Glossary of Scientific Terminology
Acute: An illness or injury that often has rapid onset or a single cause and can be resolved with medical intervention.
Adaptogen: A substance that helps the body adapt to a changing environment or stressful situation.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): A chemical compound produced in the mitochondria of the cell that is related to energy production.
Adipocytes: Cells that make up fat tissue, which is also called adipose tissue.
Adipokines: A family of messenger substances manufactured and secreted into the bloodstream by adipocytes.
Adrenaline: A key stress hormone that is involved in many processes in the human body, including mitochondria bioenergetics and insulin balance.
Advanced glycation end-products: Protein structures formed through the process of glycation that can stimulate an immune inflammatory response.
Adverse drug reaction (ADR): An atypical or toxic metabolic response to a drug approved for use.
Albumin: A blood protein manufactured in the liver that can be a marker of protein sufficiency and amino acid balance.
Allostasis/Allostatic load: A concept developed by researcher Bruce McEwen that refers to a process by which the human organism makes adjustments to maintain homeostasis.
Alzheimer’s disease: A progressive neurodegenerative disorder that is the most common cause of dementia in the elderly.
Amino acids: Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. There are twenty amino acids, of which eight are essential.
Amylase: An enzyme secreted in saliva that is involved in the process of digestion.
Amylopectin: The short-grain variety of rice, which has a greater impact on glucose levels.
Amylose: The long-grain variety of rice, which has lesser impact on glucose levels.
Anemias: Hematological aberrations, various forms of which are nutrient-related.
Ankylosing spondylitis: An inflammatory immune condition, also called “bamboo spine,” that may affect individuals who carry a unique histocompatibility gene. One of the more than eighty autoimmune diseases.
Antibiotics: Proteins that are produced by the immune system and are highly selective in their action against the causes of specific infectious diseases.
Antioxidants: Molecules generally consumed in the diet to reduce damaging oxidative processes and produce cellular redox balance (the reduction/oxidation potential of the cell). This activity has a profound effect on signal transduction and intracellular communication.
Apolipoprotein E gene (ApoE): A genetic variant that has been linked to a higher incidence of Alzheimer’s disease and heart disease.
Arthritis: A systemic inflammatory condition affecting the joints. One of the more than eighty autoimmune diseases.
Ashwagandha: An adaptogenic herb that has a history of medicinal use. Often called “Indian ginseng.”
Asthma: A chronic inflammatory condition of the lungs in which swelling of the airways leads to wheezing and difficulty breathing.
Atopy: Allergic reaction that may be hereditary and results in skin rashes and asthma.
Attention deficit disorder: A condition in which the brain is hyperstimulated and unable to stay on task.
Autism: A neuropsychiatric disorder with symptoms that relate to behavior, social interaction, and cognitive ability.
Autistic spectrum disorder: A group of developmental disorders that have in common impairments in social interaction, communication, imagination, and behavior, but can be found together with any level of ability, from profound general learning disability to average or even superior cognitive skill.
Autoimmune diseases: A variety of conditions that result when the body—for unknown reasons—generates an immune response against its own cells and tissues.
Ayurvedic medicine: A traditional philosophy of medicine that originated in India.
B cells: Immune system cells that neutralize toxins by secreting antibodies against them. These are known as the antibody-producing cells.
Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH): An enlargement of the prostate gland deriving from an alteration in testosterone metabolism coupled with an increase in activity of inflammatory messenger substances.
Biochemical individuality: A concept developed by Dr. Roger Williams in which health and disease are linked to genetic and environmental uniqueness.
Bioenergetics: A term used to describe the constellation of cellular processes related to the physiological energy of an organism; how energy is harnessed, made available, used, and transformed to support physiological processes.
Bioidentical hormone replacement therapy (BHRT): A therapy using hormones that are identical to natural hormones at the molecular level.
Biological aging: The rate of speed at which the human body loses organ reserve.
Biomarkers: Physiological indicators of health status.
Bisphenol-A (BPA): A synthetic molecule, persistent and not easily degraded, that has been used in the production of plastic for several decades. Significant levels of BPA are now found in the environment, and ongoing research has demonstrated an association between exposure and increased prevalence of disease.
Body mass index (BMI): An approximation of body composition, or percent body fat, using a measurement of height and weight. BMI is often coupled with the waist-to-hip ratio; together they can provide an estimate of visceral adipose tissue (VAT), fat tissue that accumulates around the abdomen.
Bone density: Bone mass or reserve, which is directly related to maintenance of bone integrity and resistance to fracture.
Boswellia serrata: The gum resin extract known as frankincense, which has been demonstrated to have anti-inflammatory properties.
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE): Also called mad cow disease, a neurodegenerative disease causing spongy degeneration in the brain and spinal cord in cattle.
BRCA mutation: A genetic mutation linked to higher risk of breast cancer.
Caloric restriction (CR): Generally a 30 percent reduction in calorie intake, a dietary approach that has been demonstrated to significantly increase life expectancy in animals.
Cancer: A constellation of diseases that can occur as the result of cellular malfunction and abnormal cellular division—oncogenesis—which reflects a systemic alteration that is the body’s response to genetic triggers, environmental influences, or in many cases a combination of the two.
Candida albicans: A yeast generally present in the gastrointestinal tract that can cause illness or dysfunction in the event of overgrowth.
Carbohydrate: A nutritional molecule made up of the sugar glucose in long chains that can impact the body in a variety of ways depending on type and source.
Catalase: An enzyme involved in the body’s system of cellular detoxification and antioxidation.
Celiac disease: A disorder in which the lining of the small intestine is damaged by a family of proteins called gluten, found in cereal grains. The intestinal damage prevents nutrients from being absorbed, and it is associated with a range of digestive symptoms as well as dementia.
Chelation: The binding of minerals by substances like the sulfur amino acid cysteine.
Cholecystokinin: A neurotransmitter hormone produced in the intestinal tract that has been linked to appetite.
Cholesterol: A molecule manufactured in the liver that is a precursor to hormones and bile acids. Cholesterol is necessary for proper fat digestion and metabolism and as a critical component of membranes. Cholesterol status is used as a biomarker for potential risk of heart disease and stroke.
Chromosome: The DNA molecule that carries the genetic code of an organism. Humans have twenty-three pairs, with half of each pair provided by the biological mother through her egg and the other half provided by the biological father through his sperm.
Chronic: Conditions, ailments, and illnesses that do not have a single cause, treatment, or cure. With a chronic health concern, the patient lives with the disease and the efforts at treatment for an indefinite time period.
Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS): A syndrome characterized by bone-weary fatigue, muscle weakness, swollen glands, brain fog, intolerance of exercise that was previously well tolerated, and the desire to sleep through the day.
Chyme: Partially digested food.
Circulatory system: The heart and blood vessels, which pump blood throughout the body.
Clostridium: A bacterium normally present in the human gastrointestinal tract that can cause illness or dysfunction in the event of overgrowth.
Coenzyme Q10: A nutritional agent that has a relationship to mitochondrial energy production, cardiac function, and cardiomyopathies and is a member of the antioxidant family of substances.
Compression of morbidity: A theory of aging developed by Dr. James Fries that states that natural aging does not have to be accompanied by increased disability and functional impairment.
Conjugases: A family of enzymes principally found in the liver that are involved with cellular detoxification.
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease: The human variant of bovine spongiform encephalopathy, which is transmitted to humans through contaminated animal products in the food supply.
Cryptosporidium: A parasite associated with a high risk of waterborne disease.
Cyclooxygenase (COX): An enzyme in cells associated with inflammation.
Cytochrome P450 (CYP450): An enzyme supersystem composed of more than fifty different kinds of enzymes, each with its own gene, that is involved with detoxifying toxins and metabolizing substances native to all living cells.
Cytokines: Proteins made by the immune cells that control cellular communication, including the communication of inflammation among organs.
Cytomegalovirus: A viral infection that may be connected to atherosclerosis.
Daidzein: A phytonutrient in soy connected to management of estrogen-related cellular communication imbalances.
Dementia: A loss of cognitive function associated with aging.
Depression: A mood disorder that may be linked to alterations in brain chemistry due to myriad variables, including environment.
Detoxification: Physiological processes occurring primarily in the liver that convert toxic substances into nontoxic by-products that are eliminated from the body via the kidneys and intestines.
Diabetes: A chronic condition in which an individual has elevated blood sugar levels. Type 1 diabetes is due to an autoimmune response that destroys the islets of Langerhans cells so that the pancreas simply cannot secrete insulin. Type 2 diabetes, which constitutes nearly 80 percent of the global incidence of this disease, stems from an imbalance in glucose transport that is affected by an individual’s diet, lifestyle, and environment.
Diagnosis: Historically, doctors define a disease according to a cluster of symptoms; through clinical, laboratory, and pathological findings; and through clinical knowledge and judgment. The concept of diagnosis is driven by an assumption that the patient has a disease, an assumption that may or may not be true.
Digestive system: The cells, receptors, bacteria, tissues, and organs in the body working together to promote the digestion of food, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of waste.
Diindolylmethane (DIM): A phytochemical produced by digestion of cruciferous vegetables.
Dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA): A chelating agent.
Docasahexaenoic acid (DHA): An omega-3 fatty acid found in cod liver oil and other nutritional oils that has anti-inflammatory properties.
Down syndrome: Also called trisomy 21, a genetic condition associated with the mutation of one chromosome.
Duodenal ulcer: A condition of the gastrointestinal tract that may be associated with Helicobacter pylori infection.
Dysbiosis: A microbial imbalance of the gut.
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA): An omega-3 fatty acid found in cod liver oil and other nutritional oils that has anti-inflammatory properties.
Electrocardiogram (EKG): A diagnostic test to measure electrocardiac rhythm.
Endocrine system: The body’s hormonal messaging system.
Endosymbiotic theory: A concept developed by Dr. Lynn Margulis that suggests mitochondria were originally bacteria that millions of years ago infected a host human cell, adapted to being there, and have remained there ever since because of a mutually beneficial symbiosis.
Endothelial dysfunction (ED): Blood vessel response to chronic insult or injury. In cardiovascular medicine, a noninvasive test for ED is sometimes used as a marker for predicting stroke, heart attack, coronary heart disease, congestive heart failure, and renal disease.
Endotoxemia: The release of toxic substances from the intestinal tract into the blood; also known as leaky gut syndrome.
Entamoeba histolytica: A waterborne parasite.
Enteric microflora: Collectively refers to the many types of bacteria found in the intestines, including symbiotic, commensal, and parasitic.
Epigenetics: The prefix epi-, from Greek, signifies something over and above. Epigenetics refers to things that reside above the control of the expression of the genome. Epigenetic events are heritable alterations in gene function that are mediated by factors other than changes in primary DNA sequence.
Epstein-Barr virus: A chronic viral illness linked to the herpes family that causes profound fatigue.
Erythromelalgia: A rare autoimmune disease that periodically causes the ankles and feet or hands and arms to swell, turn red, and become hot to the touch.
Essential fatty acids: Nutritional substances that transport fats and cholesterol in the blood and play a vital role in human metabolism.
Extracellular matrix: A network of nerves found in the connective tissue below the skin that acts as a whole-body signaling system.
Fat: Adipose tissue. Fat cells (adipocytes) are metabolically active and elaborate their own messenger molecules.
Fibromyalgia: A complex condition involving myalgic pain, fatigue, sleep disturbances, cognitive dysfunction, and immunological suppression.
Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH): A key substance derived from vitamin B2 that is involved in cellular energy production and metabolism.
Flavonoids: Phytochemicals that play a role in cellular detoxification.
Folate: Folic acid (vitamin B5), vitamin B12, vitamin B6, and betaine are all very important for support of the folate cycle. The folate cycle is the cycle that generates active methyl groups through S-adenosylmethionine.
Food allergy/food sensitivity: A food allergy produces an immuno-inflammatory cascade within the body. With food sensitivity, individuals may experience symptoms of imbalance when consuming foods they previously tolerated, but these foods do not trigger a measureable immune response.
Free radicals: Oxygen molecules that can have a damaging effect on mitochondria, which is theorized to contribute to cellular aging.
Fructans: Fibers from plant foods that seem to be the preferred food of the symbiotic and commensal families of bacteria in the intestine.
Functional medicine: A medical approach that is related to determining the imbalances in physiological, physical, and mental function that result in chronic disease.
Gaia hypothesis: The Gaia hypothesis, developed by Dr. Lynn Margulis, suggests that it is cooperation rather than competition—networking rather than the struggle of the unfit against the fit—that is the true driving force of evolution.
Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT or GGTP): Elevated levels of this enzyme in the blood have historically signaled liver injury due to alcohol or drug toxicity, but are now also linked to toxic exposure, obesity, and diabetes.
Gastric reflux: A reflux of gastric contents up into the esophagus that can be a combination of acid and also bio- and pancreatic enzymes, all of which can degrade the esophageal mucosa and create gastrointestinal symptoms and complications.
Gastrin: A hormonal messenger molecule involved in communication between the gut and the brain.
Gaucher’s disease: A genetic metabolism disease involving the accumulation of fatty substances.
General adaptation syndrome (GAS): The clinical model of stress as developed by Dr. Hans Selye and encompassing three stages of response: arousal, adaptation, and exhaustion.
Genes: The carriers of the genetic code—the book of life—present in each cell. Within the human species, genes can be very similar in the larger sense, but small differences encoded within genes (single nucleotide polymorphisms) account for more than 3 million variants in gene expression.
Genetic determinism: The belief that genes alone determine the pattern of disease and dysfunction in the life of an individual.
Genetic expression: The concept that environment and lifestyle can influence the expression of genes, and therefore also disease and health patterns.
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs): Crops that have been altered at the genetic level and introduced into the food supply, sparking debate about safety and disclosure practices.
Genistein: A phytonutrient in soy connected to management of estrogen-related cellular communication imbalances.
Genome: The whole of an individual’s genetic information.
Genomics: The study of genetic sequencing as well as the influence of epigenetic factors on gene expression.
Genotype: Genotype is our genetic makeup, the potential of various traits to develop in us.
Germ theory: The breakthrough understanding that submicroscopic organisms cause infectious diseases.
Ghrelins: Hormonal messenger molecules involved in communication between the gut and the brain.
Ginger: A root that has traditional medicinal applications.
Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLR-1): A hormone that raises blood sugar levels.
Glucose: A carbohydrate that is absorbed directly into the bloodstream during digestion and is extremely important in human metabolism.
Glucose test: A challenge that can help measure organ reserve. The subject drinks a sugar solution containing a specified amount of sugar. The level of glucose in the subject’s blood is then monitored periodically over the next three to six hours to measure the subject’s ability to properly metabolize the sugar load.
Glucosinolates: Nutrients found in the cabbage family that play a role in cellular detoxification.
Glucuronidation: A detoxification process in the body that can be influenced by nutritional substances.
Glutathione: A nutrient of central importance in human physiology because of its roles in mitochondrial function, redox potential, and cellular detoxification.
Gluten: A family of proteins found in cereal grains that cause celiac disease in genetically susceptible individuals.
Glycemic load: A dietary calculation relative to the level of sugar in the blood after eating certain foods.
Glycotoxins: Advanced glycation end-products produced by high-heat cooking resulting in the chemical combination of sugars with protein that have been linked to inflammatory response and chronic disease.
Gout: An autoimmune condition caused by an imbalance of uric acid leading to inflammation.
Hashimoto’s thyroiditis: An autoimmune disease of the thyroid featuring alternating bouts of hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism, with symptoms that can affect the entire body. This is one of the eighty autoimmune diseases.
HDL cholesterol: High-density lipoproteins—often referred to as “good” cholesterol. HDL cholesterol is a protein carrier whose task is to pick up the cholesterol from the artery wall and take it back to the liver to be broken down and excreted.
Health span: The length of time an individual lives a disease-free life.
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori): Food-borne bacteria that cause infection of the gastrointestinal tract.
Hematocrit: A blood marker of protein insufficiency.
Hemoglobin A1c: A hemoglobin protein used clinically as a measurement of diabetes.
High blood pressure: A condition that arises from hypertension, a complex shift in our metabolic function that gives rise to changes in vascular endothelial compliance, leading to less vasorelaxation and more vasoconstriction.
High-fructose corn sweeteners: Sweeteners derived from high-fructose corn syrup and used in the manufacture of many processed foods.
High-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP): A blood biomarker that is an indicator of chronic inflammation linked to several chronic diseases.
Homocysteine: A blood biomarker used as an indicator of vascular disease.
Hormone replacement therapy (HRT): A combination of equine estrogens and synthetic progesterone used to treat the symptoms of menopause in women for several decades that has now been linked to an increased risk of heart disease and dementia.
Hormones: Chemicals native to human physiology that maintain optimal health and function.
Human Genome Project: A project to map the human genome initiated in 1990 under the direction of Dr. Francis Collins and successfully completed in 2000 with the additional involvement of Dr. Craig Venter.
Humulones: Phytonutrient compounds derived from hops.
Hypochlorite: A caustic form of oxygen that makes up the chemical structure of bleach and promotes oxidation.
Immune system: The complex surveillance system of the human body that has the primary task of fighting infection. In the case of imbalance in the immune system—which can result from myriad causes: infection, toxic exposure, stress, hormonal imbalance, activity patterns, or nutrient intake—autoimmune disease and chronic conditions can result.
Indole-3-carbinol (I3C): A substance derived from cruciferous vegetables that can support processes of detoxification.
Inflammation: A natural immune response in the body. The presence of chronic inflammation in the body has been linked to altered cellular communication and the development of chronic disease.
Inflammatory bowel disease: A collective term embracing both ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease. These disabling conditions are characterized by diarrhea, pain, bleeding, and other intestinal symptoms, and by lifelong relapses. Ulcerative colitis is confined to the mucosal layer of the large bowel, whereas Crohn’s disease can affect any portion of the intestinal tract. The pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease is complex, but it appears to involve interaction between three essential components: host genotype, the community of intestinal bacteria, and the gut mucosal immune response.
Innate immunity: The presence of specialized white cells within the human organism that exist for the purpose of ingesting and killing foreign molecules in the body.
Insulin: A hormone produced by the pancreas that plays a significant role in human metabolism.
Insulin resistance: An imbalance in glucose transport that impairs glucose tolerance and is linked to the cluster of conditions known as metabolic syndrome.
Ischemic heart disease: Heart disease due to hardened arteries that reduce the blood supply to the heart.
Islets of Langerhans: Specialized cells in the pancreas that secrete insulin into the bloodstream.
Junk DNA: Noncoding regions of the human genome that were thought to have no function in genetics, but now are found to contain information that controls genetic expression.
Kinase: Substance that acts as a cellular signaling messenger.
Kupffer cells: Specialized immune cells found in the liver that transmit messages of inflammation.
Lactic acid: A waste product made by the body that results when activity exceeds the capacity of the mitochondria to produce the necessary level of energy, resulting in pain.
L cells: Specialized cells in the small intestine. Bitter-tasting foods can stimulate the L cells to release glucagon-like peptide-1 and in turn help to manage blood sugar and insulin levels
LDL cholesterol: Low-density lipoprotein—often referred to as “bad” cholesterol. LDL cholesterol is transported from the liver on a specific protein carrier whose job is to deliver it to the artery wall.
Life span: The total amount of time spent living, regardless of health status.
Lipoic acid: A substance produced by metabolism and used as a nutritional supplement that has been shown to improve insulin sensitivity and glucose transport.
Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi): Lyme disease, at least in the chronic stages, is a multisymptom, multisystem disorder caused by the bite of the tick Ixodes scapularis. The bacterium is injected into the skin, travels very quickly into the bloodstream, and disseminates quite rapidly into the central nervous system, often causing neurological symptoms. The hallmark of the illness is a bull’s-eye rash that can occur within a couple of days of contact with the tick.
Lymphatic system: The network that connects the glands of the body and across which lymphatic fluid transports hormones and other substances.
Macular degeneration: The most common cause of blindness in older individuals. Dietary variables appear to play a role in the loss of the fovea and detachment of the macula. This has to do with insufficiencies of dietary intake of carotenoids, particularly the lutein family of orange or yellow type pigments.
Maillard reaction: A glycosylation reaction where the aldose form of a reducing sugar, like glucose, reacts with the lysine amino group and a protein to make a glycosylation product. In cooking, glycosylation makes crusty bread. In plasma, glucose can react with proteins to form “crusty” proteins floating in the blood. These are called advanced glycation end-products, or AGEs. Accumulation of AGEs is associated with biological aging.
Mediterranean diet: The Mediterranean diet, which emphasizes consumption of whole grains, fresh vegetables and fruits, and healthy fats, has been associated with greater longevity and quality of life in many epidemiological studies.
Menopause: A normal transition that most women go through in their fifth decade of life, but timing can vary widely. Symptoms influencing physiological, cognitive, mental, and physical functioning can result as a consequence of fluctuating hormone values.
Metabolic syndrome: A cluster of conditions first identified by Dr. Gerald Reaven that include a high level of triglycerides in the blood, low HDL levels, elevated blood pressure, high levels of blood glucose, and what is called central obesity—meaning an apple-shaped body that is significantly overweight or obese. All of these conditions result from insulin resistance and an imbalance in glucose transport that impair glucose tolerance.
Metallothioneins: A family of proteins found in virtually every cell of the body that bind minerals very tightly and conduct their exit from the body via elimination in the stool or urine.
Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) polymorphism: A single-nucleotide polymorphism that is extremely influential in controlling the metabolism of the important B vitamin known as folic acid.
Microvilli: Millions of tiny folds that line the surface of the intestinal tract and through which nutrients are absorbed across the intestinal lining.
Minerals: Substances—calcium, magnesium, and potassium are examples—native to the human body and important for maintaining function.
Mitochondria: Structures within human cells that are called the “energy powerhouses.” Mitochondria provide energy for the way we function—the way we derive our spark in order to keep our biochemical engines running. Maintenance of mitochondrial function is extraordinarily important for the prevention of oxidative stress.
Mitochondrial DNA: Mitochondrial DNA is inherited only from one’s mother.
Monosodium glutamate (MSG): A form of delivery of glutamic acid that is perceived as “umami” in terms of taste. Sensitivity to MSG is a widespread issue.
MPTP: A powerful neurotoxin produced by the pesticide paraquat when heated and thought to contribute to Parkinson’s-like symptoms.
Mucopolysaccharides: A unique class of substances found in mushrooms and other vegetables that are thought to support immune system function.
Multiple sclerosis: An inflammatory autoimmune disease of the nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord. MS has been shown to have a gradient of prevalence with latitude, a finding that has been theorized to link to vitamin D deficiency, which is more common in the northern hemisphere.
N-acetylcysteine: A nutrient that is the precursor of glutathione in the mitochondria, which has been shown to be anti-inflammatory. It is often termed NAC.
Natural selection: A theory popularized by Charles Darwin, who suggested evolution favored “survival of the fittest.”
Nervous system: The body’s communication system composed of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
Neurotransmitter: Messaging substances that carry information throughout the body.
Nicotinamide dinucleotide (NADH): A substance derived from vitamin B3 (niacin) that is used in cellular energy production and metabolism.
Noncoding DNA: At one time called junk DNA, noncoding DNA contains the information that controls the expression of our genes.
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs): Nonnarcotic, nonaddictive medications used to influence inflammation, including aspirin, ibuprofen, indomethacin, and ketoprofen.
Nutraceutical: Specific nutrients used in therapeutic doses to remedy imbalances in core physiological processes.
Nutrigenomics: A new field of research aimed at determining the correct intake of specific nutrients to meet the genetically determined needs of an individual.
Obesity: An increased waist-to-hip ratio where the fat stores of the body are concentrated around the waist as intra-abdominal fat. This type of excess fat accumulation is associated with increased incidence of such chronic illnesses as type 2 diabetes, heart disease, stroke, dementia, kidney disease, and both breast and prostate cancers.
Obesogen: A substance that can promote obesity, and a term that has been used to describe the presence of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the body.
Obstructive pulmonary disorder: A chronic and progressive condition of the lungs that may be connected to inflammation.
Organ reserve: The amount of organ function that is available to manage physiological demand under stress.
Orthomolecular medicine: A term coined by Dr. Linus Pauling and based upon the Greek prefix for “upright” or “correct,” used in the general sense to describe a medicine that would mix and match substances native to human physiology—vitamins, minerals, nutrients, hormones, metabolites, and cellular building blocks—to the right levels for an individual’s optimal health and function.
Osteocalcin: Signaling substances produced by bone cells that influence insulin activity and blood sugar levels.
Osteoporosis: A metabolic bone disease characterized by a defect in bone remodeling and the loss of normally mineralized bone.
Osteoprotegerin: Signaling substances produced by bone cells that influence insulin activity and blood sugar levels.
Oxidative stress: A general shift in cellular function that damages cellular membrane constituents and mitochondria and causes DNA strand breaks and DNA oxidation. Oxidative stress can be affected by numerous factors, including diet, lifestyle, and activity pattern. High oxidative stress is linked to aging and chronic illness.
Paradigm shift: A term popularized by Thomas Kuhn in his book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. History has witnessed many changes in the field of medicine as a result of paradigm shift, and the dynamics in today’s health-care system also reflect a period of great change.
Paraquat: A defoliant that has been widely used as a pesticide. It has been implicated in producing Parkinson’s-like symptoms in individuals who consumed contaminated marijuana.
Parkinson’s disease: A degenerative neurological disease affecting movement and characterized by persistent tremor.
Perimenopause: The time period in a woman’s life that immediately precedes menopause. The World Health Organization has defined perimenopause as the period from which abnormalities associated with hormone changes begin to occur to one year after the last menstrual period.
Periodontal disease: A chronic infection of the mouth that can trigger immune response.
Persistent organic pollutant (POP): Endocrine-disrupting chemical that is fat-soluble and can accumulate in tissues, and, in so doing, can modify physiological function in such a way as to set in motion a process that leads to obesity and type 2 diabetes.
Phagocyte: Cell of the immune system that engulfs and destroys foreign substances.
Pharmaceutical: Drug developed to address the identifiable cause or agent of a disease.
Pharmacology: The science of studying chemical agents and their effect on human physiology.
Phenotype: Phenotype is what happens when our genotype interacts with the environment, realizing the potential of particular traits and thereby giving rise to observable characteristics in the way we look, act, feel, and perform.
Phenylalanine: An amino acid in protein that must be controlled in the diet of an individual with phenylketonuria.
Phenylketonuria (PKU): One of the most common genetically linked diseases of infancy. Developmental disability and early death can be avoided if the child is fed a controlled diet low in phenylalanine, an amino acid in protein.
Phytochemical: Plant-derived substance and botanical medicine that has been shown to alter cellular communications.
Phytosterols: A class of phytonutrients; some have been found to lower LDL cholesterol and others to support insulin sensitivity and balance glucose transport.
Plaque: A deposit of fat clinging to an artery wall and causing blockage. Plaque can be measured using positron emission tomography (PET).
Polypharmacy: Use by an individual of several drugs together in order to address the different symptoms arising from a range of causative factors.
Postmenopause: The years of a woman’s life following menopause. The change in the hormonal environment following menopause requires attention to specific areas of health risk, including bone loss, cardiovascular disease, and dementia.
Potassium citrate: An alkaline salt that can affect the acid-alkaline balance of the body.
Prebiotics: Compounds that are not digested in the upper part of the gastrointestinal tract. They are fermented by specific types of bacteria in the gut, and therefore they modulate the endogenous population of the gut microbiota.
Prions: A combination of the words “protein” and “infection,” the term was coined by Dr. Stanley Prusiner to describe natural proteins that had undergone a post-translational modification of their shape
Probiotics: Bacteria that tend to be given orally (in the diet or as a supplement) and remain viable within the gastrointestinal tract. It has been known for a long time that some bacteria can have beneficial effects on physiology in human bodies.
Promoter regions: A term that replaced “junk DNA” and is used to describe regions in the genome that control translation of genotype into phenotype.
Prostate-specific antigen (PSA): A prognostic marker for both benign prostate hypertrophy and prostate cancer that is used to track relative risk, prognosis, and follow-up on intervention in at-risk individuals.
Protein: A nutrient necessary for many essential physiological functions that has generated debate about protein quantity (percent calories as protein) and quality (vegetable, animal, dairy, and egg sources). Proteins are made up of long chains of amino acids that are ordered in a specific manner depending upon the specific protein. The order of the amino acids in protein is determined by the organism’s genes.
Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI): A physiological supersystem—nervous, endocrine, and immune—that operates as a team to translate outside messages to inside function.
Recommended dietary allowance (RDA): Minimum levels of nutrients needed to maintain health as established by the Food and Drug Administration.
Reductionism: A philosophy of compartmentalization, where the individual parts are viewed separately from the whole.
Reproductive system: The respective male or female organ systems involved in reproductive processes.
Respiratory system: The lungs, bronchi, and larynx and their collective activities to move oxygen throughout the body.
Resveratrol: A phytonutrient derived from red grapes and peanut skins that influences mitochondrial function and cellular signaling related to gene expression.
Rheumatoid arthritis: An autoimmune disease involving inflammation of the joints.
Sarcopenia: A medical term describing loss of muscle mass.
Schizophrenia: A family of conditions associated with altered brain chemistry that can produce delusions and paranoia. Schizophrenia has been linked to excessive dopamine activity in certain brain regions, although antipsychotic drugs, which often block dopamine receptors, are not always helpful in managing the condition.
Scrapie: A neurodegenerative condition caused by a structurally modified protein that affects sheep and goats.
Secretin: A hormonal messenger molecule involved in communication between the gut and the brain.
Selective kinase response modulators (SKRMs): Phytochemicals that influence genetic expression by their ability to modulate genetic expression through effects on the kinase regulatory network.
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs): A class of pharmaceutical antidepressants that increase serotonin levels in the nervous system.
Serotonin: A hormonal messenger molecule released directly from nerve terminals in the brain’s central nervous system. Serotonin is commonly described as the mood-elevating neurotransmitter.
Sickle-cell anemia: A cellular disease resulting from a genetic alteration in one part of the hemoglobin protein molecule; in consequence, the hemoglobin has a “sickle” shape.
Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs): The alteration in the genetic code that relates to the substitution of one of the four DNA building blocks (nucleotides) for another. There are more than 3 million potential variations that have been identified in human genes and that account for variability in things like disease susceptibility.
Sodium butyrate: The sodium salt of the simple 4-carbon fatty acid butyric acid; when administered intravenously to patients with sickle-cell characteristics, it has been shown to prevent the hemoglobinopathies associated with the genetic disorder.
Somatostatin: A hormonal messenger molecule involved in communication between the gut and the brain.
Statin: A family of pharmaceutical drugs approved for lowering high levels of cholesterol in the blood by blocking the manufacture of cholesterol in the liver.
Stress: The physiological response to a change in environment. The term, borrowed from physics, was first applied to human physiology by Dr. Hans Selye.
Stroke: A cardiovascular event that results in blood loss to the brain and may be linked to defects in fat transport.
Sulforaphane: A phytonutrient found in cruciferous vegetables that has been found to play a role in cellular detoxification.
Superoxide dismutase (SOD): An antioxidant enzyme produced within the mitochondrial cell specifically to defuse damaging forms of oxygen before they can cause injury.
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE): An autoimmune disease that has higher prevalence in women and therefore may relate to androgen-estrogen balance and estrogen metabolism.
Systems biology: An approach to medicine that views the body as a network of interactions among core physiological processes.
Tay-Sachs disease: A genetic disease of infancy that causes progressive deterioration of nerve cells and usually results in death.
T cells: Specialized cells of the immune system that control immediate response to foreign materials and are involved in what is known as innate immunity.
Telomerase: The enzyme that repairs damaged telomeres.
Telomeres: Unique pieces of chemical structure at the end of each chromosome in our genome that are present to protect the chromosome. Telomeres get shorter during replication, which leaves the chromosome vulnerable to damage. Lifestyle, diet, and environment have been shown to play a role in determining the length of the telomeres
Thyroid: The thyroid is the environmental sentinel gland. It senses the outside environment in terms of various substances to which the organism is exposed.
Tinnitus: The medical term that describes a persistent ringing in the ears.
Tocotrienols: Relatives of vitamin E that are found in high levels in palm oil and act as antioxidants.
Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM): TCM holds an important position in primary health care in rural areas of China. It is also appreciated in urban and well-developed areas for its 5,000-year-old tradition. The Chinese government has undertaken enormous efforts to modernize TCM by investing in scientific and clinical research and trying to better understand its underlying principles. Western interest in TCM stems from the hope that it might complement western medicine by providing different tools for different applications. Medicinal herbs play a very important role in TCM.
Transglutaminase: The autoantigen enzyme associated with celiac disease.
Triglycerides: A form of fat in the blood that, when elevated, is a marker of metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, and heart disease risk.
Turmeric: A spice that has been demonstrated to have anti-inflammatory properties due to the presence of the phytochemical curcumin.
Umami: The taste activated by monosodium glutamate (MSG).
Uric acid: A natural material in the blood often associated with gout. Elevated uric acid may be a response to oxidative stress, and it may actually be an important antioxidant.
Vitamins: Chemical compounds whose importance to health was first identified in diseases connected to nutritional deficiencies. Vitamins are now found to influence gene expression and cellular function.
VLDL cholesterol: Very-low-density lipoprotein. Low-density lipoprotein comes from VLDL as a breakdown product.
Women’s Health Initiative (WHI): A large-scale study initiated by the National Institutes of Health in 1991 on the use of hormone replacement therapy to treat the symptoms of menopause. The HRT trial was halted in 2003 when it was determined the therapy may actually increase risk of breast cancer and heart disease, an announcement that caused concern, confusion, and controversy. HRT therapy had been considered a safe and effective treatment for several decades prior to the findings of the WHI.
Xenobiotics: From the Greek xenos, “stranger,” and bios, “life.” These are foreign and potentially toxic molecules not native to the human body.