CHAPTER 6
ETHNOBOTANICALS OF THE WESTERN GHATS
S. NOORUNNISA BEGUM, K. RAVIKUMAR, and D. K. VED
Centre of Repository of Medicinal Resources, School of Conservation of Natural Resources, Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health and Traditions, 74/2, Jarakabande Kaval, Attur PO, Via Yelahanka, Bangalore 560–064, India. E-mail: noorunnisa.begum@frlht.org, k.ravikumar@frlht.org, dk.ved@frlht.org
CONTENTS
6.3Ethnobotanical Work on the Western Ghats
6.5Threatened Medicinal Plants of the Western Ghats
6.6In situ Conservation of Medicinal Plants in the Western Ghats–FRLHT’s Experience
ABSTRACT
Western Ghats comprises rich bio-cultural diversity and is home to varied ethnomedicinal practices. There are several eminent scholars and scientists who have documented ethnobotany of the Western Ghats. The present chapter is based on the survey of the existing literature studies and highlights the therapeutic uses of medicinal plants used by various tribal communities living in various pockets of the Western Ghats. A brief account is given on threat- ened medicinal plants and efforts on in situ conservation of medicinal plants in the Western Ghats. The enumeration includes listing of 1116 botanicals in alphabetical order, part used and name of the disease/medicinal uses along with 6 plates.
6.1INTRODUCTION
In India, though the records of plant utilization for medicine, food and other purposes date back to ancient times but research work under the title ‘ethnobotany’ were initiated by 1954 and till date more than 9000 plant species used by tribals or aboriginals for different purposes from different regions of India have been documented. The studies on ethnobotany India were initiated by E.K. Janaki Ammal, as an official program of the Botanical Survey of India, studied subsistence food plants of certain tribals of South India. This was followed by S.K. Jain, who took the lead and streamlined the subject with his several books and numerous publications on the subject.
Ethnobotanical knowledge is rich among about 50 million tribals of 160 linguistic groups in 227 ethnic groups belonging to 550 tribal communities of about 5,000 tribal hamlets in India (Anonymous, 1994). According to a status report of the All India Coordinated Research Project on Ethnobiology (AICRPE) covering 24 research center in India enumerates over 9,500 wild species used by the tribals. About 7,500 of them are used for medicinal purposes (Anonymous, 1994). Roughly, more than 3,000 plants are used in different purposes of food, fodder, fiber, for house building, musical instruments, fuel, oil seeds, narcotics and beverages, in material culture and also in magico-religious beliefs.
Although the concept and definition of the science of ethnobotany was clearly defined respectively by Powers (1874) and Harshberger (1896), the elements of this science appeared in India even before it. Written records of the use of plants for curing several human and animal diseases in India can be traced back to the earliest (4500–1600 BC) scripture of Hindus, the Rigveda. The juice of the legendary plant ‘Soma’ is widely believed to be a mushroom, Amanita muscaria, mentioned as ‘Oshadhi,’ e.g., heat producer. A good number of plants were described in ‘Atharvaveda.’ ‘Vrikshayurveda’ of Rishi Parashara (ca. 1 AD) comprises huge information on various aspects of plants. Notable ancient scriptures on medicinal plants include, Charak Samhita (1000–800 BC), Sushrut Samhita (800–700 BC) and Vagbhatta’s ‘Astanga Hridya.’ But the Indian System of Medicine has declined with the invasion of Greeks, Scythians, Huns, Moghuls and Europeans. Garcia da Orta (1563) published a book ‘Coloquios dos simples’ e drogas medicinas da India’ which mentioned about 50 common taxa of medicinal significance and other utilities as gathered around Goa and in Malabar. Acosta (1578) also published a book ‘Tractado de las drogas y medicinas de las Indias Orientalis’ on Indian Medicinal Plants from Malabar. Van Rheede (1678–1693), the compiler of ‘Hortus Malabaricus’ gave an excellent and accurate introduction of medicinal plants. The science of ethnobotany began taking shape during the British India regime. They surveyed wild and cultivated plants as part of their floristic studies. William Roxburgh (1832) recorded medicinal uses of herbs during his floristic investigations from south of India. Sir George Watt published ‘Dictionary of the Economic Products of India’ (1889–1896), in which he provided nearly 3000 local names of the plant products and their uses as obtained from various regions of India. His work is not only a monumental one, but also reflects true ethnobotany and indigenous knowledge of Indian societies. Subsequently Bodding (1925, 1927, and 1940) published medicines used by Santal tribe.
6.2ETHNOBOTANY IN INDIA
E.K. Janaki Ammal studied subsistence food plants of certain tribes specially of South India (Janaki Ammal, 1956). S.K. Jain compiled ethnobotanical works in India under the title “Dictionary of Indian Folk Medicine and Ethnobotany” (Jain, 1991), Notable plants of Ethnobotany of India (Jain et al., 1991), A Handbook of Ethnobotany’ (Jain and Mudgal, 1999) and Tribal Medicine (Pal and Jain, 1998). He published several books and more than 300 research papers on different aspects of ethnobotany and folklore medicine in India. Several reviews have also been published on ethnobotany of plants of India including the Western Ghats. Dey and De (2011) reviewed ethnobotanical aspects of Rauvolfia serpentina in India, Nepal and Bangladesh.
6.3ETHNOBOTANICAL WORK ON THE WESTERN GHATS
The region comprises the states of Gujarat, Goa, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Some of the tribals inhabiting these states are Goa: Dhodia, Dubla (Halpati), Naikda (Talavia), Siddi (Nayaka), Varli, Kunbi, Gawda, Velip, Kerala: Adiyan, Arandan, Aranadan, Eravallan, Hill Pulaya, Mala Pulayan, Kurumba Pulayan, Karavazhi Pulayan, Pamba Pulayan, Irular, Irulan, Kadar, Wayanad Kadar, Kanikaran, Kanikkar, Kattunayakan (Kochuvelan), Koraga, Kudiya, Melakudi, Kurichchan, Kurumans, Kurumbas, Maha Malasar, Malai Arayan, Malai Pandaram, Malai Vedan, Malakkuravan, Malasar, Malayan, Nattu Malayan, Konga Malayan, Malayarayar, Mannan, Muthuvan, Palleyan, Paniyan, Ulladan, Uraly, Mala Vettuvan, Ten Kurumban, Jenu Kurumban, Thachanadan, Thachanadan Moopan, Cholanaickan, Mavilan, Karimpalan, Vetta Kuruman, Mala Panickar. Karnataka: Jenukuruba, Bettakuruba, Soliga, Yerava, Malekudia, Panjariyerava, Thammadi, Medha. Dadra, Nagar, Haveli & Daman: Warli, Konkana, Dhodia, Dubala (Halpati), Kathudi (Katkari), Naika and Koli. In Thane district of Maharashtra, The Warli tribe are mainly spread out in the villages of Dahanu, Talasari, Mokhada, Vada, Palghara and extends up to the Gujarat border. Warli Tribe has become famous because of their traditional folk painting art.
The Tamil Nadu state: Irular, Kadar, Kanikaran, Kattunayakan, Kurumbar, Malayali, Mudhuvan, Palliyan, Paniyan and Soligas.
There are many reports on ethnomedicinal plants of the Western Ghats. Indian council of medical research has prepared a database on ethno-medicinal plants of the Western Ghats (Kholkunte, 2008). Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, reported the “Medicinal Plants of Western Ghats”, their importance and the medicinal values (Sahyadri e-news CES-ENVIS’s quarterly newsletter). Medicinal plant species of Western Ghats include Algae, Lichens, Pteridophytes, climbers, herbs, shrub and trees (Kumar et al., 2014; Warrier and Ganapathy, 2001; Sharma, 2014). Ethnobotanical research has been intensified at different research stations, many researchers have tried to give details on medicinal plants and notable contributions are described as under.
6.3.1KERALA
An ethnobotanical exploration in the Trivandrum forest division in Kerala was carried out by John (1984) and reported one hundred useful raw drugs of the Kani tribe. Ethnobotany of rice of Malabar was given by Manilal (1981). Ethnobotany of the Nayadis of Kerala was given by Prasad and Abraham (1984). In a study on ethnobotany of Cannanore district, Ramachandran (1987) listed over 30 species of ethnomedicinal plants. Nagendra Prasad et al. (1987) published an account of 56 medicinal plants. The unripe fruits of Ginseng, Trichopus zeylanicus Gaertn. subsp. travancoricus (Bedd.) Burk. of Dioscoreaceae, of Agasthiyar hills of Kerala state are eaten fresh to remain healthy and agile (Pushpangadan et al., 1988).
Details of 32 plant species used in ethnomedicine by the tribals in Naduvil panchayat in Kannur district of Kerala were given by Thomas and De Britto (1999). Ethnobotanical uses of Momordica charantia var. muricata, M. charantia var. charantia, M.dioica and M. sahyadrica in the southern Western Ghats comprising food, medicinal, cosmetic and culinary preparations were given by Joseph and Antony (2007). Ajesh et al. (2012) reported that 23 species of Fabaceae are being used for treating gynecological problems by Mannan tribes of Kerala. 50 plant species used by Kani tribe of Kottor reserve forest, Agasthyavanam in Thiruvananthapuram district in Kerala to treat 39 ailments have been enumerated by Vijayan et al. (2006). Ethnogynecological uses of 15 plant species prevalent among the tribal groups namely Mannan, Paliyan, Urali, Malayarayan and Malampandaram of Periyar Tiger Reserve in Western Ghats, Kerala were given by Augustine et al. (2010). Thomas and Rajendran (2013) provided an overview of 44 ethnomedicinal plants used by Kurichar tribe of Wayanad district, southern Western Ghats in Kerala. Information on 34 plant species used by Kuruma tribe of Wayanad district of Kerala for the treatment of cuts and wounds was given by Thomas et al. (2014).
6.3.2KARNATAKA
Keshava Murthy and Yoganarasimhan (1990) while writing the Flora of Coorg provided data on 747 medicinal plants and phytochemical data on 471 taxa and furnished detailed information on 315 Ayurvedic drugs. Yoganarashimhan (1996) wrote a book on Medicinal Plants of India of which first volume is dedicated to Karnataka. Studies on ethnobotany of different tribes in Karnataka include Siddis of Uttar Kannada by Bhandary et al. (1995), Gawlis of Uttar Kannada district by Bhandary et al. (1996) and Kunabi tribe by Harsha et al. (2002), Khar Vokkaliga community by Achar et al. (2010), Jenu Karuba ethnic group by Kshirsagar and Singh (2000a) and Nanjunda (2010). Ethnomedicobotany of different districts in Karnataka include Dharwad by Hebber et al. (2004), Mysore and Coorg districts by Kshirsagar and Singh (2000b, 2001). Herbal therapy for Herpes in the ethnomedicine of coastal Karnataka was given by Bhandary and Chandrasekhar (2011) and skin diseases by Hegde et al. (2003) and Bhat et al. (2014). Ethnomedical survey of herbs for management of malaria in Karnataka was given by Prakash and Unnikrishnan (2013). An account of 102 medicinal plants to cure skin diseases in the coastal parts of Central Western Ghats, Karnataka was given by Bhat et al. (2014).
6.3.3TAMIL NADU
All India Coordinated Research Project on Ethnobiology was commissioned by Man and Biosphere reserve project was sanctioned to Dr. Pushgandan as Co-ordinator. In this Tamil Nadu was given to Dr. A.N. Henry (1989-1992). This period a total of 950 medicinal plants were collected. The enumeration included 142 wild edible plant species and 553 species used for medicine (Anonymous, AICRPE-1989 to 1992 report).
Ethnobotany of the Todas, the Kotas and the Irulas of Nilgiris was given by Abraham (1981). Medicinal plants among the Irulas of Attapady and Bolunvampatti forests in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve was given by Balasubramanian and Prasad (1996). Folk medicine of the Irulas of Coimbatore forests was discussed by Balasubramanian et al. (1997). Ethnobotany of Kadars, Malasars and Muthuvans of the Anamalais in Coimbatore district and Irular, Kurumban and Paniyan of Nilgiris was given by Hosagoudar and Henry (1996a, b). Plants used by the tribe Kadar in Anamalai hills in Coimbatore district were discussed by Rajendran and Henry (1994). Other publications include; ethnobotany of Irulas, the Koravas and the Puliyan of Coimbatore district (Ramachandran and Manian, 1989; Ramachandran and Nair, 1981); ethnobotany of the Kanikars of Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in India (Viswanathan et al., 2001), ethnomedicinal plants used by the Kanikkars of Tirunelveli district, Tamilnadu were given by Anitha et al. (2008). 52 plant species used by the Paniya tribe of Mundakunnu village of the Nilgiri hills to treat various ailments of analgesic, antidiarrheal, piles, antidiabetic, gynecological problems, vermifuge, antidandruff, venereal diseases and bone fracture were enumerated by Manikandan (2005). Ignacimuthu et al. (2006) gave information on 60 ethnomedicinal plant species used by Paliyar tribes from southern Western Ghats in Madurai district, Tamilnadu. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Agasthiayamalai region of Tirunelveli district was done by collecting information from the experienced medicinal practitioners of Kani tribes (Sripathi and Sankari, 2010). Ten plants were collected, authenticated and information on their medicinal uses along with the parts used and mode of administration is enumerated. Ethnomedicinal values of 52 species from Uthapuram village of Madurai district were given by Sivasankari et al. (2013). An ethnobotanical survey was conducted by Shalini et al. (2014a) to document ethnomedicinal plants which are used by a hill tribe Kanikkars of southern Western Ghats. 45 species of ethnomedicinal plants used for the treatment of skin-related ailments by the Kanikkars, an indigenous tribe inhabiting southern Western Ghats were enumerated by Shalini et al. (2014b). Viswanathan et al. (2001) provided an account on 124 ethnomedicines of Kanis in Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu. Rani et al. (2011) gave an account of 174 ethnomedicinal plants used by Kanikkars of Agasthiarmalai Biosphere reserve in Western Ghats. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the Paliyars aborgonal community in Virudhunagar district of Tamilnadu yielded 48 medicinal plants.
6.3.4MAHARASHTRA
Ethnomedicobotanical studies in Maharashtra include: Ethno-medicinal plants used by the tribals in Dhule district (Borse et al., 1990; Bhamare, 1998); Ethnomedicinal practices of Nasik district (Patil and Patil, 2005); Ethno-medicinal plants of Baramati region of Pune district (Deokule, 2006); Ethnomedicobotanical Survey of Ratnagiri District (Deokule and Mokat, 2004); Ethnobotany of Thakar tribe (Kamble et al., 2009); Studies on plants used in traditional medicine by Bhilla tribe (Kamble et al., 2010); Traditional medicines used by the tribes of Pune and Thane districts for the treatment of upper respiratory tract disorders (Kamble et al., 2009); Medico-ethnological studies and conservation of medicinal plants of North Sahyadri (Khairnar, 2006); Ethnobotany in Human welfare of Raigad district (Kothari and Moorthy, 1994); Folk therapies of Katkaris (Kulkarni and Deshpande, 2011); Ethno-medical traditions of Thakur tribals of Karjat, Maharashtra (Palekar, 1993); Medico-botanical and phytochemical studies on medicinal plants of Dhule and Nandurbar districts (Rajput and Yadav, 2000). Soman (2011) recorded ethnomedicinal uses of 20 plants used by tribals of Karjat Taluka in Maharashtra. 38 ethnomedicinal plants used to treat bones. Details of ethnomedicinal uses of 19 plants used by the tribes in Pannala taluka of Western Ghats were given by Soman (2014). Medicinal uses of 54 edible plant used by Warli, Katkari and Konkani tribal women of Thane district were given by Oak et al. (2015). 38 ethnomedicinal plants used to treat bone fracture in North-Central Western Ghats were discussed by Upadhya et al. (2012). Khyade et al. (2011) described 40 Angiospermic species used by the tribes Mahadev Koli, Ramoshi, Thakar and Bhills in Akola Taluka of Ahmednagar district as an antidote against snake bite.
6.3.5DADRA-NAGAR HAVELI AND DAMAN
Sabnis and Bedi (1983) and Sharma and Singh (2001) carried out ethnobotanical studies of Dadra-Nagar Haveli and Daman.
6.3.6GUJARAT
Kumar et al. (2007) studied plant species used by tribal communities of Saputara and Purna forests, Dangs district, extreme northern part of Western Ghats, South Gujarat. 50 plant species used for curing various diseases have been enumerated.
6.3.7GENERAL
21 plant extracts of different species used by traditional healers from high altitude of the Western Ghats for the treatment of ulcers, cancers, tumors, warts and other disease were tested for potential anticancer activity by Garg et al. (2007).
6.4METHODOLOGY
In writing this chapter we focused on compiling the ethnobotanical data from various published ethnobotanical and ethnographical works by various scholars. The chapter has attempted to compile information on the medicinal plants used in the Western Ghats, such as ethnobotanical aspects of medicinal plants, specific usage of plant resource by tribal communities, cultural belief, plants and their therapeutic usage, specific plant groups like orchids, chaemophytes, pteridophytes, mushrooms, practices within culture based on geographical origin. It is based on these plants compiled the following chapter is written. The Database on Medicinal Plants used in Indian Medical System developed by Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health and Traditions (FRLHT), Bangalore, Karnataka has been referred to intensively. Based on these studies there are ca 2100 medicinal plants in the Western Ghats. Of the vast literature available for the medicinal plants in Western Ghats, we are listing few of the selected 1116 medicinal plants in the table 6.3 given below.
Some of the threatened medicinal plants and few interesting medicinal plants of the Western Ghats is provided in the plates 1 to 6.
6.5THREATENED MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE WESTERN GHATS
The threat of extinction of species is looming large due to their un-sustainable removal and rapid reduction/fragmentation of habitats. For such species/taxa, more intensive management becomes necessary for their survival and recovery. Increasingly, this intensive management will have to include – habitat management and restoration, intensified information gathering and possible conservation breeding. Concerns have grown, and so have efforts, to reverse the process of extinction. The IUCN, the WWF, the WCMS, RBG, KEW are some of the organization actively working for species survival at global level. In India, Zoo Outreach Organization (ZOO) and the Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health and Traditions (FRLHT) have, in collabo ration with wildlife/forest managers, pioneered conservation action in re spect of animals and medicinal plants respectively.
With so many species needing conservation action, it is imperative that a priority list of such species is drawn and the status of their wild population is documented. Attempts to address this issue led to Red Listing of species. But the process of Red listing being long and time consuming due to the need for in-depth and intensive field studies of priority taxon, it does not provide the luxury of commissioning such long drawn species specific stud- ies to initiate conservation action. What was needed was a rapid method of information gathering within available resources to reach fair level of under- standing for initiating intensive management as efficiently and effectively as possible. The development of Threat Assessment and Management plan (TAMP) process, now called Conservation Assessment and Management Prioritization (CAMP), is the result of this search.
The first such workshop for plant species was held for flora of the island of St. Helena, in the pacific, in May 1993. Organized under the auspices of Royal Botanic Gardens (RBG), Kew, the workshop assessed and prioritized plant species of St; Helena for conservation action and information gathering. The first Workshop in India for plants was held at Bangalore for medicinal plants of Southern India in February 1995. It was co-ordinated by FRLHT in collaboration with Conservation Breeding Specialist Group (CBSG) of IUCN. Since then 15 more such workshops covering wild medicinal plants of different states / regions in the country have been held.
A global analysis of a representative sample of the world’s plants, conducted in 2010 by the Royal Botanic Garden, Kew together with the National Histroy Museum, London and IUCN has revealed that one in five of the worlds plants species are threatened with extinction. Around 5000 Indian medicinal plants are wild in India (as per FRLHT data base), 1/5th of these i.e. Approximately 1000 species may be Threatened with extinction. Assessment of Threat status of Indian medicinal plants, undertaken so far, is far from completion methodology and there is a need for adopting appropriate rapid for such assessments.
In this context it is relevant to review the consolidated efforts for rapid threat assessment of wild medicinal plants, through 15 CAMP workshops, which add up to 335 species assessed as Near Threatened or Threatened.
There is a need to systematically assess and identify such threatened medicinal plant species and develop appropriate conservation action plans. The species thus prioritised need to be assessed and assigned a threat status. Systematic assessment of the red list status of the prioritised medicinal plant species of the region have been undertaken through a rapid assessment process called Conservation Assessment and Management Prioritisation (CAMP) using guidelines and definitions developed by IUCN.
Out of the ten biogeographical zones of India, five CAMP workshops were exclusively conducted to assess threat status of the medicinal plant species of the Western Ghats. List of some of the endemic medicinal plants assessed in the CAMP is provided in the table 6.1. Focused CAMP workshops should be reconducted in the above said biogeographical zones in order to re look into the identity of the threatened medicinal plant species for Red Listing and their current Threat category.
TABLE 6.1List of Endemic Threatened Medicinal Plants Assessed in the CAMP During 1995, 1996, 1997, 1999
6.6In situ CONSERVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS IN THE WESTERN GHATS–FRLHT’S EXPERIENCE
It is widely recognized that every species has an inherent range of genetic traits that contribute to its genetic richness. It is also to be appreciated that it is impossible to gather all the genetic diversity of any one species for setting up ex situ conservation parts for these. The only possible way where the range of genetic diversity of any species can be conserved and allowed to follow its natural evolutionary course is to afford its protection/conservation in the wild – in the in situ situations. These natural sites, established especially for its in situ conservation of medicinal plants, were named Medicinal Plants Conservation Areas (MPCAs). Of the 55 MPCAs established in southern India, 29 fall in the Western Ghats region – Karnataka (8), Kerala (9), Tamil Nadu (7) and Maharashtra (4). All these MPCAs were established in such a way as to cover the maximum habitat diversity and viable populations of the prioritized medicinal plants species available in these states. These sites were traditionally valued as medicinal plant repositories, were easily accessible, were relatively less disturbed, formed compact micro watersheds and were likely to cause minimum interference with livelihoods of local people. These MPCA network, thus, covered 8 out of 10 major forest types (after Champion and Seth, 1968) in the states. These MPCAs also covered the available altitudinal range in the project area. The actual size of the MPCA varied from 80 ha to 400 ha with an average of 203 ha per MPCA. No MPCA could, however, be established in degraded forests for want of sizeable chunks of forest areas and in view of protection problems. Out of the detailed floristic work carried in these sites, it was noticed that viable populations of four Critically Endangered species were not getting covered under the MPCA network established in the Phase I of DANIDA funded project. Therefore, four additional MPCAs were established during the second phase of the project specifically to capture wild populations of four threatened medicinal plants species of high concern. These four MPCAs are: Kollur MPCA in Karnataka for Saraca asoca, Kulamavu MPCA in Kerala for Coscinium fenestratum, Anapady MPCA in Kerala for Utleria salicifolia and Nambikoil MPCA in Tamil Nadu for Janakia arayalpathra.
Botanical survey in different seasons were conducted to prepare comprehensive inventory of the MPCA vegetation as well as to document the ephimerals. These surveys also provided an idea of species richness in these areas at a macro level. Details of MPCAs established in states of Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra along with the species recorded in re- spective MPCAs is provided in the Table 6.2.
TABLE 6.2Details of MPCAs Established in States of Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra (Coordinated by FRLHT)
The in situ (field) gene bank sites can also be used as study sites to understand the reproductive biology of the species, and guide steps towards their recovery and long-term conservation. The detailed studies undertaken at these sites, on demography of priority species can also feed into the working (management) plan prescriptions of the forest divisions.
6.7CONCLUSION
6.7.1OPPORTUNITIES–MEDICINAL PLANTS AND BIOSPROSPECTING
Many modern drugs have origin in ethnopharmacology and traditional medicine. Traditions are dynamic and not static entities of unchanging knowledge. Discovering reliable ‘living tradition’ remains a major challenge in traditional medicine. In many parts ‘little traditions’ of indigenous systems of medicine are disappearing, yet their role in bioprospecting medicines or poisons remains of pivotal importance (Patwardhan et al., 2004). Bioprospecting demands a number of requirement which should be coordinated, such as team of scientific expert (from all the relevant interdisciplinary fields) along with expertise in a wide range of human endeavors, including international laws and legal understanding, social sciences, politics and anthropology. In Indian context, Ayurveda and other traditional systems of medicine, rich genetic resources and associated ethnomedical knowledge are key components for sustainable bioprospecting and valueaddition processes. For drug-targeted bioprospecting an industrial partner is needed, which will be instrumental in converting the discovery into a commercial product. Importance in any bioprospecting venture is the drafting and signing of an agreement or Memorandum of Understanding that should cover issues on access to the genetic resources (biodiversity), on intellectual property related to discovery, on the sharing of benefits as part of the process (short term), and in the event of discovery and commercialization of a product (long term), as well as on the conservation of the biological resources for the future generations. When ethnobotanical or ethnopharmacological approach is utilize, additional specific requirement that relate to prior informed consent, recognition of Indigenous Intellectual Property Rights as well as short- and long-term benefit sharing need to be taken into account (Parwardhan, 2005; Soejarto et al., 2005).
6.7.2REVERSE PHARMACOLOGY
The traditional knowledge-inspired reverse pharmacology described here relates to reversing the routine ‘laboratory-to-clinic’ progress to ‘clinicsto-laboratories’ (Vaidya, 2006). It’s a trans-disciplinary endeavor offering major paradigm shift in drug discovery. Instead of serendipitous findings pursued randomly an organized path from clinical observations and successes is established. Reverse Pharmacology (RP), designed as an academic discipline to reduce three major bottlenecks of costs, time and toxicity. The science has to integrate documented clinical and experiential hits into leads by interdisciplinary exploratory studies on defined targets in vitro and in vivo and conducting the gamut of developmental activities. Recently, India has amended the Drug Act to include a category of phyto-pharmaceuticals to be developed from medicinal plants by Reverse Pharmacology, with evidence of quality, safety and efficacy. These drugs will be distinct from traditional medicines like Ayurvedic, Unani or Siddha. India with its pluralistic health care system offers immense opportunities for natural product drug discovery and development based on traditional knowledge and clinical observations (Patwardhan et al., 2004). Drug discovery and development is an extremely complex, technology and capital-intensive process that is facing major challenges with the current target rich–lead poor situation. A major cause of attrition in drug discovery is due to toxicity in human trials and it is known that drugs with novel mechanisms have higher attrition rates. Better validated preclinical targets with proof-of-concept of better efficacy and safety of drugs can, how-ever, mitigate such attrition risks. We propose that the reverse Drug Discovery Today Pharmacology approach can be useful in this process and help in reducing failure rates (Kola and Landis, 2004).
Tabulation (Table 6.3) below provides the illustration of selected 1116 Medicinal plants reported to be used in the Western Ghats based on the compiled data from Ajesh et al., 2012; Ajesh and Kumuthakalavalli, 2013; Anitha et al., 2008; Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu, 2005 a, b; 2009, 2010, 2011; Ayyanar et al., 2008, 2010; Balasubramanian et al., 2010; Benjamin and Manickam, 2007; Bhat et al., 2012, 2014; Bose et al., 2014; De Britto and Mahesh, 2007; Deepthy and Remashree, 2014; Desale et al., 2013; Divya et al., 2013; Ganesan et al., 2004; Gayake et al., 2013; Gireesha and Raju, 2013; Henry et al., 1996; Hosmani et al., 2012; Jayakumar et al., 2010; Jegan et al., 2008; Jenisha and Jeeva, 2014; Jeyaprakash et al., 2011; Joseph et al., 2015; Jothi et al., 2008; Kadam et al. 2013; Kalaiselvan and Gopalan, 2014; Kamble et al., 2008, 2010; Khyade et al., 2008, 2011; Kshirsagar and Singh, 2007; Kumar and Manickam, 2008; P.S. Kumar et al., 2014; S.S. Kumar et al., 2014; Mahesh and Shivanna, 2004; Mahishi et al., 2005; Mali, 2012; Maridass and Victor, 2008; Mathew et al., 2006; Mohan et al., 2008; Muthukumarasamy et al., 2004; Narayanan et al., 2011; Natarajan, 2014; Navaneethan et al., 2011; Noorunnisa Begum et al., 2004, 2005, 2014; Oak et al. 2015; Pandiarajan et al., 2011; Parinitha et al., 2004; Patil and Bhaskar, 2006; Patil and Patil, 2012; Paul and Prajapati, 2014; Paulsamy et al., 2007; Pesek et al., 2008; Poornima et al., 2012; Pradheeps and Poyyamoli, 2013; Prakash et al., 2008; Prakasha et al., 2010; Rajakumar and Sivanna, 2010; Rajan et al., 2001, 2003; Rajakumar Rasingam, 2012; Rajendran et al., 1997, 2000, 2002; Rajith and Rajendran, 2010; Ramachandran et al., 2009, 2014; Ramana et al., 2011; Revathi and Parimelazhagan, 2010; Revathi et al., 2013; Rothe, 2003; Salave et al., 2011; Sajeev and Sasidharan, 1997; Samy et al., 2008; Sarvalingam et al., 2011; Sathyavathi and Janardhanan, 2011; Shanavaskhan et al., 2012; Sharma and Singh 2001; Sharmila et al., 2014, 2015; Shiddamallaya et al., 2010; Shivanna and Rajkumar, 2010; Simon et al., 2011; Silja et al., 2008; Singh et al., 2012; Sivakumar and Murugesan 2005; Smitha Kumar et al., 2014; Subramanian et al., 2010; Sukumaran et al., 2008; Sukumaran and Raj 2008; Suresh et al., 2012; Sutha et al., 2010; Thomas and Rajendran, 2013; Udayan et al., 2003, 2005; Umapriya et al., 2011; Upadhya et al. 2012; Vijayalakshmi et al., 2014; Vikneswaran et al., 2008; Viswanathan et al. 2006; Xavier et al., 2014; Yabesh et al., 2014; Yesodharan and Sujana 2007; Prasad et al., 2012.
TABLE 6.3List of Medicinal Plants used in Western Ghats
KEYWORDS
•Edible
•Ethnobotany
•Ethnomedicine
•Medicinal Plants
•Tribe
•Western Ghats
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