Stephen J. Keenan and Brooke Devlin
Team sports are popular at a variety of levels, ranging from amateur social competitions for health and fitness to Olympic, national and international elite competitions. The physical demands of team sports are multifaceted and, as such, a thorough understanding of the physiological demands, duration and intensity of each team sport is required in order to ensure appropriate nutrition strategies are in place. Furthermore, team sports present unique challenges with regards to nutrition. In the first section, this chapter will discuss why it is important to consider the differences between team sport athletes and individual athletes, and the importance of individualised nutrition advice in a team setting. The second section will focus on how the structure and characteristics of competition and the demands of travel influence and impact on nutrition strategies and practices. Finally, the chapter will conclude with discussion of food service provision for team sport athletes, why this is important and some of the issues nutrition professionals need to consider when catering to large groups.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Upon completion of this chapter you will:
• have an understanding of the differences between team sport athletes and individual athletes and the importance of pack mentality in team sports
• understand the importance of individualised nutrition advice and why blanket style nutrition recommendations are not advised
• recognise the challenges nutrition professionals need to overcome when working with team sport athletes
• understand that each sport presents unique nutritional challenges related to the game and competition structure
• develop an understanding of food service provision and catering for team sport athletes.
WHAT IS DIFFERENT ABOUT TEAM SPORT ATHLETES?
Popular team sports for men and women in Australia, New Zealand and the Asia-Pacific region include basketball, netball, cricket, volleyball, rugby league, rugby union, hockey, soccer (football) and Australian football. These sports differ in their competitive seasons, game lengths, skill requirements and movement patterns performed during play. Additionally, the time of year each sport is played differs, with some being summer sports (such as cricket) and others winter sports (such as Australian football). All these factors need to be taken into consideration when preparing nutrition recommendations. Additionally, a thorough understanding of the physiological demands of the sport is required to ensure appropriate nutrition strategies are in place and fuel requirements are met.
As with individual athletes, the nutritional requirements of team sport athletes depend on the physiological demands, predominant energy systems, duration, frequency and intensity of the sport. Within a team sport, there are a number of different positions that athletes can play (such as offensive or defensive). The position an athlete plays also influences their nutritional requirements. For example, in a sport such as soccer, the nutrition requirements of the goal keeper will be very different to a position such as a mid-fielder due to differences in the distance, frequency and intensity of running movements.
Unlike many individual sports and events, in team sports athletes are often required to repeat regular short, high-intensity efforts interspersed with longer periods of rest and low- to moderate-intensity efforts, such as jogging and walking. Therefore, team sports are typically both anaerobic and aerobic (Chapter 2) in nature and, consequently, athletes are required to develop not only speed, agility, muscular strength and power but also endurance (Bradley et al. 2013). Furthermore, technical and tactical elements are incorporated into the games, with the specific skill required dependent on the game and position played.
While sports nutrition principles and practices will be similar between individual athletes and team sport athletes, there are additional factors and issues that are important to consider regarding nutrition practices of team sport athletes. These issues are discussed throughout this chapter.
Pack mentality
Depending on the sport, the number of athletes in a team can vary from five up to groups as large as 50. Regardless of the size of the team, group dynamics can have a major influence on nutrition practices of athletes.
Pack mentality
For team sport athletes, a pack mentality occurs when individual athletes within the team act in a similar manner to others in the group.
In team sport, it is common for there to be a ‘pack mentality’ that influences athletes’ behaviours, including their nutrition practices. In the case of nutritional intake, if there are some athletes within the team who follow suboptimal practices or have extreme dietary behaviour, this can influence the overall nutrition practices of the whole team.
While pack mentality may be seen to negatively influence nutritional intake in some cases, it is important to consider using the team environment and pack mentality to assist in improving the nutrition practices of the athletes and making positive changes to the nutritional intake of the team. As with any team environment, there will be natural tendencies for some individuals to be leaders and have stronger personalities. Working with leaders in a team environment who follow optimal nutrition practices is an effective strategy to influence the nutrition practices of athletes in a team and improve the culture. As an example, alcohol intake following a game is quite common due to the social nature of team sports. However, when a key team member limits their alcohol consumption, it can positively influence the overall alcohol intake of the team. To improve and influence nutritional intake of athletes in team sports it is vital to consider the team environment, culture and natural tendency for a pack mentality to occur.
Blanket approaches to nutrition advice
High-level competitive team sports have a large team of coaching and support staff, such as sports scientists, working with athletes. There are a range of factors that influence the performance of an athlete, and coaching and support staff work to improve these factors, including fitness, strength and game tactics. Despite its ability to influence performance, nutrition is not always a priority among coaching and support staff due to budget constraints and competing pressures.
In these high-pressure and simultaneously time- and resource-poor environments, it is common for blanket nutrition advice to be provided to a team of athletes. Blanket nutrition advice can be described as nutrition advice that is the same for all the athletes, regardless of their individual differences. Furthermore, the way in which this advice is delivered is also the same for all athletes. It groups all athletes together (under one blanket), and assumes the information and nutrition advice they need is the same. This is problematic, as it is well established that individual athletes within a team are unique and will respond differently to nutrition interventions and advice. For example, caffeine has been found to improve athletic performance (Burke 2008), but not all athletes respond to caffeine in the same way. The performance benefit of caffeine is substantial for some athletes, insignificant for others. Athletes will also vary in their tolerance of caffeine-containing beverages and supplements. Therefore, athletes require specific, individually tailored, personalised nutrition advice that takes into consideration a range of individual health, social and sport-specific factors.
Personalised nutrition advice
Specific and individualised advice for each athlete based on their own personal situation including playing position, body composition, culture, taste preferences and past experiences.
GROUP NUTRITION EDUCATION AND NUTRITION KNOWLEDGE
As outlined, it is important that athletes are provided individual nutrition advice as far as possible within the context of the team setting. However, it is common for team sport athletes to receive group nutrition education. Group nutrition education sessions are advantageous as a time- and cost-effective method to educate and influence nutritional practices. They can also assist in building a positive team environment and culture. However, education provided in a group setting often employs ‘blanket’ nutrition advice and does not cater for the differing needs of individual athletes. Athletes will also have different learning styles, and these should be taken into consideration when planning group nutrition education sessions.
Group nutrition education sessions are used to improve nutrition knowledge, and sometimes also food and cooking skills, with the aim of positively influencing nutrition practices. In team sports, group nutrition education sessions and cooking classes are commonly used to educate a number of athletes at one time. Evaluation of such sessions is important to identify their effectiveness in improving nutrition knowledge, food skills and dietary practices, to identify areas for improvement and to advocate for increased nutrition services.
FOOD AND FLUID PROVISION FOR TEAM SPORTS
The implementation of nutrition strategies in team sports is often subject to rules and regulations that restrict opportunities for intake of food and fluids. While sports such as basketball or Australian football include numerous breaks in play that allow delivery of food or fluids to players, opportunities in other codes, such as soccer (football), are much more limited. Often substitutions, treatment of injured players and half-time breaks are the only times players can access food and fluid, and to do this they may need to dash to the sidelines. This can pose challenges when trying to replace large fluid losses or provide large quantities of carbohydrate; providing these in large boluses at half-time breaks may lead to gastrointestinal disturbance. Studies that have informed fluid and carbohydrate intake guidelines have often used protocols that involve providing small amounts periodically, which is impractical in team sports. Therefore, nutrition support needs to be customised to both the sport and the individual.
Bolus
A portion, with respect to food, that is swallowed at one time.
Competition structure and access to food/fluid during the game
The structure of competition varies between sports and can create difficulties when trying to optimise fluid and food ingestion. Depending on the intensity and duration of the event, and the environment in which it is played, a greater emphasis may need to be placed on ensuring athletes take every opportunity to rehydrate or ingest carbohydrates. Cricket, for example, may be played in extreme heat, with some formats of the game lasting 6–7 hours per day for five days. Although originally developed in temperate English weather, it is now also played in the harsh Australian summer, the severe heat of Dubai and the extreme humidity in India, with temperatures occasionally reaching over 40°C. While those in the outfield may have access to drinks on the boundary line, batsmen—who are generally also wearing heavy pads, gloves and a helmet—may have much more limited access to fluids, with drinks breaks generally scheduled only once per hour (though they break for meals over the course of the day). In Australia, soccer is also played in the summer, with drinks generally only available at the break between 45-minute halves or if there is an extended stoppage in play. In circumstances such as these, it is important to think strategically about providing athletes with optimal nourishment. In cricket, for example, if there is a break in play for injury, to change the ball or if the batsman calls for a new bat or gloves, a drinks runner should be sent out to the players at the same time if possible. In soccer, placing drink bottles around the ground, allowing players to access fluids quickly during stoppages or substitutions, will allow them to maintain a better hydration status. For events lasting 90 minutes or more, it is important to provide fluids such as sports drinks that contain carbohydrate and electrolytes, with added flavours to promote greater intake (see Chapter 11 for more information on hydration).
Although it is important to ensure that opportunities are created for athletes to ingest food and fluid during play where possible, the importance of designated breaks should not be ignored. Sports drinks, along with any food or supplements such as fruit, gels or lollies, should be presented in a way that allows easy access for the athletes. Often the athletes will have treatment or presentations from the coaching staff during their designated breaks, and eating and drinking may slip their mind. Setting up their food and drinks on a table just inside the door to the change rooms may help ensure they grab something on the way in and way out, reducing the risk of missing an opportunity to refuel. For those who have more individualised refuelling strategies, placing the appropriate amount of food and drink in, or in front of, their locker may allow them to adhere to this more easily. While structured breaks such as half-time allow greater opportunity for food and fluid intake, it should also be stressed that trying to achieve recommended intakes needs to be balanced with gastrointestinal comfort, and force-feeding athletes may actually lead to poorer performance.
Catering for the team
Catering for athletes in the team environment may occur on many different levels, from individual to team-wide provision of food, both of which provide unique challenges. Training and competition schedules, personal preferences and body composition goals can all influence the type and amount of food provided. Addressing all of these concerns at once can be difficult, and while ideally clubs could utilise in-house catering staff to accommodate each player’s different requirements (as is the case in some larger organisations around the world), smaller clubs may need to bring in outside catering to ensure adherence to budget.
On-site, team-wide catering offers a cost-efficient method of providing nutritious food to athletes. This can be particularly important when the training schedule runs over normal meal times. It is not uncommon for players to complete two training sessions each day, especially over the pre-season period, and this may involve long days with limited opportunities to seek food.
Providing a meal can help ensure that players refuel to train and compete at the intensity required; however, it is not as simple as providing sufficient carbohydrate, protein and fat. In one team, not only are there differing taste preferences, there are also different nutrition priorities. The first player in the lunch line may be trying to add muscle mass, while the second is looking to reduce body fat, the third is recovering from injury and the fourth has just managed to get his body composition where it needs to be, and is trying to maintain that. On top of this, each player is a different size and may have a different training load. How do you then cater for each player with one generic meal? To allow each individual to customise their meal, education and presentation of food is critical; these are discussed below.
Education
As discussed earlier, while group education may be cost-effective, individual nutrition knowledge is important to help athletes make appropriate food choices, especially when faced with buffet-style catering. Each player should be aware of their own goals, and how nutrition contributes to them, to enable them to make appropriate food choices. Putting up posters or noticeboards in the food-provision area may help create an environment that reinforces this education. Having the team dietitian and/or other nutrition support staff present occasionally during food service will allow the players to confirm their food choices.
Presentation
Presentation of the food is critical to allow players to customise their own meals. Mixed-meal dishes such as stir-fries and casseroles may not be ideal, as players may have differing protein, carbohydrate and fat requirements. Separating the protein, carbohydrate and, potentially, the fat (although most meals provided are likely to have low to moderate fat content), allows the athlete to pick and choose ingredients and portion sizes to suit their needs. For example, instead of a stew, it may be more appropriate to offer roast meat, separate starchy and non-starchy vegetables and a jug of gravy or sauce. Some options, such as burgers, may not need separation, as the athlete can pull them apart to consume what they require. Options such as pasta may not allow easy separation of components but are often very popular among teams, especially in the lead-up to competition. In such circumstances, it may be worthwhile offering multiple options, so that players with lower loads who may be periodising carbohydrate intake (see Chapter 9) are still able to achieve this.
Catering for the individual within the team
Ideally, players will gain the skills necessary to prepare appropriate food matching their nutrition goals. Occasionally, however, due to lack of time, motivation or available facilities, this will not occur. In this case, it may be worthwhile exploring catering options for the individual. There are many food service companies that provide meals appropriate for the athlete, and are often able to customise meal plans.
Post-game meals
Post-game meals pose some unique challenges. Not only are there many athletes who subscribe to the idea that they can ‘eat whatever they want’ post-game due to their workloads (potentially undoing a great deal of good work if they are trying to improve their body composition), some will have large appetites while others will have none at all. Providing foods that meet their nutritional needs for recovery in several different forms can help work around these issues, as long as the athlete is well-educated on what they should be putting into their bodies. Liquids such as flavoured milks, providing around 20 grams of protein and 60 grams of carbohydrate per 600 millilitres, are a popular post-match recovery option for those with smaller appetites, while fruit, sandwiches, wraps, protein shakes or bars, muesli bars and hot meals such as pasta and rice dishes all provide nutritious recovery options. While all of these can be great choices, logistics often precludes offering all of them at once, meaning there are always likely to be some athletes who miss out on their preferred option. A good compromise can be organising a smaller range of more portable foods (such as milks, fruit, sandwiches, shakes and bars) in the change rooms post-match with a subsequent meal at a nearby restaurant, depending on the timing of the match.
TRAVEL
Teams that travel for competition or training need to consider a number of factors relating to nutrition. These vary depending on whether the travel is domestic or international in nature, with domestic travel posing fewer challenges than international travel. When travelling anywhere via air, consideration should be given to food and fluid provision; this is discussed in Chapter 21.
When travelling to a country where the types of foods consumed are significantly different from those in the athletes’ home country, efforts should be made to educate players on appropriate food choices. Topics to cover may include avoiding food from areas that have a high risk of food contamination, such as street stalls, and ensuring athletes drink bottled water in areas that do not have safe tap water. Where possible, it is ideal to contact the accommodation or restaurants in which the team will be eating before they travel. Organising a menu of suitable, familiar foods will help reduce the risk of gastrointestinal issues, or players not eating. Again, having a stockpile of suitable snacks for players will also help them achieve their nutritional goals.
SUMMARY AND KEY MESSAGES
Although ‘pack mentality’ is common among teams of athletes, it needs to be recognised that each individual athlete is likely to have different goals, taste preferences, learning styles and motivations. Each of these needs to be taken into consideration, along with the intricacies of each sport, including training schedules and competition structures when providing food for teams or advising athletes on what to consume. Education is key to empowering individual athletes to make appropriate food choices, and while a blanket approach to nutritional advice may seem tempting, a customised approach is likely to be much more effective. Once each individual is sufficiently educated, it is important to ensure that their food environment is conducive to making good choices. Pre-planning by the nutrition and catering staff will help make the good choice the easy choice.
• The different game factors (game length, skill requirements, position played, movement, game breaks and season played) must all be considered when formulating nutrition advice for individuals in team sports.
• ‘Pack mentality’ can be used in a positive way to influence nutrition intake of team sport athletes.
• Ideally, blanket nutrition recommendations need to be avoided and individualised nutrition advice provided in a team sport setting.
• Providing appropriate food and fluid during competition can be complicated by game structure.
• Thinking strategically will ensure athletes have a maximum number of opportunities to refuel.
• Team-wide catering is a valuable tool, but individuals need to be properly educated to make the right choices.
• When travelling, differences in culture and hygiene standards need to be considered.
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Bishop, D. & Girard, O., 2013, ‘Determinants of team-sport performance: Implications for altitude training by team-sport athletes’, British Journal of Sports Medicine, vol. 47, suppl. 1, pp. S17–21.
Bradley, P.S., Carling, C., Diaz, A.G. et al., 2013, ‘Match performance and physical capacity of players in the top three competitive standards of English professional soccer’, Human Movement Science, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 808–21.
Burke, L.M., 2008, ‘Caffeine and sports performance’, Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, vol. 33, no. 6, pp. 1319–34.
Cortese, R.D.M., Veiros, M.B., Feldman, C. et al., 2016, ‘Food safety and hygiene practices of vendors during the chain of street food production in Florianopolis, Brazil: A cross-sectional study’, Food Control, vol. 62, pp. 178–86.
Liu, Z., Zhang, G. & Zhang, X., 2014, ‘Urban street foods in Shijiazhuang city, China: Current status, safety practices and risk mitigating strategies’, Food Control, vol. 41, pp. 212–18.
Reilly, T., Waterhouse, J., Burke, L.M. et al., 2009, ‘Nutrition for travel’, Journal of Sports Sciences, vol. 25, suppl. 1, pp. S125–34.