. Divorced women cannot seek control of their children with their earlier husbands. Kadars follow a number of rituals, most of which are society-controlled. Mother and the new-born child should take coconut oil bath and then the child is named. The dead are buried in the north-east direction from its village. Kadars follow animism and they worship trees and some animals; certain trees are considered as male gods and certain others as female. They worship them as Muni and Batrakali, often worshipping with coconut and jaggery. In recent years they have started worshipping mainstream Gods like Lord Muruga, Shiva and Amman.
FIGURE 2.4Kadar Tribes: (a) Young boy using the hunting weapon bow and arrow; (b) An age old couple of Kadar tribes; (c) Married women of Kadar tribes (Photo courtesy Dr. Bhagath Singh).
2.3.8TODAS
The Todas form a very important tribal community among the foremost six communities of the Nilgiris. They once owned major part of Nilgiris. UNESCO classifies them as a PTG tribal group and it is on the verge of extinction (Bhagat Singh, 2014). Todas are also found in the adjacent Karnataka W. Ghats. They are unique and distinct from other tribal groups and are known for their appearance, dress, customs, rituals, worship, pastoral life, buffalo sacrifice, marriage and arts and crafts. Todas are also known as Toduvar, Todavar, Todar (from the Kannada root Tuda, which means high altitude, e.g., living in hills). ‘Toda’ is also said to be derived from ‘tur’ or ‘tode,’ the most sacred tree of Todas. The origin of Todas is not clear and records about them are available only from the 11th century CE. Even their folk-tales and songs deal with more recent historical incidents. They claim themselves as descendants of Pandavas. Since their color and nose features indicate their European descent, they are considered by some not of Dravidian origin. They are also considered as descendants of ancient Romans, nomadics of ancient Jews or related to Sumerians. Their language Toduvam sheds some light on their origin and indicated its affinity to Dravidian group of languages. The traditional Toda huts are rainbow-shaped and are constructed with great artistry; they have a thatched roof and a low front door and hence avoids cold air entering inside and keep the inside warm. Their village is called ‘mund’ or ‘othaikkal mundu’ (=single–stone mundu) (it is the root for ‘ootacamund,’ the main town in Nilgiris). There are around 75 munds in Nilgiris occupied by about 2004 people (males 959; females 1045) as per the recent census. They are pure vegetarians and eat rice and millets. Buffalo-rearing was their original profession. They rear buffaloes for two purposes: one set of buffaloes are dedicated to the ‘Milk Temples’ while the other serve for domestic purposes. Now Todas are engaged as laborers and as cultivators. There are two sub-categories of Todas: Tardarol moiety, considered as having a higher social status, and Taviliol moiety, considered to be of inferior status. They together have 15 clans. Each mund has only one clan. Marriage is outside the clans and is usually arranged by negotiation. ‘Bowarrow ritual’ marks the seventh month of pregnancy of the married woman and a marriage is recognized as valid only after this ritual. Todas have a patriarchal society with a prevalence of polyandry; women enjoy sexual/social privileges. The death ritual of Todas is elaborate and is marked by buffalo sacrifice. The family deity is Tekkisy, who is believed to have created the Todas and their buffaloes. They also worship Lord Muruga and a few female deities. They usually avoid non-vegetarian food. They are specialists in the art of embroidery and the shal they make is called Puthukkuli; they also make embroidered clothes for wearing (Figure 2.5).
FIGURE 2.5(a) Portrait image of Toda tribal old women; (b) Young man lifting the heavy weight stone as to achieve the task to get married (Photo courtesy Dr. Bhagath Singh).
2.3.9KOTAS
The Kotas are an important Dravidian tribe. ‘Kotas’ means those who live in hills. They form a very small PTG tribe and live at high altitude regions of Nilgiri hills, particularly in Thiruchhigodi area. They also live in some parts of southern Karnataka W. Ghats. As per 2011 census their number is only 308 (male 153; female 155). The kota village is called ‘kokkal’ ‘Keri’ and their huts are called ‘pai.’ They speak the ‘kota’ or kovemanth language, which has no script (mixture of Tamil and Kannada). Kotas are known for their colorful folk dances and are very good musicians and artisans (Bhagat Singh, 2015). They play their instruments and sing in festivals and funerals. Some of them are also potters, smiths and carpenters. Both men and women wear shals. Kotas have elaborate taboos that distance them from other tribes of Nilgiris. They worship Kambattarayan and Kabatteswari as well as Kaali and their temples are under the control of a poojary (=priest) (Figure 2.6).
FIGURE 2.6Kota tribes (a) Singing song and playing musical during their ritual functions; B. Musical instrumental of Kota tribes (Photos courtesy Dr. Bhagath Singh).
2.3.10BADAGAS
Like Kotas, the Badagas also live in Nilgiris. They are an agricultural community, dwelling in higher plateaus. They had settled down in Nilgiris around 16th century CE from Mysore region. The total number of Badagas is estimated to be around 3,50,000. They were once cultivating traditional hill crops under jum cultivation but now are involved mainly in cultivating potato, cabbages and tea. They speak Tamil-Kannada mixture. Badagas have a rich tradition of folk tales, songs and poems. They are Hindus and worship various village gods as well as Shiva. Badagas are vegetarians. They are exogamous and couples are usually from different clans. They are patrilineal (Hockings, 2012) (Figure 2.7).
FIGURE 2.7Badagas tribal community of Nilgiris (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badagas).
2.3.11KURUMBAS
Also called Kurubas, Kurumas or Kurerba Gowdas, these tribals are believed to be descendants of the Pallavas (Figure 2.8). They live as 5 or 6 families in small villages called motta or kombai in the valleys and forests of Nilgiris and Wyanad and their hunts. They are known for their black magic, witch craft and sorcery in the past. They were originally hunter-gatherers, shepherds and Yadavas but now are laborers in plantations. They speak the Kurumba language. They celebrate most Hindu festivals. The Shola Nayakkars, Mullus, Uralis, Alus or Palu Kurumbas, Jenu Kurubas, Betta Kurubas, etc. are all considered as subgroups or clans of Kurumbas (see Satishkumar, 2008). Many Kurubas have acted as priests in the past for their tribe as well as for other tribes. They use traditional medicinal plants in sorcery. Their huts are scattered on steep wooded slopes and are mainly made of bamboos with roofs fortified with mud, cow dung and grass. They use vessels made of bamboos and leaves of forests plants as utensils. They gather honey and cultivate small patches of land with ragi, samai and other millets. They have rich musical tradition and use bamboo pipes and mono- and bi-faced drums and plastic beads; women wear thaali after marriage. Soapnut was once used for bath. A few parallel-lines of dots are tattooed on their foreheads by women. Men wear loin clothes only while women wear a piece of cloth wrapped under their arms and up to knees. A muthali or ejaman administers the village with the help of three assistants respectively specialized in agricultural issues, marriage issues and as spoke person/messenger. Usually a Urkoottam (meeting of villagers) is organized to sort out all issues. During marriage-fixing function a token of betel leaves and a sum of Rs. 1.25 (now Rs. 101.25) is given by the bride groom to the bride’s father. Kurumbas are a patrilineal society. Kuruma act is very famous in which four colors are traditionally used: red (through red soil), white (Bodhi soil), black (charcoal of tree) and green (leaf extract of Cassia auriculata). Kurumbas are of Dravidian descent.
FIGURE 2.8Kurumbas tribes (a) Sacred groove; (b) Kurumbas tribal children; (c) drawing representation the worshiping activities of Kurumbas tribes; and (d) drawing representing the honey comb hunting (Photos courtesy Dr. Bhagath Singh).
2.3.12HAVIKS
The Haviks or Havyaks form an important tribe of Karnataka; they are also present in Northern Kerala. They are Brahmins specializing in spice cultivation, especially pepper, cardamomum and betel nut. They possess excellent knowledge on all aspects of ethnoagriculture of plantation crops. These Brahmins are believed to have been brought to this region by the Kadamba king, Mayur Varma, for performing sacrificial rituals (Gauniyal et al., 2010). They speak Kannada. Hegde, Habbar and Bhat are the surnames used by them.
2.3.13MUKRIS
The Mukris are one of the important tribes of Karnataka. They are traditionally hunter-gatherers. There are about 9,000 individuals of this community at present. Although now considered as a scheduled tribe, Mukris are genetically related to the Haviks and might be derived from the same ancestral stock.
2.3.14HALAKKI AND KARE VAKKALS
Halakki Vakkals reside in North Karnataka. Their main job is to weave mats out of Pandanus leaves. They are largely concentrated in the coastal belt. The Kare Vakkals however, are concentrated in the hilly taluks of Yallapur and Haliyal taluks. They are exogamous and are essentially agrestal in occupation. There are 75,000 Halakkis living in Koppas under direct control of their community heads. They were one of the earliest settlers in North Karnataka and are believed to have come from Tirupati area of Andhra Pradesh. There are both exogamous and endogamous clans within the Halakkis. They speak ‘Halakki kannada.’ They have a rich folklore. Halakkis have a good knowledge on traditional agriculture and traditional crop plants.
2.3.15SIDDHIS
The Siddhis of North Karnataka are a scheduled tribal community. Considered to be traditionally nomadic, the siddhis are Muslims. Siddhis also live in Gujarat. Interestingly the Siddhis have genetic affinity with S. African populations. This suggests their probable migration through sea route and their settling down in these places, rather than migrating through land/coastal route. Siddhis are reported to use 69 species of plants for medicinal purposes. They are generally short-distance nomads in the semi-evergreen forests of North Karnataka. Many consider the Siddhis as being brought as slaves by the Portuguese. In a few villages the reminiscence of the African clan system is still persisting (Gauniyal et al., 2010).
2.3.16JORWEE
Jorwee tribe of Inamgaon of Maharashtra are one of the oldest tribes. They are known to have cultivated rice around 3,400–2,700 years BP.
2.3.17GAVLIS
Gavlis (also spelled as Gowlis) of Maharashtra and North Karnataka live on the upper hill plateau of the semi evergreen forests of W. Ghats, maintain a herd of buffaloes and cattle and practice some small-scale shifting cultivation. Although traditionally nomadic, grazing over the entire terrain is largely available to Gavli animals. Because they consume a lot of buttermilk, Gavlis do little hunting of other animals. Gavlis exchange ghee from their livestock for surplus paddy grains obtained from Kunbis (see Section 2.3.20). The folk history of Gavlis recounts how they moved from wetter hill tracts, switching from keeping sheep to keeping buffaloes and then assumed a distinct identity.
2.3.18PHASEPARDHIS AND OTHER NOMADIC TRIBES
The Phasepardhis of Maharashtra snare ungulates, quails and partridges. The nomadic Vaidas of Maharashtra trap mongooses, civets as also hunt crocodiles. The nomadic or semi-nomadic Nandiwallas of Maharashtra hunt porcupines, monitor lizards and wild pigs with the help of dogs; they move from place to place with their bulls (=nandis). They are non-pastoral. Their number is around 8,000 (Gadgil and Malhotra, 1979). Nandiwallas form two distinct sovereign groups: Tirumal Nandiwallas, numbering around 3,000 and Fulmali Nandiwallas, numbering around 5,000. Both have clearly demarcated territories of operation and both have migrated from neighboring former Andhra Pradesh. Some Fulmali Nandiwallas have a settled life. Mumba Devi is worshipped by all Fulmali Nandiwallas, especially by those settled from nomadic life.
2.3.19MAHASKE DHANGARS
The people of this tribe lived in the Mula river valley of Pune district which lies at the crestline of W. Ghats. They are pastoralists and were mainly dependent on water buffaloes. Their deity was Waghjai which resides in the river valley. The Dhangar settlements are exclusively on the flat hill-top plateaus at an altitude of 1,000 to 1,200 m, away from all villages. They live in small settlements of 5–10 families, tend their buffaloes on grazing in the forest and fight off tigers. They do very little shifting cultivation and do little hunting-gathering. Their main sustenance is on butter milk and on millets or rice obtained through barter for butter sold in weekly shandies. They do not require the service of any other community (such as priests, medicine men or barbers) and they hardly interact with others. Ecologically, this is not even the optimum habitat either for them or for their water-buffaloes but still persist to live in this environment.
2.3.20KUNBIS
Kunbis (or kunabis) are a tribal community of North Karnataka and S. Maharashtra. Traditionally nomadic, they occupy the valleys and grow paddy. It is supplemented by some shifting cultivation of the lower slopes. Kunbis keep very few animals and hunting of wild animals over the entire terrain is largely their monopoly. They exchange their rice to the milk products obtained from Gavlis. They are particularly seen in the Mula river valley of Pune district at the Crestline of W. Ghats. They speak corrupted Marathi. They are believed to have migrated from Goa a long time back. They use around 45 ethnomedicinal plants. Kunbis maintain sacred groves as a resource as well as for cultural purposes. Sacred ponds form a component of these groves.
2.3.21KOKNAS
Also called Kokanas, Kuknas or Koknis, this is a tribe of the hilly regions of Maharashtra and S. Gujarat. They are particularly common in Dangs district’s Waghai forest. They are believed to have migrated from Konkan region to these places. They use 46 ethnobotanical species for medicine and food.
2.3.22THAKARS
Also known as Thakers, this tribe inhabits Pune, Thane, Raigad, Ahmadnagar and Nasik districts of Maharashtra. This tribe was originally forest-dwelling but are now scattered both in forests and plains. Now the Thakars are mainly dependent on forest and agricultural produce; the forest products are gathered by them. They store their agricultural produce, especially grains, in wicker baskets called Kangas, which is worshipped by them. They use about 140 plants species for various medicinal purposes. They are Indo-Aryans and speak Marathi. Their population is around 5 lakhs. They have a rich tradition of folk songs and dances. They have two major sub-divisions: MaThakars and Ka-Thakars. Thakars were once described as “butterflies of the wood.”
2.3.23GHADASI KOLIS
This tribe lives in the Mula river valley located in Pune district of Maharashtra at the crestline of W. Ghats. The people of this tribe are shifting cultivators and hunter-gatherers (Roy Burman, 1996). Their deity is Bapujiboa. They stay in the higher hill-slopes at altitudes of 800–1000 m in settlements of 25–30 families. This tribe is always in conflict with Marathas. The Koli villages of Khanu and Chandar are the most difficult to access from anywhere. Kolis maintain a number of sacred groves and bamboos form an important component of these groves (Roy Burman, 1996).
2.4CONCLUSIONS
India is known for its rich human resource as it is one of the earliest occupied countries of the World by the modern human species. Peopling has been going on in various parts of India from around 70,000–50,000 years ago. Humans have occupied different environmental regimes of India many of which have posed various problems for them. One such region is W. Ghats and its adjacent W. Coast of Peninsular India. All ethnic tribes that occupied this region from ancient times have largely been responsible for identifying and using various plants of cultural, social and utilitarian importance growing around them for meeting several of their requirements: foods, medicines (human and veterinary), aromatics, fodder, construction materials and others. They were also responsible for domesticating and cultivating some of these plants from their wild relatives. They also developed their own traditional ways of conserving these plants. Hence, a study of the ethnic diversity of the Western peninsular India, as presented above, is very much needed to understand the cultural, social and utilitarian plant resources.
KEYWORDS
•Ethnic Tribes
•Hunter-Gatherers
•Nomads
•Peopling
•Shifting-Cultivators
•Western Coast
•Western Ghats
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