16 Exploring the universal voice
Few things come more naturally to us humans than producing vocal sounds. Beginning at birth with our first breath and cry, we use our voices to express ourselves and convey our needs. Babies instinctively explore a wide array of vocal sounds, sometimes for the sheer joy of hearing their own voices. As they are enculturated, children are encouraged to imitate the spoken and sung sounds they hear. This universal process has yielded not only different languages, but also an array of vocal timbres used in speaking and singing around the globe, each reflecting cultural preferences and context.
The vocal timbre that evolved to dominate Western choral music is rooted in the Italian vocal technique called bel canto . Today bel canto (discussed below) is employed around the globe, leading Western musicians to assume that it thrives because it is the preferred vocal technique across cultures. However, its wide dissemination results from its alignment with European colonization, Christianization, and imperialism. In many countries, a Western musical education is the only formal accredited study of music available, and the only option for voice training is with teachers trained in bel canto technique. 1
Despite this, numerous other singing traditions around the globe – including in the United States and Europe – have thrived for centuries. Once never heard outside of their native contexts, today diverse vocal styles are finding their way into the Western choral repertory as a result of travel by individual musicians and touring ensembles. Published songs are typically transcribed and notated by Western-trained musicians. Melodies and harmonies are assigned to standard soprano, alto, tenor, and bass ranges, and tuned to intervals of diatonic scales. Rhythms are notated in conventional durations, and grouped into common meters. Scores may include a brief pronunciation guide, a translation and a paragraph about the song. However, notation includes only those aspects of the songs for which there are Western musical symbols. Thus, without having heard a native performance, a Western choir rendering a notated song may only faintly resemble the way that song is performed within the culture.
Today, technology is facilitating musical connections between cultures, making it possible to know how a song is sung in the original culture. Some songs are sold as sheet music in Western notation with an audio recording featuring natives of the culture pronouncing the lyrics and singing the song. Emerging technology presents vocal music solely through model performances on DVDs, allowing a choir to learn the song aurally from the native singers rather than from notation. Some DVDs include recordings of isolated vocal parts and pronunciation, with movement instruction as well as cultural information. 2 Furthermore, it is possible for musicians in remote locations to interact in real time as they view and hear one another over the Internet.
Having audio and visual vocal models of diverse singing styles makes possible the transmission of the subtleties of style for which there is no notation. Hearing such aspects as timing, tuning, and vocal timbre presents a new challenge for directors: they must decide whether or not to ask their choirs to match these non-notated aspects of native model performances – especially the vocal timbre. Even with a native model available, some choirs choose to perform such songs with bel canto technique. Their directors may believe that singing in any other way will alter the sound they have developed with the choir, or that it will damage the singers’ voices (a view long held by bel canto pedagogues).
In his 1968 book Folk Song Style and Culture , Alan Lomax wrote: “voice qualities frowned on by Western teachers are important in the aesthetics of other singing styles. Rasp and nasality, qualities which are anathema to the European voice teacher, play an essential part in certain singing styles.” 3 A conductor would never substitute a clarinet for an oboe solo in a symphonic work, yet vocalists and choral directors freely change vocal timbre when performing non-bel canto vocal styles – a practice that is inconsistent with Western musical values.
There are additional reasons why, in our view, it is appropriate for twenty-first-century choirs to consider singing diverse musical styles with diverse vocal timbres. First, performing music as it is performed in the culture of origin shows respect for the people of that culture – a gesture that can contribute to good relationships between cultures, ethnicities, and racial groups. (A culture’s preferred vocal timbre is as important to its people as a bel canto sound is to most Western-trained classical musicians.) Second, listening with the intent to match vocal timbre enhances choristers’ aural perception, as singers attend keenly to perceive and produce myriad variations of such elements as color, pitch, accent, consonants, ornaments, and nuance. Last, it provides singers the opportunity to develop vocal versatility, as they explore a range of ways to vocalize and then return to a Western choral sound. For students, such experiences complement the technical training they receive in voice lessons.
The issue of performing – vocal or any other music – in the traditions of other cultures has always been controversial in the field of ethnomusicology. Traditionally, ethnomusicologists study indigenous musical behavior as it occurs within the culture where the music originates. Learning to perform indigenous music was, and is still, regarded as a method of learning about its cultural significance, the aesthetics that govern it, and other factors crucial to its consumption. From this point of view, when ethnomusicologists study technique and style for the sake of performance (usually to non-indigenous audiences), it is considered tangential to the ethnomusicological enterprise. Many of the controversial elements of the argument find their substance in the representation of the music in question: the most objectionable performance of a non-indigenous music is one that announces itself as “authentic” to the tradition of origin.
The production of traditional vocal techniques as advocated in this chapter, however, is a different venture from the performance criticized by ethnomusicologists. We do not claim here that singing non-bel canto styles will produce an “authentic” vocal timbre. No matter how diligent the effort to teach a bel canto -trained singer to produce a non-Western style, the result will be a vocal timbre that is to some degree non-authentic. The subtle features necessary to achieve a truly authentic sound are often absorbed slowly and unconsciously as part of indigenous enculturation into a musical tradition. No amount of deliberate training can replace that process. To describe the exploration of non-bel canto vocal styles, we use the word approximation . The notion of approximation calls attention to the difference between indigenous and non-indigenous production of vocal timbre, and expresses a deference to the process by which a sound is refined within a culture.
This chapter is intended to provide an overview of vocal production in order to lay the groundwork for understanding the array of approaches to singing found around the globe, and to suggest ways these might be approximated by choirs. We begin with a concise overview of aspects that are common to all singing. Then we outline some defining characteristics of bel canto technique, not as an instructional resource, but rather for purposes of comparing it with selected aspects of non-bel canto vocal techniques – the topic of the subsequent section. This final section includes suggestions for approximating these diverse techniques and caring for the singing voice.
Vocal production
Our discussion begins with five fundamental aspects of vocal production that are common to any style of singing: respiration, phonation, registration, resonance, and articulation.
Respiration
The sustained stream of breath that starts the process of vocal sound is dependent upon a posture that allows for efficient lung expansion and diaphragmatic mobility. The posture for singing that is embraced in many cultures is uncomplicated and natural with a tall stance and a somewhat elevated sternum (breastbone). Whether seated or standing, the singer keeps his or her head directly above the spine.
Exceptions to this posture often reflect the function of the song and the activity it accompanies. Webster Stech reports this suggestion for acquiring a Balkan sound: “Bend over from the waist as if you were cutting grain or weeding or working in the garden, and sing.” 4 The posture of some Japanese traditional singers subtly reflects picking low-growing rice in fields. As they lean forward with knees slightly bent, the resonance in the chest area – and thus vocal timbre – is affected. 5
While efficient and quiet respiration with an open throat is preferred in many cultures, intentional noisy inhalation is also found. Such practices suggest resistance to the stream of air in the vocal tract as a result of partial closure. Singing is typically done as the air is expired, although there are practices in which the vocal folds produce a tone on the intake of breath. 6
If the sternum is high, the inhaled breath fills the lungs inside the lower ribs causing a lateral expansion. In this position, the abdominal and intercostal muscles (those in the rib cage) are free to “support” – in actuality, to dynamically resist against – the breath during singing. 7 When airflow and support are controlled, a clear tone is produced. In some non-classical and popular styles, breathiness or raspiness is preferred. In this case, it is not the result of intentionally poor vocal technique, but simply a valued quality. An intense constant or pulsed contraction of the intercostal and abdominal muscles is used in some traditions to generate pressure on the vocal folds – called subglottic pressure – resulting in a louder and more complex sound, while also impacting the behavior of the vocal folds.
Phonation
Phonation begins in the larynx , which is comprised of vocal folds or vocal cords , the glottis (the space between the vocal folds), and the muscles and cartilages that support them. The larynx is housed in the thyroid cartilage which is sometimes called the Adam’s apple. During phonation, the pliable vocal folds are in constant motion: opening, releasing a puff of air, and closing in a periodic vibratory pattern. It is not the coming together of the folds that creates the sound, but rather “the varying pressures resulting from the bursts of air escaping through the glottis” that are perceived by the ear. 8 If these puffs of air could be heard outside the vocal tract, they would sound like a buzz.
The rate of opening and closing of the folds (measured in cycles per second) determines what the ear perceives as pitch. The action of the vocal folds is analogous to a brass player’s embouchure: just as their lips extend and tighten in order to produce a higher-pitched buzz, so the vocal musculature controlling the vocal folds responds to the singer’s intent, lengthening and tightening for higher pitches or shortening and releasing tautness for lower pitches. 9
We attribute vocal pitch to the fundamental frequency of the complex waveform, within which are higher frequencies called overtones . The combined properties of the harmonic frequencies that comprise a complex wave are what we hear as timbre, and allow us to recognize different vowels in speech and singing.
The intensity of the vibration is a product of breath pressure, and, together with the resonance, determines the loudness level we perceive.
Registration
Different vocal registers , with their concomitant timbres and ranges, result from different vibratory patterns of the vocal folds. The two registers most commonly used for both speaking and singing are referred to as chest voice or heavy mechanism , and head voice or light mechanism . The term falsetto is sometimes used instead of head voice in males and females, but in this chapter we use the term falsetto to refer to a register above the head voice used only by men. 10 Other registers – the lowest register sometimes termed vocal fry, Strohbass , or pulse phonation, and the high-pitched range called the whistle or coloratura register – are not included in this discussion (although the style of Tuvan throat singing known as kargyraa is an example of cultivated pulse phonation technique).
During phonation in the chest voice , the full mass of the folds vibrates from end to end, laterally and vertically. The name is derived from the rumble or sympathetic vibration felt in the chest while singing in this register. During phonation the folds are closed more than half of the time. 11 This results in resistance to the airflow, so the chest voice requires more substantial breath flow than the head voice. The sound is relatively loud and has a richer array of overtones.
During phonation in the head voice , only the inner edges of the vocal folds vibrate and the outer mass is less active. Waves travel from end to end and from the outside toward the inner edges. The sensation of vibrations in the chest is reduced as the pitch level of phonation ascends, while sensations in the resonating areas in the head increase. The folds are closed approximately 30 to 40 percent of the time, resulting in less sub-glottal breath pressure. 12 As a product of its simpler overtone structure, the pure head register has a flutelike quality, especially in women.
The male falsetto register is used in numerous cultures. In Western art music, it is sometimes considered the register of the countertenor, though there is debate as to whether the Western countertenor uses a “developed falsetto” or simply has a head voice register that extends higher than other males. According to Miller and other bel canto pedagogues, the vocal fold action in falsetto is “not identical to that of legitimate head voice – indeed it exhibits quite a different behavior.” 13 As in the head voice, the thin edges of the folds vibrate and come together, but the remainder of the folds are firm and do not vibrate. 14 Given the quality and high range of this register, it is used in many cultures for comedic effect or by men imitating women in drama, which is common in both Chinese and Japanese opera . 15 In the history of Western music, there have been repertoires devoted to falsettists , singers specializing in falsetto, but these repertoires were distinct from those sung by male altos or sopranos.
Resonance
The source waves originating in the larynx become amplified in the throat, mouth, and nasal cavities resulting in vibrant and varying vocal colors analogous to the transformation of the brass player’s lip buzz when it enters a trumpet. Certain overtones present in the original buzz are amplified and others muted, and the resulting combination of overtones determines the timbre (tone color) of the instrument. The size and shape of the resonating chamber (the bore) combined with the filter effect of the instrument itself contribute to each brass instrument’s unique timbre.
While the resonating chamber of a brass instrument is fixed and solid, the human resonators are soft and changeable. Certainly, a singer’s bone structure contributes to some aspects of vocal timbre, but modifying the shape and size of the flexible resonating spaces makes a wide range of vocal colors possible. In addition to opening the throat and mouth, the larynx can be lowered or raised to change the length of the vocal tract, muscles can be tensed or relaxed, and the inner surfaces of the mouth and pharynx can be made taut or lax. McKinney writes that the throat’s “vertical and horizontal dimensions can be increased or decreased, the tension in its walls is highly variable, and the size of the orifices leading to the mouth and nose can be varied, as can the entrance to the larynx itself.” 16
How the sound exits the body also plays a role in the timbre. “Since the lips serve as a preliminary determinant of the type of external orifice on the resonator system, they will have a strong effect on the timbre of the voice.” 17 Lip position can darken and brighten the tone, and when the lips are protruded like a megaphone, they add ring (characteristic of higher overtones in the sound) and carrying power to the voice.
In essence, vowel color is dependent on the shape of these resonating areas. “All vowels, per se, have resonance but each vowel has its own distinct pattern of resonance that is the result of the number, frequencies and energy distribution of the overtones that are present. It is by means of these differences in the overall patterns of resonance that we are able to hear and discriminate one vowel from another.” 18 These bands of energized overtones that define vowels are called formants . 19
Many aspects of vowel color reflect the language being sung, and to some degree a singer’s native language. In addition, the production of the consonants plays a role in the color of the vowels they precede.
Singing and language
The vowel chart in Figure 16.1 is included to illustrate the relationship between the shape of the pharynx and vowel color. While a vast array of vowel colors are sung in myriad languages of the globe, for the sake of simplicity we include only pure Latin vowels, written in the International Phonetic Alphabet, with the closest English equivalent in parentheses. The vowels are arranged with [a] (as in father ) at the lowest point on the triangle. To sing a pure [a], the most open of these vowels, the jaw is lowered, the throat and the mouth are open and the forward part of the tongue is flat and low in the mouth. Moving up the left side of the triangle, each vowel is created by a different tongue position, as the tongue’s center approaches the roof of the mouth. Similarly, moving up the right side, the vowels are produced by reducing the opening of the lips.
Figure 16.1 English vowels
Articulation
Consonants are the wonderful array of hisses, snaps, clicks, and hums that combine with vowels to create words. They are created by partial or complete closure of the vocal tract above the larynx by the lips, tongue, soft and hard palate, teeth, uvula, glottis, or epiglottis. Consonants without phonation are called unvoiced consonants, while those that include it are called voiced . Additionally, some consonants – categorized as stops, affricates, fricatives, and plosives – are formed by stopping, partially stopping, or stopping and then releasing the airflow. Typically, consonants briefly interrupt the flow of sustained vowels, but in some languages and singing styles voiced consonants may be sustained in the manner of a vowel.
Bel canto vocal technique
The entire trend of Italian vocal music from the 12th century on[wards] is a fundamental principle of and characteristic of bel canto , that is, the search for beauty and purity of vocal tone. From this concept were derived all the consequences of the pedagogical and practical tendencies which characterize methods of bel canto singing and instruction from the sixteenth through the nineteenth centuries. 20
The name of this vocal technique – bel canto (“beautiful singing”) – aptly describes its essence. All aspects of production serve the goal of making what is culturally accepted as a pure and beautiful tone quality.
Fundamentals of bel canto
In bel canto , the ideal sound is an even, legato vocal production through all parts of the vocal range. The sound is stable, balanced, consistent, and equally resonant from the lowest to highest parts of the pitch range, and from soft to loud dynamic levels. This primacy of sustained vocal sound determines the way the vocal registers, vibrato, and text are managed.
Vocal registers
Bel canto uses the head and chest voice primarily, and training is focused on smoothing the transitions between these registers. Female vocalists sing primarily in head voice, utilizing chest or a mixed register for 36 percent to 46 percent of their range. 21 Appelman writes:
One of the objectives of the singers of bel canto was the development of a vocal scale that was pure, unbroken, and uninterrupted. The transition of registers – either up or down the scale – demanded a modification in the tonal color of the topmost notes to prevent them from becoming disagreeable and harsh and to preserve the quality of the vowel sound as well as an even tonal line. 22
It is this seamless vocal production that leads to the view among some bel canto voice teachers that, rather than head and chest, there is but one register. The single-register position is strengthened by the fact that the ranges of the registers overlap and that a trained singer can mix the registers by shifting gradually from one to the other – indeed, the goal of bel canto -trained singers. Typically, as the singer moves to higher pitches or sings at a softer dynamic level, he or she migrates toward the head register; when he or she moves toward the lower range or sings louder, the chest voice is mixed in by adding varying degrees of mass to the vocal folds.
Resonance
As noted above, the size, shape, and tension of the walls of the pharynx (throat) are major contributors to vocal resonance. In order to maximize resonance, this technique features an open throat and mouth along with a lowered larynx. Voice teachers and choral directors often refer to this as “vertical space” in the throat and mouth. Throughout the history of bel canto singing, “the type of vocal tone favored by many teachers was associated with a comparatively low larynx, and . . . an undesirable type of tone often was associated with a high larynx.” 23
Vibrato
In Western culture, a controlled fluctuation of pitch and intensity is called vibrato . Singing with vibrato has become a culturally accepted norm because it is perceived as adding warmth and vibrancy to the tone. Trained singers produce a relatively even vibrato at a rate of six to seven pulsations per second when singing is well-supported. A faster undulation is called a tremolo and a slower rate, usually a product of insufficient breath control, is called a wobble . While some Western choral traditions cultivate a “straight” or vibratoless tone in order to achieve pristine intonation, many Western choirs employ some vibrato.
Singing text in bel canto
In bel canto the ideal of a “beautiful tone” is served by the treatment of text, with special attention to the shape of vowels in order to maximize resonance and “singer’s ring.” The primary vowel is stable throughout the duration of the pitch(es) to which the word is assigned. When a diphthong such as in “ice” ([ais]) is sung, usually it is the first sound that is sustained before shifting to the second color. In short, vowels define vocal tone and are the vehicle for the musical line.
As discussed above, beginning and ending consonants frame the vowels. The skilled bel canto singer and choir will dispense quickly with the unvoiced consonant in order to return promptly to the resonant vowel and to use it to carry the musical line forward. Voiced consonants (such as the English pronunciation of b , d , g , j , l , m , n , v , and z ) are granted enough duration to be discerned. At the beginning of a word, it is typical to place them just prior to the beat, so that the resonant vowel is sounded on the beat. When a voiced consonant occurs at the end of a word, it is sung before the end of the measured duration for that word in order to get to the next vowel on time. In sum, the goal is precise rendering of consonants so that the text is clear, but does not intrude upon the beauty of the vocal quality.
Exploring a broader musical horizon
The remainder of this chapter focuses on understanding and respectfully approximating non-bel canto vocal styles in choral performance. One challenge we encountered in comparing vocal techniques is the scarcity of information in written form about singing styles other than bel canto . In most of the world’s cultures, people learn to sing through the process of enculturation, and if coaching is given, it is transmitted orally or by example. Ethnomusicologists occasionally refer to vocal techniques, but their investigations typically consider the role of singing in the culture, and only since the 1990s have ethnomusicologists begun to use spectrographic and x-ray technology, video, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and other technology to examine vocal style. 24 In addition, since there is no accepted scheme for comparing singing techniques across cultures, we draw upon our own training and experience.
Our discussion will center on these questions:
- What is approximation ?
- In what ways do diverse vocal techniques differ from bel canto ?
- How can bel canto - trained singers approximate these styles?
- What considerations should be taken when approximating vocal timbres of diverse musical traditions?
Approximating vocal timbres
By approximating vocal timbres, we mean adapting bel canto technique so that it resembles the target timbre as perceived by a listener. In our view, such approximation will not harm the voice, provided singers and directors follow the principles of voice conservation. 25 Classically trained singers have demonstrated that singing in other vocal styles does not have a negative impact on their vocal health. 26 They may sing jazz , gospel, or belt in a musical theater production one night and perform opera the next. Furthermore, in observing vocalists in traditions where non-bel canto singing is predominant, we have found they do not typically suffer from vocal disorders, even when singing from childhood well into old age.
As noted above, timbre is an essential aspect of musical expression. The acoustic differences in vocal techniques are clearly visible in spectrograms shown in figures 16.2 , 16.3 , and 16.4 . 27 Figure 16.2 shows a phrase performed by a singer from Kyrgyzstan ; Figure 16.3 shows the same phrase sung by an American singer trained in the bel canto style. Figure 16.4 shows the same phrase approximated by the American singer. (She maintained minimal space in her oral cavity and raised her larynx in order to match the Kyrgyz style.) A comparison of these spectrograms yielded the following findings.
First, though the total energy in the first half of the bel canto version is greater than that of the Kyrgyz version, the bel canto singer has compressed the power of her voice into a narrow spectrum (in the region below 5kHz), while the Kyrgyz singer produces a spectrum that reaches almost 15kHz and distributes her energy more equally across the entire spectrum. Thus, while the bel canto version is richer in sound, the Kyrgyz version is brighter and more resonant. In the approximated version, the bel canto singer manages to cover a broader spectrum with nearly the same balance as the traditional Kyrgyz version.
Second, the Kyrgyz singer produces a broad anti-formant with center frequency at about 10kHz. (An anti-formant is an area of the spectrum with reduced energy and thus a less vibrant appearance on the spectogram. It is produced when a cavity in the vocal tract traps or absorbs a bandwidth of frequencies.) The spectrogram of the bel canto singer shows an anti-formant between 5 and 6kHz. These contrasting areas of anti-formants are responsible for much of the difference in sound between the two examples. By contrast, the approximated version produces an anti-formant in a frequency range that very nearly matches that of the Kyrgyz version, confirming the bel canto singer’s closer approximation of the Kyrgyz singer’s timbre.
Third, another timbral difference between the three examples is their respective articulations of consonants. In the Kyrgyz and approximation examples the consonants are soft, while in the bel canto example consonants are fully articulated. The result is that the vertical flow of the phrases produced by the Kyrgyz and approximating singers is smooth and unbroken, with few peaks in energy, whereas the bel canto singer’s version shows peaks and gaps in energy corresponding to both initial and final consonants.
Figure 16.2 Phrase 2 sung by a Kyrgyz traditional singer
Figure 16.3 Phrase 2 sung by a bel canto singer
Figure 16.4 Phrase 2 sung by a bel canto singer approximating Kyrgyz style
Exploring diverse vocal techniques
Since the purpose here is to recommend and explore approximation of diverse vocal techniques rather than to document the vocal production of indigenous singers, we describe the physical adaptations we as trained singers made in order to approach the quality to be matched. As noted above, this process does not require abandoning Western vocal training altogether. In our view, making these physical adjustments to the vocal musculature and posture expands, rather than threatens, choristers’ vocal technique.
Given the vastness of this topic, we have narrowed our discussion to four aspects: Laryngeal position, Registration, Resonance, and Special techniques. In the sections entitled “Give it a try,” we provide suggestions for the reader’s exploration. Table 16.1 shows the adjustments we made in approximating examples from a range of cultures, illustrating that these four factors do not exist in isolation, but rather are combined in various ways to provide an infinite palette of vocal colors and effects to explore. 28
| Female singers |
|---|
| From Kyrgyzstan |
| Laryngeal position: high |
| Register: chest-mix |
| Resonance: teeth close together, vowels bright and forward in oral cavity, slight nasality |
| From China |
| Laryngeal position: high |
| Register: head-mix |
| Resonance: horizontal feel in oral cavity, wide smile; lowered soft palate to add nasal resonance |
| From Brazil |
| Laryngeal position: high |
| Register: chest |
| Resonance: relaxed position of throat and with minimal opening of oral cavity |
| Ornament: small scoops into most pitches |
| From South Africa |
| Laryngeal position: high (similar to belting ) |
| Register: chest-mix |
| Resonance: bright vowels, feeling of height in back of mouth on low notes |
| Ornament: vibrato, frequent scoops and glides |
| From Bulgaria |
| Laryngeal position: high |
| Register: head-mix |
| Resonance: small oral cavity in front, wider in back |
| Ornament: no vibrato but with relaxed larynx |
| From Japan |
| Laryngeal position: high |
| Register: chest, shifting to mixed |
| Resonance: throat is narrow and oral cavity small; nasal resonance |
| Ornament: shifts of register from chest; angular ornaments and clean changes between pitches |
| Male singers |
| From Azerbaijan |
| Laryngeal position: medium high |
| Register: chest-mix in low range, head-mix in high range |
| Resonance: wide back of mouth; lips semi-open; bright vowels |
| Ornament: bleating; some bleating/pulsations used in imitation of bowed instrument |
| From Japan |
| Laryngeal position: semi-high larynx |
| Register: chest |
| Resonance: triangular opening in back of mouth; resonance felt in head and back of nasal cavity |
| Ornament: slides; wide, slow trill-type ornament; clean changes between pitches |
| Native American |
| Laryngeal position: high but not forced position, fairly comfortable, like a “light nasal belt” |
| Register: chest-mix |
| Resonance: highly nasal, bright vowels |
| Ornament: yodel-like motion, scoops, slides combined with hard-aspirate ([h]) glottal attacks |
| From Zimbabwe |
| Laryngeal position: medium/medium high |
| Register: chest and some chest-mix |
| Resonance: mostly head and pharyngeal resonance |
| Ornament: yodels at distance of a fourth |
Laryngeal position
In contrast to the lowered larynx of bel canto singing, a shortened vocal tract produced by raising the larynx is common to many non-bel canto vocal styles. When the larynx is high, the vocal folds generate overtone patterns that result in a louder and brighter quality. This vocal posture gives a distinctive carrying power to the voice, which is important when singing occurs out of doors or in acoustically dry settings. Most researchers agree that the popular singing technique called belting uses the high laryngeal position. 29 Estill comments on the pervasiveness of the high laryngeal position in other traditions: “Belting is a voice quality heard in much of the ethnic music around the world: in fado of Spain , in the folk music of Eastern Europe and the Orient and in the theatre voices of the Japanese drama schools.” 30
Give it a try : A common method of finding this high position of the larynx is to speak the phrase “uh-oh,” as it is said when you drop something accidentally. For bel canto singers, sustaining a pitch with the larynx in this position will feel unfamiliar. Repeat these syllables at various pitch and loudness levels, and then try sustaining either syllable on a comfortable pitch before executing a phrase .
Registration
Use of the chest register is more prevalent in traditional singing styles around the world than in bel canto . Given that registers and pitch are interdependent, the tessitura provides a clue as to the register that is being employed. 31 For women, the tessitura of songs may extend below the range of the treble clef. It is not uncommon for the chest voice to be extended to a high range. Additionally, the range of pitches over which the head and chest registers can be mixed often begins at a higher pitch level than in bel canto singing. The terms chest-mix and head-mix indicate the dominant register in mixed-register production.
Give it a try: Since the bel canto male singer uses primarily chest voice, this register will be more familiar for men. A low, relaxed sigh will elicit this voice. For women who speak in the chest voice at a relatively low pitch, intoning and sustaining a spoken word is effective for beginning to explore. Both men and women should explore singing low pitches with raised and lowered larynx .
Resonance
As noted above, the resonators of the vocal tract contribute greatly to subtle variations in vocal timbres. 32 The resonating areas in the throat, mouth, and nose can be opened, closed, combined, or shaped to produce a broad range of vocal timbres. By contrast to the vertical image used in Western singing, in some traditions the oral cavity is horizontal, with the teeth closer together and the corners of the mouth extended toward the cheeks.
In bel canto , the soft palate is generally raised to close off the nasal cavity, eliminating nasal resonance, while in other traditions, nasality is desirable. 33 Varying degrees of nasal resonance are possible, depending upon the size of the opening into the nasal resonators.
Give it a try: Because there is an infinite number of ways to shift and combine the various resonators, we recommend listening to a style and relying upon your natural imitative impulse to match the quality. Focusing on the vowel color can be a key to adjusting the resonators. To explore timbral variation, choose a pitch in the middle of a comfortable pitch range. Sing the following, first with a high then a low laryngeal position:
- [o] with the vocal tract and larynx in their resting position and mouth half open .
- [æ] as in “cat” with the teeth nearly together and a smile on the lips .
- [u] with the soft palate low to add nasal resonance. (An easy way to tell if there is nasal resonance in your sound is to pinch your nose. If it is nasalized, the sound stops or stutters on and off.)
Special techniques
Approaching pitches
Below are two of the many ways a tone can be approached.
Scoops and slides
A pitch may be approached from well below the target tone, scooping quickly or slowly to the target pitch, and sliding lightly or heavily over all of the pitches in between. Singers need only listen to and imitate the scooped approach. 34
Glottal attacks
The folds can be brought together (stopped) prior to or during phonation, resulting in the abrupt onset of the sound that follows. This attack is used in bel canto as well as in other styles, often when a word begins with a vowel.
Releases
Notes are sometimes released with a drop in pitch, which can be subtle or pronounced. Especially when the phonation requires high subglottal pressure, a coincidental expulsion of air may be audible as the vocal folds separate more forcibly.
Ornaments
Slurs, trills, and turns
A common form of ornamentation is the movement back and forth between two pitches. This movement may be heavy, light, or even, but timing and precision vary with style. The fundamental vocal production (laryngeal position and register) impacts the character of the ornament. For instance, singing with a high larynx may result in a trill that is more angular than the bel canto trill. Sometimes the trill covers an interval wider than a half or whole step with movement between pitches occurring at various speeds and durations.
Bleating
Tones may be decorated with bleating , a technique not typically included in bel canto training. 35 Bleating is articulated by a coordinated action of the glottis and breathing musculature, and the laryngeal position is generally high. The bleated sound wavers with minimal change of pitch. It is often used as ornamentation in traditional singing in parts of Eastern Europe and East Asia.
Give it a try: With the larynx high, sustain a pitch and sing /hihihi/or /hehehe/ rapidly, letting the aspirant h trigger the bleating sound. Avoid changing to another pitch or stopping phonation between syllables .
Pulsating
Pulsations are repeated accents added to a prolonged tone. Changes in both pitch and dynamic level may occur on each of the pulses. The motion is usually slower than the trill or bleat described above, and the pitch shift may be as wide as a third.
Give it a try: As you sustain a pitch, give a small intense push by contracting the abdominal muscles. The tone will become louder, and the increase in subglottal pressure may also result in a pitch change. Explore pulsations in both registers and with raised and lowered larynx .
Yodeling
Some form of yodel is employed on nearly every continent. A yodel is an abrupt alternation between a low and high pitch, often involving a change in register accompanied by a fleeting glottal stop.
Give it a try: Sing a low pitch with good support on [o]or [e]. To facilitate the rapid shift to the head voice, change the syllable to [i] and move to a pitch at least a sixth above the lower note. In order to highlight the difference in the two registers, the chest sound needs to be full-voiced. The smooth transition between registers emphasized in bel canto makes yodeling challenging for some trained singers .
Overtone singing
Although forms of overtone or harmonic singing can be found in a number of cultures, this unique technique has been especially cultivated by the peoples of Central Asia. In her book on Mongolian music, Carole Pegg reports that the high frequencies in overtone singing enable vocal sounds to be heard across long distances. 36 Traditionally, Mongolian and Tuvan overtone singing was performed by men, but today women also sing with this technique, known as Khöömii or Xöömei . 37 While this term encompasses several distinctly different styles, we describe a basic technique here, that of a sustained pitch whose individual overtones are highlighted. The high, whistlelike sounds are actually the amplified overtones that are present in the droned pitch, which is usually sung in chest voice. In phonating, the singer generates a static fundamental tone with a slightly high larynx. The size and shape of the oral cavity highlights individual overtones that shift when slight modifications of the tongue are made.
Give it a try: Sing a pitch in the lower third of your range in full chest voice. With the tongue near the roof of the mouth, create a small resonating space behind the front teeth as if to sing a vibrant [y] in French or German. The lips should be slightly pursed. Moving from [y] to [u], or simply making miniscule adjustments, helps to become aware of the overtones. Then sing through the spectrum of vowels in Figure 16.1 to discover the different overtones that correspond to each vowel shape. Most singers are able to produce several audible overtones, but it requires extensive practice to produce overtone melodies. Explore lowering the soft palate to add nasal resonance, widening the lips and opening the throat, and shifting the tongue to see how these changes affect the overtones .
Table 16.1 shows the ways in which we combine these techniques when matching recorded examples from the cultures listed. 38 The adjustments recommended are based on our experience in approximating these styles and guiding others to match them, employing what Lomax dubbed “creative listening,” that is, “trying to reproduce the heard quality, locating it in one’s own vocal mechanism, and then analyzing it.” 39 We suggest the following procedure in matching recorded vocal qualities, or presenting songs in any unfamiliar vocal style to the choir:
In the interest of vocal health
Vocal health is a concern for singers and choral directors alike. Excessive loud singing, especially in chest voice, may inflame the vocal folds and if prolonged can cause more serious vocal problems. When exploring unfamiliar high-demand singing styles, trauma can be minimized if the singers are conditioned to the new technique over time. In the same way that sun-sensitive individuals can tolerate sun if they spend fifteen minutes in the sun one day and twenty minutes the next, the voice can adapt to more strenuous singing if the singer is initiated gradually into the technique. This means regularly rehearsing vocally demanding songs in short rather than long segments and allowing the voice to rest afterward.
Directors should be mindful of vocal use when choosing repertory and planning rehearsals. It is important to begin each rehearsal with exercises that warm up the voice gradually, beginning with posture and breathing activities, proceeding to light singing in the mid range of the voice before exercising the extremes of the vocal range at louder dynamic levels. In general, songs that use the chest voice and high larynx should be practiced toward the end of rehearsals. Directors should encourage singers to take responsibility for resting their voices in rehearsals as needed, and relaxing when production results in muscular tension. We subscribe to the following basic practices that contribute to vocal health recommended by Thurman, Klitzke, and Hogikyan. 40
- Maintain your body’s optimum water level. Take in about six to eight glasses of water per day, each glass containing 8 ounces or 0.25 liter of water.
- Warm up the voice gradually before extensive or vigorous use, for a minimum of about seven to ten minutes. Use efficient vocal skills and move from minimal to more strenuous vocal use.
- Balance voice-use time with voice-recovery time (silence).
- Rest at the first signs of vocal fatigue or general body fatigue.
- Avoid substances that dehydrate the body and vocal cords (i.e. excess caffeine, antihistamines, alcohol, smoking, high-salt foods).
- Do not sing when the throat is inflamed from infection or extended, intense use. (Refrain from vocalizing when vocal cords are swollen, or when protective phlegm is present. This signals that the voice needs silence and the body needs rest or sleep.)
The world now offers us a wide variety of vocal music, and we advocate embracing it and performing it with musical integrity. We argue that approximating vocal timbres as described here has numerous benefits for singers, for choirs, and for building bridges between cultures.
Beyond the musical and vocal benefits, interacting with musicians from various cultures can be life-enriching and sometimes life-changing for directors and choristers alike. Through these experiences, friendships are forged – and biases and stereotypes challenged.
Music embodies aspects of the culture from which it springs, often reflecting emotions and temperaments not only through lyrics, but also through subtle aspects of melody, rhythm, harmony, and timbre. The potential for empathy and identification with unfamiliar cultures may lie in internalizing their songs and recreating all aspects of their performance to the degree possible. Such experiences provide insights into that culture that may transcend merely listening to its music, learning facts about it, viewing pictures of people, or learning about a song’s context. And it is through learning about an unfamiliar culture that one better understands one’s own musical culture and the wonderful and varied ways music functions in people’s lives.