cup soy nuts
Choosing to embrace a vegan diet requires careful consideration. Carrying out that decision is a thoughtful process as well. The healthy diner—vegan or otherwise—must know something about nutrition in order to plan nourishing and enticing meals. The information in this section will provide you with a wealth of information that you can use to make sound nutritional decisions.
The USDA introduced the food pyramid in 1992 as a graphic depiction of dietary guidelines. The latest version can be found at www.mypyramid.gov, where recommendations are given based on age, gender and activity level. There are specific suggestions in the Tips and Resources section for those following vegetarian diets. Whatever the guidance, each plan is built on a strong foundation of complex carbohydrates, fruits, and vegetables.
Many of us are familiar with the term RDA, Recommended Dietary Allowance. This was the intake level of a particular nutrient that was deemed adequate for all the known needs of healthy people. In 1995, this was expanded to incorporate a broader understanding of the role that nutrition has in preventing chronic disease, promoting health and performance.
So the RDA has been replaced by the DRI, Dietary Reference Intakes. This number is comprised of four different reference values and is thought to give more accurate guidelines for nutrients in a wider range of settings and personal circumstances.
In 1997 the American Dietetic Association officially endorsed vegetarian diets, and vegan diets specifically, as being nutritionally sound and providing health benefits in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases. Vegans take in significantly higher amounts of fiber, vitamin C, potassium, magnesium, vitamin B-6, and folate than even lacto-ovo-vegetarians. A sound vegan diet, however, must be planned to meet specific nutritional requirements. Guidelines for vegans include 6 to 11 servings of grains (including breads, pastas, and cereals); 3 to 5 servings of vegetables; 2 to 4 servings of fruit; and 4 to 5 servings of beans, legumes, seeds, and nuts. The ADA recommends that special attention be paid to getting enough iron, vitamin B-12, vitamin D, calcium, and zinc. Iodine consumption may be a concern as well. While these nutrients may concern dietitians, the question most often asked by those considering changing to a vegan diet is, “Will I get enough protein?”
What’s in a Serving?
| For one serving of grain, you might eat . . . | 1 slice bread | ½ cup cooked pasta | 1 ounce dry or ¾ cup cooked cereal | 2 tablespoons wheat germ |
| For one serving of vegetables, you might eat . . . | 1 cup salad greens | ½ cup cooked vegetable | 1 medium carrot | ¾ cup vegetable juice |
| For one serving of fruit, you might eat . . . | 1 medium orange, banana, or apple | 2 apricots or plums | ½ cup cooked or fresh fruit | ¾ cup juice |
| For one serving of beans or legumes, you might eat . . . | 1 cup soymilk or ½ cup soft or medium tofu | 1 cup lentil soup | ½ cup hummus or cooked beans | 2 tablespoon peanut butter |
Getting All You Need
Protein
We all know how important proteins are: they build muscle, repair cells, and make the enzymes responsible for basic bodily functions like eating, breathing, and moving. It is not necessary to consume animal products to get adequate protein into your diet. What many people don’t realize is that they get plenty of protein from grains, beans, and vegetables.
Between 23 and 54 percent of the calories in beans and legumes (lentils and tofu, for example) come from protein. Spinach is 49 percent protein, and wheat germ, 31 percent. If you are eating enough calories and a varied diet, you are almost guaranteed to be getting enough protein.
Protein Providers
| 1 cup cooked lentils | 18 grams |
| 1 cup cooked chickpeas | 14.5 grams |
| 1 cup cooked brown rice | 5 grams |
| 2 tablespoons peanut butter | 8 grams |
| 1 baked potato | 4.5 grams |
| ½ cup firm tofu | 20 grams |
| cup soy nuts
| 12 grams |
Many plant foods, however, do not contain all the essential amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. Most grains, for example, lack the amino acids lysine and threonine, while many beans lack methionine. This is why a varied diet is so important. When all essential amino acids are consumed throughout the day, the body uses the protein more efficiently, meaning that less overall protein needs to be consumed.
The daily reference intake (DRI) of protein is 56 grams for men and 46 grams for women. Pregnant women are encouraged to increase their intake to 50 grams and lactating women to 60 grams per day. Your individual needs may vary depending on your body size and activity level. Considering the rich assortment of foods in the vegan diet, meeting protein needs is a snap.
Iron
Most of the iron in our bodies is found in hemoglobin, which ferries oxygen from our lungs to our cells. Anemia results when daily iron requirements are not met and the body’s iron stockpile is depleted. The DRI for iron is 8 milligrams for men and 18 milligrams for women (8 milligrams after menopause). The problem in vegan diets is not the amount of iron consumed, but the amount of iron the body absorbs. While “heme iron” from animal sources is readily absorbed by the body, nonheme iron is much more temperamental. For example, a cup of tea can cut iron absorption by half, whereas a glass of orange juice can increase absorption fourfold. Phytates, chemicals found in whole grains, bind iron so tightly that it is all but unavailable to the body, but vitamin C largely counteracts the action of phytates. Phytates are also destroyed by cooking or fermenting, as in yeast breads.
You probably naturally pair foods that optimize your body’s uptake of iron: cream of wheat with strawberries, five-bean chili with tomatoes, a soymilk smoothie made with pineapple and kiwi, whole grain bread with a slice of tomato. Eating these foods in combination, and saving your coffee and tea for other times, can help your body make efficient use of these iron-rich foods.
Vitamin B-12
This water-soluble vitamin is unique because it is stored in the body. In fact, most of us are walking around with a five-year supply in our livers. Our bodies treat vitamin B-12 as a precious commodity, reabsorbing about 70 percent of what we use every day. (Vitamins are cofactors—they assist in chemical reactions but are not used up by them.) As a result, our vitamin B-12 requirements are very small—perhaps as little as 1 microgram a day, although the DRI is 2.4 micrograms. This is a good thing, since neither plants nor animals can synthesize vitamin B-12.
Many plant-based foods—tofu, greens, legumes, seaweed, and tempeh—contain a form of B-12 slightly different from the one our bodies can use. To ensure optimum health, vitamin B-12 should be supplemented in the vegan diet.
The most reliable vitamin B-12 supplement is cyanocobalamin. The cyanide ion stabilizes the vitamin until we put it in our mouths, where enzymes remove the cyanide and attach to the cobalamin. Vitamin B-12 is then escorted through the digestive tract, changing partners along the way until it reaches the small intestine where it can be absorbed. This is why chewable and sublingual tablets are more effective supplements than pills that are swallowed.
You will need to choose a reliable source of vitamin B-12. Fortunately, many common foods are now supplemented. Check the nutrition labels of soymilk, veggie burgers, and breakfast cereals. It’s best if the label specifies cyanocobalamin so you know that you are getting an active form of the vitamin. (When checking nutritional labels on cereals, be sure to read the values for cereal alone, without milk.)
The most fun source of active vitamin B-12 is nutritional yeast. This handy kitchen helper has a toasted, nutty taste perfect for sprinkling on popcorn, stirring into hummus, mixing into lentil stew, or making into mushroom gravy. Try mixing it with ground almonds and a little salt to make a Parmesan cheese substitute. Nutritional yeast is often used to impart a cheesy flavor (see, for instance, Macaroni and Cheeze, page 193).
Red Star Vegetarian Support Formula (T6635+) is the only brand of nutritional yeast that guarantees the active form of vitamin B-12. Half a tablespoon contains enough vitamin B-12 to meet the daily nutritional needs of two people. As a bonus, you’ll also get zinc, selenium, protein, and the full complement of B vitamins. The yeast is grown on cane and beet molasses and is certified kosher (except during Passover when no yeast may be consumed). For those concerned, Red Star nutritional yeast is inactive and guaranteed to contain no candida albicans, a yeast that can cause debilitating infections.
Vitamin D
If vitamin D worked in corporate America, its title might be CEO of Calcium Uptake and Relocation. There would be branch offices all over the body and corporate headquarters located in the intestines, regulating the absorption of calcium and phosphorus. The central office would then allocate the minerals to the branches for deposit in bones and teeth.
Vitamin D is produced in our skin when we are exposed to sunlight. A light-skinned person can meet vitamin D requirements with just ten to fifteen minutes of exposure two or three times a week in the summer. Darker skin requires up to six times more exposure for similar results. However, smog and sunscreen prevent vitamin D production. In high-fiber diets, the vitamin D found in fortified foods may be ushered right through our system without being absorbed. So even though we could theoretically store enough vitamin D in the summer to carry us through a long, dark winter, it’s best to look for supplementation.
While rickets is not as common as it once was, this vitamin D deficiency disease is still reported, especially in elders and home-bound individuals. A breakfast of fortified soymilk and granola would start your day off right by providing 5 micrograms, your entire day’s requirement, of vitamin D. Fortified breakfast cereals are other good bets. If you choose to take a supplement, 200 IU (international units) will provide the 5microgram requirement. Because vitamin D is fat soluble and is readily stored in the body, you should be very careful not to exceed the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for Vitamin D, 50 micrograms or 2000 IU. Overloading on vitamin D can cause calcium deposits in soft tissues, including the kidneys (ouch! kidney stones) or the eardrum (which may cause deafness).
Calcium
Calcium is well known as the builder of strong bones and teeth. But did you know that calcium is also necessary for the transmission of nerve impulses and for muscle movement? The good news is that vegans tend to absorb and retain calcium better than non-vegans do. Some good sources of calcium are green leafy vegetables (kale, mustard greens), tahini, tofu (when prepared with calcium salts), almonds, figs, and sunflower seeds. In addition, there are several calcium-fortified foods that make it easy to meet the RDA of 1,000 milligrams. Most soymilk is enriched with calcium, providing 300 to 400 milligrams in just 1 cup. Tofu processed with calcium salts can provide 300 milligrams in a ½ cup serving.
Calcium-Rich Foods
You need 3 to 5 servings of calcium rich foods every day. Here are some great choices:
1 cup fortified soymilk (350 mg)
1 cup calcium-fortified orange juice (300 mg)
5 figs (258 mg)
2 cups raw or ½ cup cooked collards (178 mg)
2 tablespoons sesame seeds (176 mg)
½ cup edamame—green soybeans (130 mg)
½ cup cooked navy beans (128 mg)
Some dark leafy greens (spinach, beet greens, Swiss chard) contain oxalates that bind calcium (and iron), making it unavailable to the body. Salt, caffeine, and phosphorus can also inhibit the assimilation of calcium. While clearly there is value to spinach, going easy on salt, salty snacks, and caffeinated beverages is a good general practice.
Zinc
Zinc, a trace mineral, is involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, and the basic processes of bodily repair and maintenance: cell reproduction and tissue growth and recovery. Children have a particularly critical need for zinc in order to maintain normal growth and development.
The USDA’s recommended daily allowance of zinc is 11 milligrams for men, 8 milligrams for women (11–12 milligrams during pregnancy and lactation), and 3 milligrams for toddlers, 5 for children 4 to 8 years old and 8 milligrams after 9 years of age).
Eating foods high in zinc is just the beginning of getting enough. The amount of zinc your body actually absorbs can vary from 8 to 38 percent of what makes it to your belly. The zinc intake of the average person with a diet including animal and dairy products is 8.6 to 14 milligrams per day. In such a diet, 70 percent of the zinc comes from animal sources. Furthermore, with a diet high in animal products and low in fiber, a large percentage of the zinc that is consumed is absorbed.
Zinc Sources
| 1 cup bran flakes | 5 milligrams |
| 1 cups Special K
| 3.7 milligrams |
| ¾ cup Nutrigrain | 3.7 milligrams |
| ½ cup Grape-nuts | 1.2 milligrams |
| 2 tablespoons toasted wheat germ | 3.2 milligrams |
| 2 tablespoons peanuts | 1.8 milligrams |
| 2 tablespoons pumpkin seeds | 1.2 milligrams |
| 2 tablespoons tahini | 1.3 milligrams |
| ½ cup cooked chickpeas | 1.3 milligrams |
| ½ cup cooked tempeh | 1.5 milligrams |
| ½ cup cooked TVP | 1.4 milligrams |
(texturized vegetable protein)
Plant-based diets, emphasizing whole grains, may actually contain more than the recommended amount of zinc, but much of it is not in a form that the body can use. Phytates, a compound found in whole grains, and fiber both bind zinc and other minerals, making them inaccessible to the body.
You may say to yourself, “I’ll just keep eating dairy if animal sources are a good source of zinc.” Actually, a diet high in calcium makes phytates bind minerals more effectively, so lacto-ovo vegetarians may need more zinc than vegans.
Zinc lozenges aren’t the answer, either. Zinc is more effectively absorbed in small doses. Large doses of zinc may elevate cholesterol by affecting the balance of LDL and HDL proteins, the bad and good lipo-proteins that regulate cholesterol. Excess zinc can also cause copper deficiency by out-competing copper for its binding sites, which in turn can impair immune function. Besides, many zinc lozenges contain compounds such as mannitol, sorbitol, and citrate that actually bind the zinc, keeping it inaccessible.
Many high-fiber foods contain a correspondingly high amount of zinc, so while much of the zinc isn’t available, a reasonable amount makes it to the bloodstream. Also, phytates are fairly easy to circumvent. Cooking and fermentation destroy phytates, making the zinc available to the body. So yeasted whole grain breads are excellent sources of zinc. Only 5 percent of the zinc may be absorbed from an unprocessed whole grain cereal, but once two-thirds of the phytates are destroyed through fermentation, 20 percent of the zinc is absorbed. Some cereals also may be malted, increasing the availability of the minerals in the grains. Fermented soy foods—miso, tempeh, soy sauce—are good sources of trace minerals with high bio-availability.
To be safe, the USDA is now recommending that vegetarians get one-and-a-half times the RDA of zinc—making the requirements 22 milligrams for men, 18 milligrams for women, and 15 milligrams for children—since we don’t know precisely how the body handles zinc from plant sources. What a great excuse to eat some of the great-tasting and satisfying foods high in zinc.
Iodine
Since the introduction of iodized salt in 1924, little notice has been given to this essential trace mineral. The incidence of endemic goiter, an iodine-deficiency disease, had dropped dramatically in this country. Infant formulas were supplemented with iodine beginning in the 1960s. Iodized oils have been introduced in countries where salt isn’t commonly used. The RDA for iodine, set at 150 micrograms, is well below the 250 and 170 micrograms that American men and women, respectively, consume every day.
All was quiet on this salty front until the USDA was deciding whether foods containing soy proteins could make special health claims. Soy contains compounds that can prevent the body from using iodine, an integral part of thyroxin, a thyroid hormone that helps regulate your body’s energy usage.
After careful consideration, the USDA observed that no link has been demonstrated between soy consumption and thyroid disorders, as long as sufficient quantities of iodine are included in the diet. Persons with low thyroid function or marginal iodine intake may want to consult a doctor, dietitian, or nutritionist.
Raw flaxseeds also contain a substance known to inhibit the use of iodine by the thyroid. Cooking inactivates these compounds, so baked goods containing flaxseeds are not a cause for concern. It is advised that no more than 3 tablespoons of raw flaxseeds be consumed each day.
The most secure way to address these health concerns is to make sure you are eating an iodine-rich diet. One-half teaspoon of iodized salt provides 200 micrograms of sodium, or 133 percent of the RDA. Sea vegetables have very high levels of iodine—and they are tasty, too. Kelp powder is widely available in natural foods markets. Gomaiso, a Japanese blend of seaweed and sesame seed, can be found in Asian markets.
Soy!
Everybody’s talking about soy . . . with good reason. In October 2000, the USDA determined that consuming 25 to 30 grams of soy protein each day as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol may reduce the risk of heart disease. Clinical studies have shown that soy protein reduces total LDL cholesterol (“bad” cholesterol) levels. Intriguingly, researchers have found that in Asian countries, where soy foods have been a staple of the daily diet for centuries, incidences of heart disease, breast cancer, and unpleasant menopausal symptoms are significantly lower than in the United States. Soybeans contain some interesting phyto-chemicals (plant chemicals) called isoflavones. These molecules have structures similar to estrogen, a hormone produced by the ovaries, and may play a significant role in protecting women’s health. Additional protection against disease is believed to be provided by isoflavones’ antioxidant properties.
Soybeans contain 42 percent protein and eight essential amino acids. They also contain high concentrations of fiber and minerals. While the nutritional benefits of soy are clear, the disease-fighting mechanisms are not yet clearly understood. Research is underway on several fronts, including prostate cancer, breast cancer (where there is controversy about whether soy provides a benefit or a harm), diabetes, and kidney disease.
What is well understood is that soy is a tasty, healthful food available in a style to suit almost every taste. Here is an overview of soy products available. For recipes and details on how to prepare these products, see “ Soy Foods” (page 241).
Edamame (ú-da-MA-may) is the name given to soybeans when they are eaten fresh. Similar in size to a butter bean, fresh soybeans have a crunch and sweet taste something like English peas. They have a very high protein content, so they do not have the grainy, starchy texture of lima beans. Sold shelled or in the pod, edamame should be briefly blanched (page 205), then refreshed in cold water before use. A good addition to salads and stir-fries, edamame can also be used much like English peas or fava beans—tossed into rice for a quick pilaf, strewn over a salad, or puréed. For edamame recipes, see pages 249–250.
Lecithin, extracted from soybean oil, is used as an emulsifier, that is, a substance that allows fats to be evenly distributed in foods. Lecithin extends the shelf life of many processed foods by helping them remain moist and preventing spoilage.
Miso, a fermented soybean paste, is a staple of Japanese cuisine. Made from soybeans, grain, or beans and sea salt, miso is inoculated with a mold, fermented, then aged for six months to three or more years. Unpasteurized miso contains natural digestive organisms, like Lactobacillus, the culture found in yogurt. There are three main varieties of miso: blond, red, and brown. Blond miso is made with rice, barley, or soybeans only and has a mild nutty flavor and moderate saltiness. Red miso is made with adzuki beans for a slight sweetness but sturdy flavor. Dark miso has been aged longer and has a sharper saltiness and full-bodied flavor.
Each tablespoon of miso has 35 calories and contains 2 grams of protein along with vitamin A, folate, niacin, and potassium. Use miso as you would bouillon cubes or mixed with water in place of homemade stock. Because miso contains live cultures, it should be added to dishes after cooking is finished. Lighter miso may be whisked into hummus or added to creamy sauce or salad dressings. Darker miso can be added to veggie burgers, stews, or hearty sauces.
All miso is very high in salt, so wait until after miso has been added to adjust the final seasonings in any recipe.
Natto, made from fermented cooked whole soybeans, is used in miso soup and sushi and as a topping for rice or vegetables. Sometimes compared to blue cheese in pungency, natto has a very strong flavor to which the Western palate is not accustomed. Natto has a nutritional profile similar to miso, but with a lower sodium content.
Okara is the pulp left after the initial processing stage of tofu or soymilk production. While it has less protein than whole soybeans, the protein is more digestible and of higher quality. Okara is high in fiber, with a slightly sweet flavor. It is used to make sandwich patties and is added to granola, cookies, or other baked goods. It is also used in soy sauce and as the basis for TVP, a trademarked brand of soy protein.
Soybean oil is extracted from whole soybeans. This widely used oil is low in saturated fat (15 percent) and high in unsaturated fat (61 percent polyunsaturated, 24 percent monounsaturated). As with all highly unsaturated oils, soybean oils are often hydrogenated to extend shelf life. Soybean oil’s mild flavor makes it suitable for salad dressings or sautéing.
Soy cheese is made from soymilk and can be found in a variety of flavors.
Soy flour is a high-protein, low-gluten flour made from toasted soybeans. Available in de-fatted and full-fat versions, the full-fat type should be refrigerated to ensure the freshness of the oils. Soy flour may be substituted for up to 25 percent of wheat flour in most recipes without further adjustments. Because of its high fat content, full-fat soy flour will cause baked goods to brown more quickly.
Soy grits are made from soybeans that have been toasted and cracked into pieces. While normally not eaten by themselves, soy grits can be added to rice, grains, casseroles, and stews or substituted for flour in some recipes.
Soy yogurt is made from soy milk, live active cultures, evaporated cane juice, and flavorings with a small amount of thickener, usually tapioca or cornstarch. Soy yogurt is creamy and satisfying, though a bit thinner than cow’s milk yogurt.
Soy isoflavones are isolated phytochemicals sold as dietary supplements. It is uncertain whether any benefit is derived from these compounds by themselves. Your best bet is to consume these powerful antioxidants in their natural state as a part of some other soy product.
Soymilk is made by grinding soybeans into a thick paste with water. Boiling water is added to the paste, the mixture is cooked, and the soymilk strained off. Much homemade soymilk (mine included) has a decidedly beany flavor. Commercial soymilks have overcome this and are produced in a wide range of flavors and richness. Most soymilk is fortified with vitamin D and calcium. Some soymilk is further fortified with isolated soy protein and thickened with carrageenan. There is even soymilk coffee creamer that won’t curdle when it hits the hot coffee.
Soymilk can be found in aseptic packaging on a shelf in the health food section or in the dairy case. The producers of refrigerated soymilks have made an effort to replicate the flavor, consistency, and nutrition of cow’s milk. Most brands of soymilk are good enough to drink cold, straight out of the carton—but make your mom happy and use a glass. Warming the soymilk, either in coffee, cocoa, or sauces, tends to underscore its beany beginnings.
Use soymilk as you would cow’s milk. You can even curdle it with lemon juice for a reasonable substitute for buttermilk.
Powdered soymilk is available in whole-fat or low-fat versions. It is best used rehydrated in smoothies, puddings, or cooked dishes as it has a raw, beany flavor when consumed plain.
Soy nuts are a high-protein, low-fat snack made from whole soybeans that have been soaked and then baked or roasted. Soaking the soybeans makes the proteins more easily digestible. Soy nuts can be found plain in most bulk-foods departments or packaged in plain, smoked, or barbecue flavors.
Soy nut butter is made from crushed, roasted soy nuts blended with soy oil to produce a smooth peanut butter substitute.
Soy protein can include okara, the pulpy by-product of tofu or soymilk production, or simply be processed soy flour. Either coarse or fine, all formulations are high in protein and fiber. Also called TSP (texturized soy protein) or TVP (texturized vegetable protein), this meat substitute is easily rehydrated with boiling water and used in chilies, burgers, lentil loaf, or spaghetti sauce. Manufacturers are increasingly inventive with their formulations, which include tofu hot dogs, pepperoni, sliced tof-urkey, and sausage.
Soy protein concentrates are highly refined, containing about 70 percent protein (compared to 38 percent for soybeans). These were designed as a food additive and can be found in many packaged foods. The processing removes many of the isoflavones.
Soy protein isolates are a more refined product than concentrates, containing 90 percent protein in a very digestible form. A highly fractionated food, protein isolates have not been shown to have the same health benefits as eating whole soy foods.
Soy sauce, a liquid made from okara or fermented soybeans, is available in three main types: tamari (soy by-product of miso production), shoyu (soy sauce and wheat blend), and teriyaki (soy sauce plus sugar, vinegar, and spices).
Soy sprouts are packed with protein and vitamin C. They are fairly delicate and are best eaten raw or quickly sautéed.
Tempeh, originally from Indonesia, is a fermented soy food. The beans in tempeh are kept whole, giving it a substantial texture that can withstand most cooking methods. Use tempeh as you might portobello mushrooms. It is particularly good barbecued and served with rice and grilled vegetables. For tempeh recipes, see pages 251–252.
What do I do with tofu?
“But tofu doesn’t have any flavor,” is a familiar refrain. Of course, tofu has a flavor; it is just subtle. This is what makes it so versatile. You can use it in hearty entrées to show off intense spices or blend it with fresh fruit to make a tasty, nutritious smoothie. You can fashion it into meatballs, mix it with ground nuts for a reasonable cheese substitute, or enjoy it very simply, marinated with soy sauce, sesame oil, ginger, and garlic. (For recipes and details on how to prepare tofu, see pages 243–248.)
You will find tofu refrigerated in the produce section of the grocery store, or in aseptic packaging on the shelves of the health food section or the Asian food aisle. The refrigerated tofu has an expiration date. Once you get it home, remove it from its packaging and change the water. The tofu tastes fresher if the water is changed every day. (I realize that almost no one does this, but it really does help.)
Asian markets and health food stores often sell fresh tofu in bulk. This tofu is often made locally or at least close by. Make sure the tofu is immersed in clean water, not sitting out in the air. The tofu should have a clean, white appearance.
There are three basic types of tofu. Note that any tofu can be made firmer by pressing it for a few hours or overnight to remove some of the water (for instructions, see page 244).
Soft or silken: Silken tofu is soft, with a creamy texture that melts in the mouth. Use it for dressings, dips, shakes, puddings, and sauces. It substitutes for yogurt, sour cream, or milk. When used in baked goods, it helps keep them moist.
Regular or medium-soft: The all-around tofu, medium is used for fillings, cheesecakes, pies, and salads, or whenever you want a firm texture.
Firm: The sturdiest tofu, firm is used in soups, on the grill, marinated and roasted, in casseroles, and on sandwiches. It retains its shape through many cooking methods.
With the explosion in the soy foods industry, you can now find barbecued, jerked, fried, and other flavors of tofu in vacuum-sealed packages. Some of these are delicious; you’ll have to discover your preferences by trial and error. Look for products that have been minimally processed and have the fewest possible chemical additives.
Does tofu grow on trees?
Tofu is made by soaking soybeans in water. Soaking the beans activates enzymes that begin to break down the proteins and carbohydrates, making the beans more digestible. The beans are then ground, cooked, and kneaded with water to extract the soymilk. The water extracts much of the protein, phytochemicals, and isoflavanoids, and some of the carbohydrates. The soymilk is boiled, and then curdled with salt or acid. Calcium and magnesium salts are most common. The delicate curds are gently placed in a large flat sieve, which allows the whey to drain. The curds are then pressed. The more the tofu is pressed, the denser it becomes. Some silken tofu is not pressed at all and has the consistency of yogurt. Firmer tofu is more caloric but more nutritious.
Some tofu manufacturers have begun to add soymilk powder to the whey. This process increases the nutrient level and improves shelf life. It does, however, impart a slightly off flavor detectable by tofu aficionados. Baked goods, salad dressings, and the like do not suffer from its addition, though.
The Skinny on Fat
While most of us need to reduce fat in our diets, it is important not to cut fat out completely. Fats serve many functions vital to our health. Sixty percent of our nervous systems, including our brains, are made of fats. Fat-soluble vitamins, white blood cells, and cell membranes rely on fat for proper functioning.
Our bodies can make most of the fats we need for all of these functions except for two: alpha-linolenic acid (Omega-3 fatty acid) and linoleic acid (Omega-6 fatty acid). Since we must get these two fats from our diets, they are called Essential Fatty Acids (EFAs). Omega-6 fatty acids are found in seeds and legumes, such as corn, peanuts, and soybeans. Omega-3 fatty acids are found in pumpkin seeds, walnuts, flaxseeds, and leafy vegetables.
So how much fat do you need every day? Chances are that you would consume sufficient fat if you never added any to the food you prepare. Most whole grains and beans contain fats of various types. Nuts and nut butters, soybeans and soy foods, sesame seeds and tahini, corn, and coconut are also sources of fat in our diets. Using the USDA standard of 30 percent of all calories from fat, a 2,000-calorie diet should include 600 calories from fat, or 67 grams. A low-fat diet that has only 10 percent of calories coming from fat would include only 200 calories from fat, or 22 grams.
Saturated, Unsaturated, Hydrogenated:
A Chemistry Lesson
A little bit of chemistry can be helpful in understanding the differences in oils. All oils are fats. All fats are made of fatty acids, long chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms with an acidic group at one end, attached to a chemical backbone called glycerol. Simple fats, or triglycerides, are formed when three fatty acids combine with one glycerol molecule.
When the carbon atoms are full of hydrogen, the fat is called “saturated.” When one or more of the carbon atoms has an extra bond to another carbon atom instead of a hydrogen atom, the fat is called “unsaturated.” A fat with one carbon double bond is mono-unsaturated; with more than one, poly-unsaturated.
The saturated fats have long, straight chains that are easy to pack and are usually solid at room temperature. Palm kernel oil and cocoa butter are examples of naturally occurring highly saturated fats. Saturated fats raise blood cholesterol levels, one of the risk factors for heart disease. Saturated fats promote high levels of low-density lipoproteins, or LDLs. These compounds transport cholesterol to the arterial walls and body tissues. This is why LDLs are referred to as “bad” cholesterol.
Unsaturated fatty acids have bends in the carbon chains at the double bonds, which make them difficult to pack. These fats tend to be liquid at room temperature, so we call them oil. Unsaturated fats reduce the production of cholesterol and LDLs. Olive and canola oil are excellent sources of mono- and polyunsaturated fats.
Super-poly-unsaturated oils have the highest concentration of essential fatty acids. These oils are found refrigerated in opaque containers. They are very sensitive to heat and light and react with oxygen very quickly. Flaxseed, primrose, and borage oils are all excellent sources of EFAs.
While it is important to consume both Omega-3 and Omega-6 fatty acids, it is important that they be in the proper ratio. Primitive diets probably contained equal amounts of these essential fatty acids, but today we may consume ten times more Omega-6 than Omega-3. This is important, since these compounds compete in the body. High levels of alpha-linolenic (Omega-3) acid are thought to reduce the risk of heart disease. However, a high level of linoleic acid (Omega-6) relative to alpha-linolenic acid has been associated with increased incidence of cancer.
Most vegetable shortenings and margarines contain oils that have been hydrogenated, that is, the carbon-carbon double bonds are broken and hydrogen atoms are added. Hydrogenation of oils reduces their polyunsaturated nature and produces trans–fatty acids. Trans–fatty acids raise LDL levels and reduce HDL levels, much as saturated fats do. It is generally thought that these isomers, normally found in insignificant quantities in oils, have damaging effects on cell membrane integrity and immune function.
However, there are some solid vegetable shortenings with no hydrogenated fats. These products usually contain palm or coconut oil. (see glossary following) To make matters more confusing, some shortenings claim to have 0 grams of trans fat yet still contain hydrogenated oil. The catch here is that the level of trans-fatty acids is low and the amount per serving is considered negligible so the manufacturer can legally claim that there are no trans fat per serving. This does not mean that they’re not there!
The best way to avoid trans–fatty acids is to eat a low-fat diet and minimally processed foods. Hydrogenated oils must be listed separately on the ingredients list of packaged foods. By law, ingredients are listed by weight, so the lower down the list of ingredients hydrogenated oil appears, the less the product contains. This will be of importance when you are shopping for margarine. Another good rule of thumb is that the harder the margarine, the more hydrogenated the oil.
Know Your Oils
Supermarket shelves are painted with a delicate palette of oils, from almost clear peanut oil to pale canola oil, straw-colored sunflower oil, sun-bright corn oil, and deep green olive oils. Fats and oils enrich and lubricate foods, make us feel full, and help control appetite.
Each oil has a distinct profile, but which oil you use and how are largely a matter of personal preference. The only exceptions are the oils meant for flavoring. Walnut, hazelnut, toasted sesame and extra virgin olive oils lose their fragrance and become slightly bitter when heated. Since these are significantly more expensive than oils meant for cooking, there should be little temptation to misuse them. Certain oils sold as dietary supplements, such as flaxseed oil, should never be heated. Try adding these to grain salads, salad dressings, and smoothies.
Canola oil is a light, pleasant-tasting oil derived from rapeseed, a member of the mustard family. The tangy mustard flavor, from erucic acid, was selectively bred out of the rapeseed plant to obtain the canola plant.
Canola was bred specifically to produce a favorable fatty acid profile: 6 percent saturated fat, 62 percent monounsaturated fat, and 32 percent polyunsaturated fat. Of these, 10 percent is alpha-linolenic (Omega-3), 24 percent is linoleic (Omega-6), and 60 percent is oleic (Omega-9).
Canola oil can be used at medium-high heat for sautéing, roasting, baking, and some stir-frying.
Coconut oil has a pleasant flavor and may be used for either cooking or baking. It is often used to give a rich mouth feel reminiscent of butter. While the fact that it is 87 percent saturated fat concerns some, others believe that the high lauric acid content and medium chain triglycerides have health benefits.
Corn oil is pressed from corn kernels and has medium weight, with 13 percent saturated, 24 percent monounsaturated, and 59 percent polyunsaturated fat, and a high concentration of Omega-6 fatty acid. Corn oil has a light taste and is excellent for frying.
Flaxseed oil has a high concentration of EFAs and a delicate nature. It is used as a dietary supplement. Find flaxseed oil in the grocery or health food store. Never heat flaxseed oil. Use it as a healthful addition to salad dressings, on popcorn, in cereal, in smoothies, or straight out of the bottle. This oil has a wheaty, slightly bitter flavor. Because it is highly polyunsaturated, it can become rancid and smell fishy. Use flaxseed oil within 2 months of opening.
Grapeseed oil is virtually tasteless, with 72 percent polyunsaturated fat and 68 percent linoleic acid (Omega-6). Its high vitamin E content protects it from oxidation and increases the shelf life. Its bland background makes it perfect for infusion with truffles or herbs. Grapeseed oil can be used over medium-high heat or in cold cuisine. Some manufacturers claim a smoke point as high as 425°, but experience says 350°. Grapeseed oil is more expensive than most general cooking oils.
Hazelnut oil is an excellent source of vitamin E. It has a delicate flavor that is destroyed by heating. Use it as a flavoring in salad dressings or drizzle it on cooked vegetables, grains, beans, or stews just before serving. It is rich in monounsaturated oils, and 1 tablespoon contains half of the RDA of vitamin E.
Olive oil is pressed from the fruit of the olive tree, which was a gift from the goddess Athena to the people of Athens and has been cultivated for 5,000 years. I am tempted to believe that there would be no civilization without olive oil and garlic. This is an unreasonably biased view, but olive oil, high in monounsaturates, has been implicated in the good health of Mediterranean peoples.
Cold-pressed olive oil is produced without the benefit of steam or chemical solvents. As the name implies, simple physical force is used to press the oil from the olives.
Extra virgin olive oil is made from the first cold pressing of olives, which yields a deep green oil with a full, fruity flavor. Extra virgin olive oils should not be heated to high heat, since the delicate fragrance will be diminished. Try weaning yourself from bread with butter by combining extra virgin olive oil, sliced garlic, salt, and pepper as a dip for bread. Extra virgin oil is used like a nut oil, drizzled over raw or cooked vegetables, grains, beans, or stews just before serving.
Many countries require olive oils to carry the acid content on their labels since this is the way olive oils are distinguished. Acidity contributes a bitter flavor and hastens rancidity. Extra virgin olive oil may be no more than 1 percent acid.
Virgin olive oil is 1 to 3 percent acid and also comes from the first pressing of the olives. Virgin olive oils include a wide variation in color and flavor, from deep green and fruity to light yellow and mild.
Olive oil can mean a mixture of virgin oil and oil refined through steaming or chemically processing the olives.
Light olive oil has been filtered to produce an oil with a light fragrance.
Pomace oil is a low-grade oil produced by treating the seeds and pulp of olives after most of the oil has already been extracted, with steam or chemical solvents. It can have a slightly bitter, chemical taste.
Palm oil should not be confused with palm kernel oil. This is a pure white, neutral shortening with many uses. Palm oil is 50 percent saturated fat, 38 percent monounsaturated fat and 12 percent polyunsaturated, giving it a healthier profile than butter!
Palm kernel oil, sometimes used in the Caribbean for frying, rivals coconut oil in saturation. This strong-flavored fat has little to recommend it.
Peanut oil is versatile, with 17 percent saturated, 46 percent monounsaturated, and 32 percent polyunsaturated fats. It is excellent for high-heat frying or stir-frying. Its light flavor makes it adaptable for both cold and hot dishes. It is an excellent source of vitamin E.
Safflower oil would be the nutritional heavyweight, with its 75 percent polyunsaturates, but it lacks vitamin E. Safflower oil remains fluid when refrigerated, which makes it excellent for salad dressings. It can also take high heat without smoking, making it a good choice for frying.
Sesame oil, whether raw or toasted, is high in polyunsaturates. The raw oil is light in color, with a high smoke point, making it suitable for frying and most culinary applications. Nutty brown toasted sesame oil imparts a delightful flavor to Asian dishes, as well as dishes from other cuisines. Use it only for flavoring, adding it to hot dishes at the last minute. Never use toasted sesame oil for sautéing. It is also called “dark” or “Asian” sesame oil.
Sunflower oil is highly polyunsaturated and smokes at very low temperatures, making it suitable for low- to medium-temperature cooking and salad dressings. Sunflower oil is very high in vitamin E.
Vegetable oil, a term used on many labels, often means soy oil. Soy oil is high in polyunsaturates (38 percent), alpha-linolenic acid (Omega-3), and vitamin E. This is a good general cooking oil. It can stand medium-high heat but also has a light enough flavor for salad dressing.
Walnut oil is one of the best plant sources of EFAs, especially alpha-linolenic acid (Omega-3). Walnut oil may be added to salad dressings or drizzled over vegetables, grains, beans, or stews just before serving.
Blended oil is the name given by oil packaging companies to oils that are a combination of varieties. Oils are blended to improve their nutritional and cooking profiles. I prefer a blend of 75 percent canola and 25 percent virgin olive oil as my general cooking oil. Manufacturers will normally explain the advantages of each blend on the bottles. There are even blends of supplemental oils, with flaxseed oil mixed with pumpkin seed oil and others to produce a favorable blend of essential fatty acids.
Cocoa butter is a fat extracted from cocoa beans during the processing of chocolate. It is particularly useful in vegan baking to simulate the texture of butter. Cocoa butter is highly saturated and not recommended for general consumption.
Margarine was developed in the late 1800s as a butter substitute. While there are some brands of both stick and tub margarine made entirely of naturally occuring fats, most margarines contain hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated oil. Generally, the harder the fat, the more hydrogenated it is. Many margarines are fortified with vitamins, particularly A and D. Milk solids and whey are often added to improve the flavor profile of margarine; check the label carefully if you want to avoid these. For all the applications in this book, a softer, stick margarine will work well. Find a brand with oil listed before hydrogenated oil and few additives. Try replacing tub, whipped, and liquid margarines with olive oil, hummus, or white bean spread, or simply omit it from pancakes and waffles.
Shortening is fat which is solid at room temperature and can stand relatively high heats. Spectrum and Earth Balance both produce shortenings made entirely of naturally occurring fats. However, most shortening is made from highly hydrogenated oil. White and virtually flavorless, shortening does not have the water inherent in butter and added to margarine. When substituting, add 2 tablespoons of water along with 1 cup of shortening to replace 1 cup of margarine or butter.
Fat replacers, such as tofu, applesauce, or mashed banana, contribute a rich flavor and maintain moisture in low-fat baked goods. Your choice of fat replacer depends on the recipe.
How Sweet It Is: Choosing Sweeteners
Taste buds for sugar are located at the tip of the tongue. Perhaps this accounts for the primacy of sweetness in our cravings and the heated debates that spring up around our choices of sweeteners. Sucrose, a disaccharide composed of one glucose molecule and one fructose molecule bound together, is commonly referred to as sugar. White sugar is processed from either sugar cane—a large, bamboo-like plant grown in tropical climates—or sugar beets, a root vegetable that can be grown in a wider range of climates. Our bodies use various minerals and B vitamins to metabolize sugar. While some of these nutrients are found in the cane or beet, refining sugar removes these. In the refining process, char from animal bones may be used to filter out impurities from the sugar, so vegans generally try to avoid this form of sweetener.
Fortunately, a wide range of sweeteners is available, some with interesting flavors and more substantial nutrition than refined sugar.
Barley malt syrup is processed from fermented grain. It has an attractive nutritional profile of soluble complex carbohydrates, maltose, and small amounts of glucose and fructose.
Brown rice syrup has a mild, butterscotch flavor that is very pleasant in baked goods. The nutritional composition—soluble complex carbohydrates, maltose, and a small amount of glucose—is not believed to cause the swings in blood sugar associated with simple mono- and disaccharides. Brown rice syrup is made by fermenting rice to break down the starches, straining the liquid from this process, and boiling it to the desired consistency.
Brown sugar is a widely used name for many sugars that are not white. Much of the brown sugar sold commercially is refined white sugar with molasses sprayed on it to give it a deeper flavor and light tan color.
Concentrated fruit juice is higher in complex carbohydrates than refined sugar. White grape juice, while acidic, has a mild, tart flavor and can be used in recipes where leavening is not required. Other concentrated fruit juices make good bases for smoothies, sorbets, or seltzer drinks. Some fruit juices can be found dehydrated, in powdered form.
Confectioners’ sugar is a finely ground refined sugar used to make frostings and for dusting baked goods. In the United States, the sugar is mixed with cornstarch to prevent clumping. In the United Kingdom, it is called “icing sugar” and has no cornstarch.
Date sugar is made from ground dates and is composed primarily of fructose. The flavor is deep and not suitable to all applications.
Demerara sugar is a raw sugar from Guyana that is light brown and has a mild taste.
Evaporated cane juice is made by dehydrating freshly pressed cane juice then milling the resulting crystals to provide a uniform product. This requires much less processing than traditional white sugar while retaining more of the essential vitamins and minerals. Turbinado, Demerara, and light tan sugar crystals are more refined than evaporated cane juice. Evaporated cane juice retains the vitamins and minerals found in cane juice.
Fructose, also called fruit sugar, is a monosaccharide. This simple sugar is more easily absorbed by the body than sucrose or glucose. Sometimes found refined in crystal form, fructose is sweeter than sugar, but loses some of its sweetening power when heated.
High fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is made by an enzymatic process that changes the glucose in regular corn syrup to fructose. It has become the sweetener of choice for most sodas, candy, and snack foods. Because fructose is a simple molecule, easily absorbed by the body, it is readily converted into fat when its carbohydrates are not used immediately for energy. There are many consumer advocate groups trying to ban HFCS from school lunch programs, cereals, and snacks. Some health food stores will not carry products made with it. Does yours?
Glucose is a monosaccharide that does not easily form crystals, making it especially useful in jams, preserves, baked goods, candies, and frozen desserts. Corn syrup is composed primarily of glucose. Light corn syrup has been refined and has a mild flavor. Dark corn syrup has added caramel flavor and coloring; its taste is stronger.
Honey, the product of our industrious apiary inhabitants, is not considered vegan. It is composed of roughly equal amounts of the simple sugars fructose and glucose.
Maltose, a disaccharide, is a natural product of the fermentation of grains, making it important to the brewing industry.
Mannitol is found naturally in small amounts in fruits. It is made by processing sucrose, glucose, or starch to make a sugar with good sweetening power and fewer calories. These sugars are not easily digestible and may cause stomach cramping or diarrhea. Mannitol is not generally sold for home use, though it is included in many processed foods, particularly reduced-calorie products.
Maple syrup is the boiled down sap of the maple tree. To make 1 gallon of maple syrup, 20 to 40 gallons of sap are needed. This pleasant-tasting, amber syrup is graded according to color and flavor intensity: AA is the lightest and mildest, A is a medium amber and fuller flavored, B is dark and hearty, and C is a deep brown-black with a molasses-like quality. Maple sugar is also available. Both maple syrup and maple sugar are significantly sweeter than refined white sugar.
Molasses is the liquid that remains when sugar crystals are extracted from cane juice. When sugar cane has been allowed to ripen in the sun, the juice is merely clarified and concentrated, producing unsulfured molasses. Unsulfured molasses is the mildest and most highly prized. Green or immature sugar cane requires treatment with sulfur fumes to extract the sugar. The juice is boiled once to remove sugar, then a second time. The molasses obtained from the first boil has a higher sugar content and is milder. Both forms of molasses are called sulfured. The molasses left after the third boiling of the syrup is called blackstrap molasses. This very dark, bitter syrup is used primarily for cattle feed and industrial uses, though it is sometimes recommended as a good source of iron, magnesium, or potassium. Blackstrap molasses can add interesting dimensions to hearty breads and desserts when used prudently.
Raw sugar is a name often applied to products inaccurately. Raw sugar is a byproduct of sugar production. It is the residue left when both refined sugar and molasses have been removed from the sugar cane juice. Raw sugar can be full of bacteria and is not legally used or sold in the United States. The term “raw sugar,” however, is often used to refer to any of the light tan to brown sugars on the market today.
Sorbitol, see Mannitol.
Substituting for Sugar
1 cup sugar equals:
1 cup Succanat
1 cups brown rice syrup. When used in baking, reduce the total amount of liquid in the recipe by ¼ cup and increase the baking powder by ¼ teaspoon.
1½ cups barley malt syrup. When used in baking, reduce the total amount of liquid in the recipe by ¼ cup and increase the baking powder by ¼ teaspoon.
cup maple syrup. When used in baking, reduce the total amount of liquid in the recipe by ¼ cup and increase the baking powder by ¼ teaspoon.
1 cup date sugar. When used in baking, dissolve date sugar in the liquid called for in a recipe to ensure even distribution.
cup powdered fructose
½ cup blackstrap molasses and ½ cup mild syrup such as brown rice or corn
1 cup turbinado, Demerara, or light brown sugar
½ cup corn syrup. When used in baking, reduce the total amount of liquid in the recipe by ¼ cup.
Stevia and concentrated fruit juice will vary widely in sweetening power, depending on the form you use. Follow the manufacturers’ instructions or experiment before committing a recipe’s outcome to the sweetener.
Stevia is called the sugar plant, because its leaves are 150 to 400 times sweeter than sugar and impart no calories to the foods to which they are added. Found as a plant, liquid extract, pure powder, and a powder mixed with extenders to give a profile closer to that of sugar, stevia is suitable for cold dishes and for adding to coffee or tea. It is not recommended for baking as it turns bitter on heating.
Succanat is the brand name for a popular sweetener made by mixing sugar and molasses back together after initial processing. The resulting brown granules mix very easily and have a full, mellow flavor, a sucrose content lower than that of refined sugar, and trace elements found in sugar cane.
Sugar is the common name for sucrose, a sugar both reviled and loved.
Turbinado sugar is a raw sugar that has been washed to remove the surface molasses, making it closer to refined white sugar. Turbinado sugar is light tan in color with a mild taste.