INTRODUCTION
1 From Matsuura Hõin Seiken Nikki in Kuwada et al. (eds), Chõsen no eki (Nihon no Senshi, Vol.5), Tokyo (1965) p.252.
2 Kuroda, Toshio, ‘The Discourse on the “Land of the Kami” (shinkoku) in Medieval Japan: National Consciousness and International Awareness’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 23 (1996) pp.353–385.
3 Hori, Ichiro et al., Japanese Religion: A Survey by the Agency for Cultural Affairs, Tokyo (1972) p.12.
4 For two different interpretations of the Jing
myth see Arima, Toshio, ‘The Myth of the Goddess of the Undersea World and the Tale of Empress Jing’s Subjugation of Silla’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 20 (1993) pp.95–185; and Allen, Chizuko, ‘Empress Jing: a Shamaness Ruler in Early Japan’, Japan Forum, 15 (2003) pp.81–98.
5 A bodhissatva is dedicated to assisting all sentient beings achieve complete Buddhahood.
THE WAY OF THE GODS
1 For fascinating accounts of what actually happens during shrine visits, see Nelson, John K., ‘Freedom of Expression: The Very Modern Practice of Visiting a Shinto Shrine’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 23 (1996) pp.117–153; reprinted in Nelson, John K., Enduring Identities: The Guise of Shinto in Contemporary Japan, Honolulu (2000) pp.22–52; and Reader, Ian, Religion in Contemporary Japan, London (1991) especially pp.134–167.
2 This perceived ‘Japanese-ness’ of Shintō may be illustrated in a different and less positive way. When Japan’s colonial role over Korea ended in 1945 the 1,133 Shintō shrines erected in Korea were speedily destroyed by the local population, who had always seen them as a symbol of occupation. See Grayson, James H., ‘Shinto and Japanese Popular Religion: Case Studies of Multi-variant Practice from Kyushu and Okinawa’, Japan Forum, 17 (2005) p.364.
3 Most of the others are shrines to Inari, the kami of rice, and are affiliated to the Fushimi Inari shrine near Kyōto.
4 Ueda, Kenji, Shinto, Tokyo, no date given, p.2.
5 Motoori Norinaga’s Kojiden quoted in Matsumae, Takeshi, ‘Early Kami Worship’ in Brown, Delmer M. (ed.), The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1, Ancient Japan, Cambridge (1993) p.318.
6 Kishimoto, Hideo, ‘The Worship of Mt. Miwa’, in Omiwa Shrine (an English-language booklet produced by the Omiwa Jinja), Sakurai, not dated, p. 7. Mount Sinai, by contrast, which is important to three religions, is open to pilgrims and tourists alike. Nevertheless the ancient monastery of St Catherine, which lies at its foot, was given special protection by the Prophet Muhammad, a gesture that any Japanese would fully understand.
7 Hidemoto, Okochi, Chõsen ki in Zoku Gunsho Ruij
, Tokyo (1933) p.281.
8 Shillony, Ben-Ami, Enigma of the Emperors: Sacred Subservience in Japanese History, Folkestone (2005) p.4.
9 Matsumae, ‘Early Kami Worship’, p.324. See also Breen, John and Teeuwen, Mark, Shinto in History: Ways of the Kami, Richmond (2000) pp.1–3.
10 Tsunoda, R. et al., Sources of Japanese Tradition, Vol. 1, New York (1964) p.30.
11 For examples see Matsumae, ‘Early Kami Worship’ pp.338–347.
12 Grayson, James H., ‘Susa-no-o: a Culture Hero from Korea’, Japan Forum, 14 (2002) pp.465–487.
13 Reader, Ian et al., Japanese Religions Past and Present, Folkestone (1993) p.169.
14 Teeuwen, Mark and Scheid, Bernhard, ‘Tracing Shinto in the History of Kami Worship’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 29 (2000) p.195.
15 Kuroda, Toshio, ‘Shinto; in the History of Japanese Religion’, Journal of Japanese Studies, 7 (1981) pp.1–21; reprinted with commentary in Tanabe, George (ed.), Religions of Japan in Practice, Princeton (1999) pp.451–467.
16 McMullin, Neil, ‘Historical and Historiographical Issues in the Study of Pre-Modern Japanese Religions’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 16 (1989) p.5.
17 McMullin, ‘Historical and Historiographical Issues’, p.6.
18 Breen, Shinto in History, p.3.
19 For ‘traditional’ studies of Shintō see Harada, Tasuku, The Faith of Japan, New York (1926); Herbert, Jean, Shintõ: At the Fountainhead of Japan, London (1967); Ono, Sokyō, Shintō: The Kami Way, Rutland (1962).
20 Kasahara, Kazuo (ed.), A History of Japanese Religion, Tokyo (2001) pp.27–28; Yamagata, Mariko, ‘The Shakadō Figurines and Middle Jōmon Ritual in the Kofu Basin’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 19 (1992) pp.129–138.
21 Matsumae, ‘Early Kami Worship’, p.330.
22 Matsumae, ‘Early Kami Worship’, p.331.
23 Hudson, Mark J., ‘Rice, Bronze and Chieftains – An Archaeology of Yayoi Ritual’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 19 (1992) pp.139–189.
24 Tsunoda, Sources, p. 6.
25 Kasahara, A History, p.37.
26 Herbert, Shintõ, p. 92.
27 Matsumae, ‘Early Kami Worship’, p.332.
28 Kasahara, A History, pp.38–45; Ishino, Hironobu, ‘Rites and Rituals of the Kofun Period’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 19 (1992) pp.191–216.
29 It is sometimes stated that the reasons why most imperial kofun have never been excavated is that the imperial family are afraid that this will expose their ancestors as Korean invaders rather than as descendants of kami. This is challenged in Edwards, Walter, ‘Contested Access: The Imperial Tombs in the Postwar Period’, Journal of Japanese Studies, 26 (2000) pp.371–392. The ‘horse rider’ theory, whereby the Jing legend is completely reversed, is associated particularly with the Japanese scholar Egami Namio, and was made known to the West largely through Ledyard, Gary, ‘Galloping Along with the Horseriders: Looking for the Founders of Japan’, The Journal of Japanese Studies, 2 (1975) pp.217–254. For a refutation see Edwards, Walter, ‘Event and Process in the Founding of Japan: The Horserider Theory in Archaeological Perspective’, Journal of Japanese Studies, 9 (1983) pp.263–295. See also Arima, Toshio, ‘The Myth of the Goddess’, pp.95–185.
30 Nakakami, Hirochika, ‘The “Separate” Coexistence of Kami and Hotoke – a look at Yorishiro’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 10 (1983) pp.65–86.
31 Grapard, Alan, ‘Flying Mountains and Walkers of Emptiness: Towards a Definition of Sacred Space in Japanese Religions’, History of Religions, 21 (1982) p.198.
32 Aston, W. G., Shintõ, or the Way of the Gods, London (1905) p.26.
33 Czaja, Michael, Gods of Myth and Stone: Phallicism in Japanese Folk Religion, New York (1974) p.142.
BUDDHA AND THE BUSHI
1 For a controversial opinion of Prince Shōtoku see Yoshida, Kazuhiko, ‘Revisioning Religion in Ancient Japan’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 30 (2003) p.4. A detailed discussion appears in Deal, William, ‘Hagiography and History: The Image of Prince Shōtoku’, in Tanabe, George (ed.), Religions of Japan in Practice, Princeton (1999) pp.316–333.
2 Yoshida, ‘Revisioning Religion’, p.5.
3 Tyler, Royall, The Miracles of the Kasuga Deity, New York (1990).
4 Chiyonobu, Yoshimasa, ‘Recent Archaeological Excavations at the Tōdai-ji’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 19 (1992) pp.245–254.
5 Matsumae, ‘Early Kami Worship’, p.357.
6 Kasahara, A History, pp.141–143.
7 Kasahara, A History, p.144.
8 Tyler, Susan, ‘Honji Suijaku Faith’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 16 (1989) p.229.
9 Paine, Robert and Soper, Alexander, The Art and Architecture of Japan, London (1955).
10 Yoshida, ‘Revisioning Religion’, p.18; Kasahara, A History, p.76.
11 Adolphson, Michael, ‘Enryakuji – An Old Power in a New Era’, in Mass, Jeffrey P., The Origins of Japan’s Medieval World: Courtiers, Clerics, Warriors and Peasants in the Fourteenth Century, Stanford (1997) p.246.
12 Lai, Whalen, ‘Why the Lotus Sutra? On the Historic Significance of Tendai’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 14 (1987) p.83.
13 Abe, Ryuichi, ‘Saicho and Kukai: A Conflict of Interpretations’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 22 (1995) pp.103–137.
14 Hall, Manly P., Koyasan: Sanctuary of Esoteric Buddhism, Los Angeles (1970) p.9.
15 Rhodes, Robert F., ‘The Kaihōgyō Practice of Mount Hiei’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 14 (1987) pp.185–202; Reader, Religion, pp.124–127.
16 Paine, The Art, pp.210ff.
17 Paine, The Art, pp.216–221.
18 Tyler, ‘Honji Suijaku Faith’, p.229.
19 Kasahara, A History, p.306; Antoni, Klaus, ‘The “Separation of Gods and Buddhas” at Omiwa Jinja in Meiji Japan’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 22 (1995) p.144.
20 Kuroda, Toshio, ‘The World of Spirit Pacification: Issues of State and Religion’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 23 (1996) p.342.
21 Hall, Koyasan, p.37.
22 Sadler, A. L., The Maker of Modern Japan: The Life of Tokugawa Ieyasu, London (1937) pp.180–181.
23 Kasahara, A History, p.126.
24 Marra, Michelle, ‘The Development of Mappo Thought in Japan (I)’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 15 (1988) pp.25–54.
25 Marra, ‘The Development’, p.51.
26 Kasahara, A History, p.126.
27 Shively, Donald H. and McCullough, William (eds), The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 2, Heian Japan, Cambridge (1999) p.682.
28 McCullough, Helen, The Tale of the Heike, Stanford (1988) p.50.
29 Sadler, A. L., ‘Heike Monogatari’, Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, 46 (1918) pp.48–52.
30 Moerman, David, ‘The Ideology of Landscape and the Theatre of State: Insei Pilgrimage to Kumano (1090–1220)’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 24 (1997) p.352.
31 Shinoda, Minoru, The Founding of the Kamakura Shogunate 1180–1185, with selective translations from the Azuma Kagami, New York (1960) p.151. The Three Treasures are the Buddha, the Law and the Priesthood: the three precious elements that made up Buddhism.
32 Shively, The Cambridge History, p.706.
33 Shinoda, The Founding, p.204.
34 Shinoda, The Founding, p.205.
35 Moerman, ‘The Ideology’, p.353.
36 Sadler, ‘Heike Monogatari’, pp.257–258.
37 Sadler, ‘Heike Monogatari’, p.1.
THE GODS GO TO WAR
1 McCullough, Helen, The Taiheiki: A Chronicle of Medieval Japan, New York (1959) p.184.
2 Conlan, Thomas D., State of War: The Violent Order of Fourteenth Century Japan, Ann Arbor (2003) p.173.
3 Farris, Wayne W., Heavenly Warriors: The Evolution of Japan’s Military 500–1300, Harvard (1992) p.25.
4 McCullough, The Taiheiki, p.252.
5 Conlan, State of War, p.175.
6 Sadler, ‘Heike Monogatari’, p.242.
7 Shinoda, The Founding, p.150.
8 Collcutt, Martin, ‘Religion in the Life of Minamoto Yoritomo and the Early Kamakura Bakufu’ in Kornicki, P. F. and McMullen, I. J. (eds.), Religion in Japan: Arrows to Heaven and Earth, Cambridge (1996) pp.94–95.
9 Shinoda, The Founding, p.157; Colcutt, ‘Religion’, p.95.
10 Conlan, State of War, p.174.
11 Shinoda, The Founding, p.163.
12 Collcutt, ‘Religion’, p.98.
13 Shinoda, The Founding, p.167.
14 Kannon, the Buddhist Goddess of Mercy, represents another borrowing from Indian religious tradition. Originally Avalokite
vara, Kannon came to Japan and changed gender on the way. See Kasahara, A History, p.136.
15 Shinoda, The Founding, p.168.
16 Shinoda, The Founding, p.184.
17 Collcutt, ‘Religion’, p.109.
18 Shinoda, The Founding, pp.188–189.
19 Shinoda, The Founding, p.296.
20 Sadler, ‘Heike Monogatari’, p.251.
21 Ironically, the lost sacred sword was actually a sacred replica treated with as much reverence as the original. See Turnbull, Stephen, Samurai: The World of the Warrior, Oxford (2003) pp.29–45.
22 Varley, Paul, Warriors of Japan as Portrayed in the War Tales, Honolulu (1994) p.86.
23 Shinoda, The Founding, p.330. This is the probable origin of the Heike Monogatari story of Mongaku bringing Yoshitomo’s skull to Yoritomo to goad him to rebellion. See above and Sadler, ‘Heike Monogatari’, p.242.
24 Fogel, Joshua A. (ed.), Sagacious Monks and Bloodthirsty Warriors: Chinese Views of Japan in the Ming-Qing Period, Norwalk, CT (2002) p.21.
25 Jansen, Marius B., Warrior Rule in Japan, Cambridge (1995) p.54.
26 Hori, Kyotsu, The Mongol Invasions and the Kamakura Bakufu, unpublished PhD thesis, Columbia University (1967) p.139.
27 Jansen, Warrior Rule, p.56.
28 Large sections are reproduced in Smith, Bradley, Japan: A History in Art, London (1972) pp.106–121.
29 These have been extensively studied by Thomas Conlan in his fascinating book In Little Need of Divine Intervention: Takezaki Suenaga’s Scrolls of the Mongol Invasions of Japan, Cornell University (2001).
30 Hori, The Mongol Invasions, pp.173–176.
31 Hori, The Mongol Invasions, p.173.
32 Conlan, State of War, p.166.
33 Hori, The Mongol Invasions, p.174.
34 Hori, The Mongol Invasions, p.175.
35 Made accessible to an English-speaking audience through Katō Bunnō et al., The Threefold Lotus Sutra, New York (1975).
36 Tsunoda, Sources, p.214.
37 Kasahara, A History, p.258.
38 Sanson, George, Japan: A Short Cultural History (Revised Edition), New York (1943) p.334.
39 Sanson, Japan, p.333.
40 Stone, Jacqueline, ‘Rebuking the Enemies of the Lotus: Nichirenist Exclusivism in Historical Perspective’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 21 (1994) pp.231–259.
41 Tsunoda, Sources, p.220.
42 McCullough, The Taiheiki, p.290.
43 Conlan, State of War, p.187.
44 Kasahara, A History, p.139.
45 Kitagawa, Joseph M., Religion in Japanese History, New York (1966) pp.82–85.
46 Harrison, Elizabeth G., ‘Mizuko kuyō: the Re-production of the Dead in Contemporary Japan’, in Kornicki and McMullen, Religion in Japan, pp.250–266; Lafleur, William R., ‘Buddhism and Abortion: “The Way to Memorialize One’s Mizuko”’, in Tanabe, Religions, pp.193–196.
47 Kitagawa, Religion, p.84.
48 Conlan, State of War, p.188.
WARRIORS OF THE PURE LAND
1 Marra, ‘The Development’, p.48.
2 Kasahara, A History, pp.114–115.
3 Kasahara, A History, pp.170–171.
4 Kasahara, A History, pp.191–193.
5 Rogers, Minor L., ‘Rennyo and Jōdo Shinsh Piety: The Yoshizaki Years’, Monumenta Nipponica, 36 (1981) p.24.
6 Marra, Michelle, ‘The Development of Mappo Thought (II)’, p.298. For a brief but succinct summary of Shinran’s teachings see Kasahara, A History, pp.193–195. See also Soga, Ryojin, ‘The Core of Shinsh’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 11 (1984) pp.221–242.
7 Tsunoda, Sources, p.203.
8 Rogers, ‘Rennyo’, p.21.
9 Sugiyama, Shigeki, ‘Honganji in the Muromachi-Sengoku Period: Taking up the Sword and Its Consequences’, Pacific World: Journal of the Institute of Buddhist Studies, 10 (1994) p.64.
10 This is the concept of kenmon (‘powerful lineages’ or ‘ruling elites’). The idea was introduced by the scholar Kuroda Toshio. According to his approach, between the 11th and 15th centuries power in Japan was shared by a number of elite groups who were the leaders of three power blocs: the kuge (court nobles), the buke (the samurai warrior aristocracy) and the jisha (shrines and temples). Their common cause provided a unifying ideology for the state. The imperial law (õbõ) and Buddhist teachings (buppõ) were like the two wheels of a cart. For a very clear exposition of Kuroda’s theory see Dobbins, James C., ‘Editor’s Introduction: Kuroda Toshio and His Scholarship’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 23 (1996) pp.218–232, especially pp.219–225. The rest of Volume 23, parts 3–4, contains papers by Kuroda.
11 Adolphson, Michael, ‘Enryakuji – An Old Power in a New Era’, in Mass, Jeffrey P., The Origins of Japan’s Medieval World: Courtiers, Clerics, Warriors and Peasants in the Fourteenth Century, Stanford (1997) p.238. See also Adolphson’s more recent work The Gates of Power: Monks, Courtiers and Warriors in Premodern Japan, Honolulu (2000).
12 Tsunoda, Sources, p.205.
13 Sadler, The Maker, p.66.
14 From Hoan Nobunaga-ki as translated in Tsunoda, Sources, p.305.
15 Lamers, Jeroen, Japonius Tyrannus: The Japanese Warlord Oda Nobunaga Reconsidered, Leiden (2000) p.76.
16 Rhodes, ‘The Kaihōgyō Practice of Mount Hiei’, pp.185–202.
17 Elison, George, ‘The Cross and the Sword: Patterns of Momoyama History’, in Elison, George and Smith, Bardwell L. (eds.), Warlords, Artists and Commoners: Japan in the Sixteenth Century, Honolulu (1981) p.71.
18 Elison, ‘The Cross’, p.72.
19 Ota Gyuichi, Shinchõkõki, ed. by Kuwada, Tadachika, Tokyo (1965) p.180.
20 Lamers, Japonius Tyrannus, p. 170.
21 Saeki, Tetsuya, ‘Ikkō-ikki saigo no kyoten Torigoe Futoge’, in Maeda Toshiie (Rekishi Gunzo ‘Sengoku Selection’ Series), Tokyo (2002) pp.26–27.
22 Lu, David J. Japan: A Documentary History, Vol. 1, New York (1997) p.195.
ONWARD, CHRISTIAN SAMURAI!
1 The arrival of Europeans in Japan has been exhaustively treated in Lidin, Olof G., Tanegashima – The Arrival of Europeans in Japan, Copenhagen (2002).
2 Cast-iron Chinese hand guns with short barrels had been known in Japan since 1510. They were used in battle as late as 1548, but were rapidly supplanted by arquebuses of Japanese manufacture. These had been copied from the Portuguese originals introduced in 1543 and were probably first fired in anger against Chinese pirates in 1548. See Turnbull, Stephen, ‘War Trade and Piracy: Military and Diplomatic Relations between China, Korea and Japan and Their Influence on Japanese Military Technology’, Royal Armouries Yearbook, 2 (1997) p.152.
3 Boxer, Charles, Jan Compagnie in War and Peace 1602–1799: A Short History of the Dutch East-India Company, Hong Kong (1979) p.2.
4 Boxer, Charles, The Christian Century in Japan 1549–1650, Manchester (1951) p.37.
5 Massarella, Derek, A World Elsewhere: Europe’s Encounter with Japan in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, New Haven (1990) p.40.
6 Elisonas, Jurgis, ‘Christianity and the Daimyo’, in Hall, John Whitney and McClain, James (eds), The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 4, Early Modern Japan, Cambridge (1991) p.308.
7 Elisonas, ‘Christianity’, p.309.
8 Boxer, The Christian Century, pp.54–55.
9 Turnbull, Stephen, Japanese Castles 1540–1640, Oxford (2003) p.29.
10 Lamers, Japonius Tyrannus, p.77.
11 Elison, George, Deus Destroyed: The Image of Christianity in Early Modern Japan, Harvard (1973) Note 78, p.303.
12 Turnbull, Stephen, The Samurai Sourcebook, London (1998) p.305.
13 Elisonas, ‘Christianity’, p.339.
14 Cary, Otis, A History of Christianity in Japan: Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox and Protestant Missions, Rutland (1976) p.59.
15 Elison, Deus Destroyed, p.89.
16 Conlan, State of War, p.192.
17 Murdoch, James, A History of Japan, Vol. II, London (1925) p.108.
18 Elison, Deus Destroyed, p.24.
19 Dautremer, J., ‘The Vendetta or Legal Revenge in Japan’, Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, 13 (1885) pp.82–89.
20 From his Nef des Princes de Batailles, quoted in J. R. Hale’s ‘War and Public Opinion in Renaissance Italy’, in Hale, J. R. (ed.), Renaissance War Studies, London (1983) p.401.
21 The story of Takayama Ukon and the Araki affair appears in Elison, Deus Destroyed, pp.49–51; and Lamers, Japonius Tyrannus, pp.174–179.
22 Elison, Deus Destroyed, p.114.
23 Elison, Deus Destroyed, p.110.
24 Elison, Deus Destroyed, p.118.
25 Turnbull, Stephen, Samurai Invasion: Japan’s Korean War 1592–1598, London (2002).
26 Elisonas, Jurgis, ‘The Inseparable Trinity: Japan’s Relations with China and Korea’ in Hall and McClain, The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 4, p.273.
27 Cory, Ralph M., ‘Some Notes on Father Gregorio de Cespedes: Korea’s First European Visitor’, Transactions of the Korean Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 27 (1937) pp.1–45.
28 Cory, ‘Some notes’, p.12.
29 Cory, ‘Some notes’, p.42.
30 Cory, ‘Some notes’, p.43.
31 Cory, ‘Some notes’, p.14.
32 Cory, ‘Some notes’, p.14.
33 Cory, ‘Some notes’, p.44.
THE SAMURAI AND THE SECRET
1 Sadler, The Maker, p.190.
2 Thompson, E. M. (ed.), Diary of Richard Cocks, Cape-merchant in the English Factory in Japan 1615–1622, with correspondence, Hakluyt Society, 1st Series 66, London (1883) Vol. 2, p.240. For clarity I have modernized the spelling in this and all subsequent similar quotations.
3 Sadler, The Maker, p.189.
4 Boxer, Charles, ‘Notes on Early European Military Influence in Japan (1543–1853)’, Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, 2nd Series, 8 (1931) p.73.
5 Sadler, The Maker, p.190.
6 Sadler, The Maker, p.190.
7 Wild, Anthony, The East India Company: Trade and Conquest from 1600, London (1999) p.11.
8 Wild, The East India Company, p.29.
9 Farrington, Anthony, The English Factory in Japan 1613–1623, Vol. 1, London (1991) p.1.
10 Farrington, The English Factory, p.72.
11 Farrington, The English Factory, p.209.
12 Thompson, Diary of Richard Cocks, Vol. 2, p.44.
13 Thompson, Diary of Richard Cocks, Vol. 2, p.294.
14 Thompson, Diary of Richard Cocks, Vol. 2, p.85.
15 Thompson, Diary of Richard Cocks, Vol. 2, p.294.
16 Turnbull, Stephen, Osaka 1615: The Last Samurai Battle, Oxford (2006).
17 Boxer, The Christian Century, p.327.
18 Ohashi, Yukihiro, ‘New Perspectives on the Early Tokugawa Persecution’, in Breen, John and Williams, Mark (eds), Japan and Christianity: Impacts and Responses, Basingstoke (1996) pp.46–62.
19 Farrington, The English Factory, p.554.
20 Boxer, The Christian Century, p.344.
21 Farrington, The English Factory, p.134.
22 Anesaki, Masaharu, ‘Persecution of Kirishitan after the Shimabara Insurrection’, Monumenta Nipponica, 1 (1938) p.295.
23 For accounts of Neo-Confucianism see Kitagawa, Religion in Japanese History, pp.149–176; Reischauer, Edwin O. and Fairbank, John K., East Asia: The Great Tradition, Boston (1958) pp.616–617 and 657–659.
24 Nosco, Peter, ‘Keeping the Faith: Bakuhan Policy Towards Religions in Seventeenth-Century Japan’, in Kornicki, Religion in Japan, pp.135–155.
25 Marcure, Kenneth, ‘The Danka System’, Monumenta Nipponica, 40 (1985) pp.39–67.
26 Kitagawa, Religion, p.164.
27 Elison, Deus Destroyed, p.204.
28 Boxer, The Christian Century, pp.352–353.
29 Cieslik, Hubert, ‘The Case of Christovão Ferreira’, Monumenta Nipponica, 29 (1973) pp.1–54.
30 Boxer, The Christian Century, p.361.
31 Turnbull, Stephen, The Kakure Kirishitan of Japan: A Study of their Development, Beliefs and Rituals to the Present Day, Folkestone (1998).
32 Turnbull, Kakure Kirishitan, pp.47–48.
33 Tagita, Kōya, Showa Jidai no Senpuku Kirishitan, Tokyo (1954) pp.267 and 343.
34 Kondō, Gizaemon, Ikitsuki shi kõ, Sasebo (1977) p.57.
35 Morris, Ivan, The Nobility of Failure: Tragic Heroes in the History of Japan, London (1975) pp.143–179.
36 Murdoch, History of Japan, p.657.
37 Morris, The Nobility of Failure, p.167.
38 Murdoch, History of Japan, p.657.
39 Morris, The Nobility of Failure, p.167.
40 Toby, Ronald P., State and Diplomacy in Early Modern Japan: Asia in the Development of the Tokugawa Bakufu, Princeton (1984).
41 Doolan, P., ‘The Dutch in Japan’, History Today (April 2000) p.37.
42 Glamann, K., Dutch-Asiatic Trade 1620–1740, Copenhagen (1958) pp.57–58.
43 Boxer, ‘Notes’, p.72.
44 Boxer, ‘Notes’, p.87.
45 Wild, The East India Company, p.33.
46 Van Heiken, M., The Catholic Church in Japan since 1859, London (1963) p.12.
47 Marnas, J., La Religion de Jésus, Iaso Ja-kyo ressuscitée au Japon dans la seconde moitiée du XIXe, Siècle Paris (1896) p.488.
48 Turnbull, The Kakure Kirishitan, p.52.
49 Turnbull, The Kakure Kirishitan, p.187.
50 Gentilcore, David, From Bishop to Witch: The System of the Sacred in Early Modern Terra d’Otranto, Manchester (1993) p.100.
51 Duffy, Eamon, The Stripping of the Altars: Traditional Religion in England, 1400–1580, Yale (1993) p.282.
52 Turnbull, The Kakure Kirishitan, p.190.
ZEN AND THE SAMURAI
1 An excellent and easily understood introduction to Zen Buddhism in Japan may be found in Tsunoda, Sources, p.226ff.
2 Joly, H. L., Legend in Japanese Art, London (1908) p.52.
3 Tsunoda, Sources, p.233.
4 Tsunoda, Sources, p.234.
5 Suzuki, D. T., Zen and Japanese Culture, Princeton (1970) p.20.
6 Suzuki, D. T., The Awakening of Zen, London (1987) p.57.
7 Collcut, Martin, ‘The Zen Monastery in Kamakura Society’, in Mass, Jeffrey P. (ed.), Court and Bakufu in Japan: Essays in Kamakura History, Stanford (1982) p.193.
8 Nukariya, Kaiten, The Religion of the Samurai, London (1913) pp.35–39.
9 Varley, H. Paul, ‘Ashikaga Yoshimitsu and the World of Kitayama: Social Change and Shogunal Patronage in Early Muromachi Japan’, in Hall, John Whitney and Toyoda, Takeshi (eds), Japan in the Muromachi Age, Berkeley (1977) p.202.
10 Engel, D. H., Japanese Gardens for Today, Tokyo (1959) p.21.
11 Tsunoda, Sources, p.280.
12 Tyler, Royall, ‘Buddhism in Noh’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 14 (1987) pp.19–52.
13 Sadler, A. L., Cha-no-yu the Japanese Tea Ceremony, Rutland (1962) p.168.
14 Sadler, Cha-no-yu, p.167.
15 Sadler, Cha-no-yu, p.169.
16 Quoted in Engel, Japanese Gardens, p.13.
17 Friday, Karl F., Legacies of the Sword: The Kashima Shinry and Samurai Martial Culture, Honolulu (1997).
18 Fukushima, Bushido, p.85.
19 Reader, Ian, ‘Pilgrimage as Cult: The Shikoku Pilgrimage as a Window on Japanese Religion’ in Kornicki and McMullen, Religion in Japan, pp.267–286.
20 Friday, Legacies, p.161.
21 Friday, Legacies, pp.8 and 163.
22 Sollier, A., Japanese Archery: Zen in Action, Tokyo (1969) p.23.
23 Herrigel, Eugen, Zen in the Art of Archery, trans. from the German by R. F. C. Hull, London (1953).
24 Yamada, Shoji, ‘The Myth of Zen in the Art of Archery’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 28 (2001) pp.1–30.
25 Yamada, Shoji, ‘The Myth of Zen’, p.27.
THE WAYS OF THE WARRIOR
1 Nitobe, Inazo, Bushido: The Soul of Japan, New York (1905).
2 Shimazu, Naoko, ‘The Myth of the “Patriotic Soldier”: Japanese attitudes Towards Death in the Russo-Japanese War’, War and Society (2001) p.69.
3 Hurst, G. Cameron, ‘Death, Honor and Loyalty: The Bushido Ideal’, Philosophy East and West, 40 (1990) pp.511–527.
4 Nitobe, Bushido, p.11.
5 Tsunoda, Sources, p.165.
6 Tsunoda, Sources, pp.284–285.
7 Wilson, William Scott, Ideals of the Samurai: Writings of Japanese Warriors, Los Angeles (1982) pp.121–122.
8 Ooms, Herbert, Tokugawa Ideology: Early Constructs, 1570–1680, Princeton (1985) pp.66–69.
9 Fukushima, Shoichi, Bushido in Tokugawa Japan: A Reassessment of the Warrior Ethos, unpublished PhD thesis, Berkeley (1984) pp.80–81.
10 Kitagawa, Religion, p.153.
11 Fukushima, Bushido, p.56.
12 Tsunoda, Sources, p.346.
13 Fukushima, Bushido, p.56.
14 Tsunoda, Sources, p.346.
15 Mitford, A. B. (Lord Redesdale), Tales of Old Japan (Reprinted), Rutland (1966) p.39.
16 McMullen, James, ‘Confucian Perspectives on the Ako Revenge: Law and Moral Agency’, Monumenta Nipponica, 58 (2003) pp.293–315.
17 Dautremer, ‘The Vendetta’, p.86.
18 Bitō, Masahide, ‘The Akō Incident (1701–1703)’, Monumenta Nipponica, 58 (2003) pp.149–169; Smith, Henry D. II, ‘The Capacity of Chshingura’, Monumenta Nipponica, 58 (2003) pp.1–37.
19 Yamamoto, Tsunetomo, The Book of the Samurai: Hagakure, trans. by William Scott Wilson, Tokyo (1979) p.29.
20 McMullen, ‘Confucian Perspectives’, p.310.
21 Tucker, John Allen, ‘Rethinking the Ako Ronin Debate: The Religious Significance of Chshin Gishi’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 26 (1999) pp.1–37
22 Tucker, ‘Rethinking’, p.29.
23 Chamberlain, Basil Hall, The Invention of a New Religion, London (1912).
24 Kitagawa, Religion, p.186.
25 Shimazu, ‘The Myth’, p.73.
26 Yamamoto, Hagakure, p.164.
27 Shimazu, ‘The Myth’, p.87.
28 Shimazu, ‘The Myth’, p.87.
29 Shimazu, ‘The Myth’, p.79.
30 Von Durkheim, Karlfried, The Japanese Cult of Tranquillity, London (1974) p.44.
31 Yamamoto, Hagakure, p.17.
32 Morris, The Nobility, p.320.
33 Allen, Louis, ‘Death and Honour in Japan’, The Listener (24 June 1967) pp.1–4.
34 Reader, Ian, Religious Violence in Contemporary Japan: The Case of Aum Shinrikyõ, Richmond (2000).
FROM SAMURAI TO SPIRIT
1 Hardacre, Helen, Shinto and the State 1868–1988, Princeton (1989) pp.14–15.
2 Kitagawa, Joseph M., On Understanding Japanese Religion, Princeton (1987) pp.165–166.
3 Hiro, Sachiya and Yamamoto, Shichibei, ‘Yasukuni Shrine and the Japanese Spirit World’, Japan Echo, 13 (1986) p.74.
4 Antoni, ‘Separation of Gods’, p.140.
5 Antoni, ‘Separation of Gods’, p.144.
6 Antoni, ‘Separation of Gods’, p.154.
7 Fridell, Wibur M., ‘The Establishment of Shrine Shinto in Meiji Japan’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 2 (1975) p.140.
8 Hiro, ‘Yasukuni’, p.76.
9 Payne, Richard Karl, ‘Shingon Services for the Dead’ in Tanabe, George (ed.), Religions of Japan in Practice, Princeton (1999) pp.159–160.
10 Therefore an ordinary Japanese person who belongs to the local Sōtō Zen temple must not be assumed to spend his waking hours performing zazen. Instead his attitude may be more akin to the anecdote related by Ian Reader, who asked a friend which Buddhist sect he belonged to. ‘I don’t know,’ he replied, ‘no one in my family has died yet.’ Reader, Religion, p.3.
11 Hiro, ‘Yasukuni’, pp.74 and 76.
12 Smith, Robert J., Ancestor Worship in Contemporary Japan, Stanford (1974) p.140.
13 Takashima, Shji, ‘Background on Yasukuni Shrine’, Japan Echo, 13 (1986) pp.67–68.
14 Plath, David W., ‘Where the Family of God is the Family: The Role of the Dead in Japanese Households’, American Anthropologist, 66 (1964) p.308.
15 Payne, ‘Shingon Services’, p.159.
16 Smith, Ancestor Worship, p.41.
17 Kasahara, A History, p.215.
18 Hori, Ichirō, Folk Religion in Japan: Continuity and Change, Chicago (1968) p.123.
19 Kasahara, A History, p.222.
20 Thornton, Sybil, ‘Epic and Religious Propaganda from the Ippen School of Pure Land Buddhism’, in Tanabe, Religions, pp.183–192.
21 Thornton, ‘Epic’, p.189.
22 The Six Realms are jigoku (hell), gaki (hungry ghosts), chikushõ (beasts), shura (‘Titans’ or ‘antigods’), ningen (humans) and ten (heaven). Above these are the four heavenly states of shõmon (listening to the law of Buddha), engaku (contemplation), bosatsu (bodhisattva) and butsu (Buddhahood).
23 Lafleur, William R., ‘Hungry Ghosts and Hungry People: Somaticity and Rationality in Medieval Japan’, in Feher, Michel (ed.), Fragments for a History of the Human Body, Part One, New York (1989) pp.270–303.
24 Thornton, ‘Epic’, p.190.
25 Turnbull, Stephen, Samurai Invasion: Japan’s Korean War 1592–1598, London (2002) p.206.
26 Smith, Japan: A History in Art, p.121.
27 Friday, Karl F., Samurai, Warfare and the State in Early Medieval Japan, New York (2004) p.153.
28 Friday, Samurai, Warfare, p.153.
29 It is precisely this belief that causes many modern Japanese to be opposed to organ removal for transplantation from someone who is brain-dead. See Morioka, Masahiro, ‘Bioethics and Japanese Culture: Brain Death, Patients’ Rights and Cultural Factors’, Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics, 5 (1995) pp.87–90.
30 Friday, Samurai, Warfare, p.153.
31 McCullough, The Taiheiki, p.168.
32 Takahashi, K., Hata Sashimono, Tokyo (1965) p.291.
33 Conlan, State of War, p.22.
34 Kuroda, Toshio, ‘The World of Spirit Pacification: Issues of State and Religion’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 23 (1996) pp.321–351.
35 Conlan, State of War, p.188.
36 Colcutt, ‘Religion’, p.109.
37 Akamatsu, Toshihide and Yampolsky, Philip, ‘Muromachi Zen and the Gozan System’, in Hall, John Whitney and Toyoda, Takeshi (eds), Japan in the Muromachi Age, Berkeley (1977) p.314.
38 Conlan, State of War, p.188.
39 Rabinovitch, Judith N., Shõmonki: The Story of Masakado’s Rebellion, Tokyo (1986).
40 Rabinovitch, Shõmonki, pp.138–140.
41 Rabinovitch, Shõmonki, pp.3–4.
42 Kuroda, ‘The World’, p.343.
43 Kuroda, ‘The World’, p.322.
44 Antoni, Klaus, ‘Yasukuni Jinja and Folk Religion’, in Mullins, Mark et al., Religion and Society in Modern Japan: Selected Readings, Berkeley (1993) p.122.
45 Sugiyama, Kyshirō, ‘Facts and Fallacies about Yasukuni Shrine’, Japan Echo, 13 (1986) p.71.
46 Seaton, Philip, ‘Reporting the 2001 Textbook and Yasukuni Shrine Controversies: Japanese War Memory and Commemoration in the British Media’, Japan Forum, 17 (2005) p.299.
47 Gardner, Richard, ‘Nationalistic Shintō: A Child’s Guide to Yasukuni Shrine’, in Tanabe, Religions, pp.334–339.
48 Hardacre, Shinto and the State, pp.90–91.
49 Hardacre, Shinto and the State, pp.91–92.
50 For a recent condemnation from the Chinese perspective see the book produced by the Modern History Institute of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Class A War Criminals Enshrined at Yasukuni Shrine, Beijing (2005).
51 Gardner, ‘Nationalistic Shintō’, p.339.
52 Hiro, ‘Yasukuni’, p.73.
53 Kuroda, ‘The World’, p.323.
54 Antoni, ‘Yasukuni’, p.122.
55 Antoni, ‘Yasukuni’, p.131.
56 Sugiyama, ‘Facts and Fallacies’, p.69.
57 The Ysh kan Museum devotes only one small room to pre-Meiji military history, but provides a fascinating insight into its main subject matter. The Tokkō Heiwa Kaikan (Special Attack Forces Peace Museum – i.e the Museum of the Kamikaze) in Chiran is also worth visiting for similar reasons.
EPILOGUE
1 Sonoda, Minoru, ‘The Traditional Festival in Urban Society’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 2 (1975) pp.103–136; Nelson, John K., A Year in the Life of a Shinto Shrine, Washington (1996).
2 Blacker, Carmen, ‘Initiation in the Shugendo: The Passage through the Ten States of Existence’, in Bleeker, C. J. (ed.), Initiation: contributions to the theme of the study-conference of the International Association for the History of Religions, held at Strasburg, September 17th to 22nd 1964, Leiden (1965) pp.98–111; Blacker, Carmen, The Catalpa Bow: A Study of Shamanistic Practices in Japan, London (1975); Earhart, H. Byron, A Religious Study of the Mount Haguro Sect of Shugendo, Tokyo (1970); Sekimori, Gaynor, ‘Shugendō: The State of the Field’, Monumenta Nipponica, 57 (2005) pp.207–221; Swanson, Paul, ‘Shugendo and the Yoshino-Kumano Pilgrimage’, Monumenta Nipponica, 36 (1981) pp.55–84; Tyler, Royall and Swanson, Paul (eds), ‘Special Edition on Shugendo’, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 16, 2–13 (1989) pp.93–142.
3 Czaja, Michael, Gods of Myth and Stone: Phallicism in Japanese Folk Religion, New York (1974).
4 From a leaflet available at the shrine.
5 Sadler, The Maker, p.404.