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14. The immediate effect of alcohol upon the brain is to interact with neuronal membranes, altering their function and causing a change in ionic balance (primarily, chloride ions that are negatively charged flow into the cells making the neurons more negatively charged and less likely to fire, thus sedating them), which results in the various symptoms of intoxication. However, alcohol also causes epigenetic changes in the brain that alter gene expression in the fear circuit (amygdala), which increase anxiety once the intoxication clears. Specifically, alcohol intoxication causes the production of a peptide, called Neuropetide Y (NPY), in the amygdala that is also associated with the relaxing effect of intoxication. However, once the alcohol clears (intoxication is over) there is a rebound suppression of NPY, which causes the amygdala to be more active, increasing anxiety and cravings for alcohol. See B. Hwang et al., “Innate differences of neuropeptide Y (NPY) in hypothalamic nuclei and central nucleus of the amygdala between selectively bred rats with high and low alcohol preference,” Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 23, no. 6 (June 1999): 1023–30; C. Eva et al., “Modulation of neuropeptide Y and Y1 receptor expression in the amygdala by fluctuations in the brain content of neuroactive steroids during ethanol drinking discontinuation in Y1R/LacZ transgenic mice,” Journal of Neurochemistry 104 (2008): 1043–54; J. D. Olling et al., “Complex plastic changes in the neuropeptide Y system during ethanol intoxication and withdrawal in the rat brain,” Journal of Neuroscience Research 87, no. 10 (August 1, 2009): 2386–97.

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1. Devin Tomb, “Self-Made Women Who Inspire: 4 Entrepreneurs Who Motivate,” Self, January 5, 2015, https://www.self.com/story/selfmade-women-entrepreneurs-who-motivate.

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16. If the reader is interested in a greater discussion of and the historical evidence for this assertion, I would refer them to my book The God-Shaped Heart: How Correctly Understanding God’s Love Transforms Us (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2017).

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Notes