While the primary deities of the ancient Greeks were the twelve Olympians, there were numerous lesser deities, daimones (spirits), and heroes also enjoying patronage. The polytheistic and animistic world of the ancient Greeks pulsed with life. In one memorable scene in Homer’s Iliad, Zeus summoned the gods to Mount Olympus. Apart from the twelve Olympians, all the nymphs and rivers came.124
The Greeks venerated an incredible number of non-Olympic deities, spirits [daimones], and heroes [heros].
The daimones lived in deserts, mountains, forests, rocks, and bodies of water. They brought positive and negative energies and experiences to mankind. Daimones occurred throughout nature and included the Centaurs.125
The daimones were intermediate beings, occupying a middle ground between deities and humanity. They communicated messages, prayers, sacrifices and gifts from humanity to the divine, and subsequently commands and recompenses from the divine to humanity.126
The heroes included virtually all the Homeric characters as well as other humans who still exerted influence from their graves. Hero cults tended to be limited to a small locality, whereas deity cults were far more universal. Hero cults were unknown to the Mycenaeans and only became widespread in the eighth century BCE. Hero cults could be similar to worship paid to a deity at one end of the scale, and similar to the offerings paid to a dead relative at the other end.127
The Greek equivalent of ancestor worship involved caring for the graves of the ancestors. After burial, with its attendant sacrifices and banquet, the sacrifice and banquet were repeated on the third and ninth days. On the ninth day, food was brought to the grave. On the thirtieth day, which marked the end of the mourning period, a communal feast was held. After this, the dead were honored on the same day that the entire city honored its dead, the genesia.128
Let us look at a very small sample of deities, daimones, and heroes.
Hekate [Hekatê]: the daughter of Perses (Titan god of destruction) and Asteria (Titan goddess of divination), and cousin of Apollon and Artemis. She first appeared in Hesiod where she was portrayed as harmless, was not mentioned in Homer, and emerged in the fifth century as being associated with magick and witchcraft, lunar lore, creatures of the night, dog sacrifices, and illuminated cakes (sacrificial cakes with lit miniature torches), as well as doorways and crossroads. She was venerated in liminal places such as forks in the road. Her favorite offerings included red mullet (a scavenging fish tabooed in other cults), illuminated cakes (which could also be offered at the full moon), and puppies. Suppers of Hekate (offerings at the crossroads on the new moon) consisted of breadstuffs, eggs, cheese, and dog meat.129
Hekate was equated with Artemis from the fifth century BCE onward. She was portrayed as a virgin carrying torches (although these were sometimes also carried by Artemis) and accompanied by dogs. She was known as the goddess of the crossroads, which were actually meeting places of three pathways. Her triple-form character arose from the practice of hanging three masks at crossroads. Like Artemis, Hekate was a goddess of the moon (aspected to the dark of the moon), and as such, was much invoked by Thessalian witches.130 Hekate may have originally come from Caria [Karia] in Asia Minor. According to Hesiod her name means ‘she who has power far-off’ and Zeus honored her more than any other deity, giving her power over land, sea and sky. 131
Hekate had no epithets in the Athenian calendar.
Pan [Pan]: a god for whom there were fourteen versions of his parentage, but mostly his father as Hermes, while his mother was usually a nymph. He was portrayed as a man with goat feet and horns, and usually ithyphallic, or having a constant erection. He was a shepherd god and protector of shepherds, to whom were sacrificed kids, goats, or sheep, or alternatively presentations were made of votive offerings of herdsmen statuettes. He was also a hunting god presiding over small animals and birds, with Artemis was concerned with larger game.132 Pan’s name means ‘shepherd’ or literally ‘feeder’ [early Greek Paon]. He could sometimes be frightening as suggested by the derivation of panic from his name.133
He was venerated in caves and symbolized procreation. He invented the panpipe (seven-reed syrinx) and was capable of causing panic in individuals, animals, and armies. He was the god of nature, and lord of the satyrs.134
Pan had no epithets in the Athenian calendar.
Nymphs [Numphai]: female nature spirits [daimones] living in mountains, trees, springs, and bodies of water. The name means ‘young woman’ or ‘bride’.135 See Greek Religion—Public, Household, Countryside chapter.
The Good Daimon / Agathos Daimon [Agathos Daimôn]: the only daimon to be venerated universally. He was represented as a snake and protected houses. The first libation in wine drinking was offered to him. (The Greeks normally diluted their wine with water.) He also received small libations of unmixed wine after meals.136
Hercules / Herakles [Hêraklês]: the son of Zeus and Alcmene [Alkmênê], and the greatest of Greek heroes. There were many legends of his epic feats. Herakles slayed or captured animals, and overcame fabulous monsters. He was closely guided by Athene throughout his adventures. He was adopted as a patron by many young men, especially those in military training or in gymnasiums.137 His name literally means ‘Hera’s glory’.138
Asclepius / Asklepios [Asklêpios]: the son of Apollon and a mortal woman Coronis [Korônis], thus a hero. He was eventually elevated to the status of a healing god. In statues he was portrayed as a mature bearded man holding a staff with a snake coiled around it. In his healing sanctuaries, he was presented as a snake. Homer referred to him as a king of Thessaly who learned healing from the centaur Chiron.139 The symbol of the Staff of Asklepios is still used in modern times to represent medicine and health care, but is often confused with the staff of the god Hermes, the caduceus [kerykeion].
Nonspecific References to Deities
There were a number of references in literature to deities, without actually specifying which ones. When an Athenian wanted to consult the gods, invariably Zeus of Dodona and Apollon of Delphi were meant. The god sending rain meant Zeus. Jurors would swear by Zeus, Poseidon, and Demeter.140 Thus, swearing to these gods would be the equivalent of today’s “I swear to God.”
124. E. V. Rieu (trans.), Homer: The Iliad (Baltimore, MD, Penguin Books, 1961) 366.
125. Price and Kearns, Oxford Dictionary of Classical Myth & Religion, 257–8.
126. Burkert, Greek Religion, 331–2.
127. Price and Kearns, Oxford Dictionary of Classical Myth & Religion, 257–8.
128. Burkert, Greek Religion, 194.
129. Price and Kearns, Oxford Dictionary of Classical Myth & Religion, 242–4.
130 . Burkert, Greek Religion, 171.
131 . Grant and Hazel, Who’s Who in Classical Mythology, 151.
132 . Price and Kearns, Oxford Dictionary of Classical Myth & Religion, 401–3.
133. Grant and Hazel, Who’s Who in Classical Mythology, 254–5.
134. Burkert, Greek Religion, 172.
135. Grant and Hazel, Who’s Who in Classical Mythology, 233.
136. Price and Kearns, Oxford Dictionary of Classical Myth & Religion, 12.
137. Ibid., 251–3.
138. Grant and Hazel, Who’s Who in Classical Mythology, 160.
139. Ibid., 62–4.
140. Mikalson, Athenian Popular Religion, 66–7.