accessory fruit – also called a pseudofruit, this is a fruit that grows from the thickened end part of the stem (where the flower was) instead of from the ovary, which is the norm. Strawberries and mulberries are examples.
actinidin – a protein-dissolving enzyme found in kiwi fruit. It can aid digestion and act as a blood thinner.
aggregate fruit – a fruit consisting of several merged ovaries, developed from a single flower. Raspberries are an example.
alkaloids – a group of bitter-tasting, natural chemical compounds made by plants, animals and microorganisms. Some are toxic, but others have powerful medicinal actions, including anaesthetic, stimulant, antibacterial, pain-relieving, anti-cancer, antihypertensive and vasodilating effects.
anthocyanins – red, purple or blue pigments found concentrated in the skins of many fruit and vegetables. They have powerful antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
antioxidants – protect cells from damage caused by unstable molecules known as free radicals (see page 227).
arbutin – an antimicrobial and mildly diuretic glycoside (see page 227). It inhibits pigmentation and can be useful in treating urinary tract infections.
berry – in botanical terms, a berry is a fleshy fruit made from a single ovary, with the seeds embedded within it. Grapes and tomatoes are examples. In everyday speech, a berry is any small, juicy, brightly coloured edible fruit with a sweet, tart or sour flavour.
beta-carotene – a bright red-orange, fat-soluble, antioxidant plant pigment and a good, non-toxic source of vitamin A. It promotes healthy eyes and skin, but excess intake may cause the skin to turn orange (though this is usually reversible). Blackberries, cherries, damsons, sea-buckthorn and persimmons contain high levels of beta-carotene.
bioflavonoids – see flavonoids (see page 227).
calyx – the outer covering of a flower bud consisting of individual sepals. The calyx is usually, but not always, green in colour.
carotenoids – a group of antioxidant organic pigments, ranging in colour from pale yellow to bright orange and deep red. They are made during photosynthesis by plants, algae, some bacteria and fungi, and there are over 600 different types including xanthophylls and carotenes.
catechins – slightly bitter, astringent and strongly antioxidant compounds found in many berries. Açai berries have a particularly high content, as does chocolate. They may lessen the severity of allergic reactions and can help protect against strokes, Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease.
chlorophyll – the light-sensitive green pigment in plants and algae responsible for the synthesis of carbohydrates. It can be used therapeutically for detoxification and to promote wound healing.
composite fruit – a fruit that develops from a cluster (or inflorescence) of flowers, each producing single fruits that eventually coalesce and mature into one larger fruit. Mulberries are an example.
compound fruit – a fruit that develops from several ovaries in one or more flowers. Compound fruits can be ‘aggregate’ or ‘composite’.
deciduous – the word means ‘falling off’, and in botany it is commonly used to describe perennial plants, especially trees and shrubs, that drop their leaves in the autumn.
dioecious – a plant species is said to be dioecious when male and female flowers are found on separate plants. Most plants are bisexual, but some berry species are dioecious, including juniper, mulberry and kiwi fruit.
drupe – a fruit with a single seed contained within a hard stone surrounded by an outer fleshy part. Cherries and damsons are examples.
drupelet – a small drupe, often consisting of several drupelets in a compound fruit. Blackberries and raspberries are examples.
ellagic acid – a natural phenolic antioxidant, produced by many plants, that helps protect body cells from oxidative stress. It is found in high concentrations in berries such as goji, grapes, blackberries, cranberries, raspberries and strawberries.
ellagitannins – a class of antioxidant tannins that are thought to have antibiotic, anti-parasitic and anti-cancer properties. They may also help regulate blood glucose levels.
ethyl gallate – an antioxidant and natural antibiotic found in many plants. It is widely used as an antioxidant food additive (E313).
evergreen – a plant that has foliage throughout the year.
flavonoids – organic plant compounds, also known as bioflavonoids and vitamin P. They are used by plants as chemical messengers, and for UV filtration, pigmentation, nitrogen fixation and metabolism. They are powerful antioxidants with anti-cancer, anti-allergic and antibiotic properties and a reputation for decreasing the rate of memory loss in old age. Examples include lutein, zeaxanthin, carotenoids, catechins, betulinic acid, lycopene and xanthines. Blueberries and strawberries are particularly rich in flavonoids, but most berries have a high flavonoid content.
folate – also known as folic acid or vitamin B9, folate is an essential vitamin that can only be obtained from food (including green leafy vegetables and pulses). Deficiency is associated with many pathologies, particularly anaemia, nerve degeneration and the development of neural tube defects (such as spina bifida) in developing embryos during pregnancy.
free radicals – atoms, molecules or ions that have an uneven number of electrons, making them unstable and highly reactive. This reactivity can cause cell damage if there are too many free radicals present in body tissues, and has the potential to cause serious health problems. Antioxidants are important as they neutralize or ‘mop up’ excess free radicals in the body.
gallic acid – a phenolic acid found in many plants (often forming a part of tannin molecules). It is an antioxidant that has marked antibiotic and astringent properties.
glucoside – a glycoside derived from glucose, commonly found in plants.
glycoside – plants often store important phytochemicals in the form of glycosides. A glycoside molecule consists of sugar bound to another functional substance, for example, alcohol, anthraquinone, coumarin, saponin or a flavonoid, and it is usually these functional molecules that give plants their medicinal effects.
hydrogen cyanide – also known as prussic acid, hydrogen cyanide is a highly poisonous chemical found in small amounts in bitter almonds and other fruit pits, such as apricot stones, used to make almond-like flavouring.
kaempferol – a natural flavonoid found in many plants and berries. It has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibiotic and anti-allergic properties, and is associated with a reduced risk of cancer and heart disease.
LDL – sometimes referred to as bad cholesterol, LDL (low-density lipoprotein) is one of a group of lipoproteins that the body uses to transport fats around the circulatory system. High blood levels of LDL are associated with cardiovascular problems, such as atherosclerosis, stroke and heart attack.
leucoanthocyanins – also known as proanthocyanins, leucoanthocyanins are colourless flavonoids used by the body in the production of anthocyanins. They are found in many berries including grapes, bilberries, cranberries and blackcurrants.
lignans – a group of antioxidant phytochemicals that includes various phytooestrogens.
lutein – a yellow to orange-red carotenoid found in plants, egg yolks and animal fats. It is strongly antioxidant and may protect the eyes from damage resulting from oxidative stress.
lycopene – a bright red carotenoid found in many red fruits and vegetables, especially tomatoes. Considered a powerful antioxidant, it is thought to have potential as an anti-cancer agent. Lycopene is also used as a food colouring (E160d).
melatonin – a hormone found in plants, animals and microbes. It is a powerful antioxidant that protects DNA, stimulates the immune system and helps regulate the sleep-wake cycles. In humans, natural melatonin levels drop with age.
mucilage – a thick, sticky substance produced by plants that can be used to soothe irritation and inflammation of the skin and mucous membranes.
oleic acid – a naturally occurring monounsaturated omega-9 fatty acid found in olive oil and in many other vegetable oils and animal fats.
omega oils, 3 and 6 – omega oils are known as essential fatty acids because they are vital to normal health, but can only be obtained from the diet. Omega-3 oils may help relieve cardiovascular problems such as high blood pressure and varicose veins, but in excess they may increase the risk of bleeding and stroke. They are also thought to reduce the severity of symptoms in ADHD and other autistic spectrum disorders in children, and may enhance mental performance in people of all ages. Omega-6 oils are important for normal hormone and prostaglandin production, but the typical Western diet often contains too much omega 6 in relation to omega 3, which can lead to inflammation-related health problems.
ORAC value (oxygen radical absorbance capacity) – a way of measuring an individual antioxidant’s ability to protect tissues from oxidative damage. To date the method has only been used in laboratory settings, and there is as yet no established relationship between ORAC value and health benefit for any particular antioxidant.
oxidative stress – when there are too many free radicals (and other oxidants such as peroxides) in relation to the amount of antioxidants present in body tissues, there is said to be ‘oxidative stress’. In this situation, the ability of cells to repair the damage to proteins, fats and DNA is impaired, and oxidative stress is thought to be implicated in many serious chronic health problems, including cancer, cardiovascular problems, neurodegenerative diseases and chronic fatigue syndrome.
parasorbic acid – also known as hexenolactone, parasorbic acid is a potentially toxic chemical found in raw rowan berries. It is active against a broad spectrum of bacteria (gram-positive and gram-negative), and can be used as an antifungal and anti-parasitic agent (particularly against the parasite that causes sleeping sickness). Heating or freezing converts parasorbic acid to sorbic acid, which reduces acidity and increases the sweetness of the berries.
pectin – a polysaccharide found in the cell walls of plants that can be used as a gelling agent. In fruits, pectin is broken down as part of the ripening process, so unripe apples, plums, gooseberries and citrus fruits are the best sources. As pectin is a soluble fibre, eating it as part of a plant-rich diet can help reduce blood cholesterol levels.
perennial – a perennial plant is one that lives for more than two years.
phenols and polyphenols – a group of organic compounds, including tannins, pigments and phyto-hormones, that have antioxidant properties. They are used by plants to make protective UV screens, to provide colour, to deter predators and to protect against infection.
phytic acid – a chemical found mainly in seeds and grains that is used as an antioxidant, as a food preservative (E391) and in chelation therapy (to treat toxic metal poisoning). It is indigestible for humans, but decreases in concentration when seeds and grains are soaked, sprouted or cooked.
phytochemicals – natural compounds in plants that, though not nutrients as such, have a specific biological significance. There are thousands of different phytochemicals in fruit and vegetables with a wide variety of metabolic and medicinal effects. Phyto means relating to plants.
phyto-oestrogens – plant-derived oestrogens.
phytosterols – plant-derived steroidal compounds similar to cholesterol, found particularly in plant oils. Phytosterols have been shown to lower blood cholesterol and help maintain normal hormone balance.
pigment – pigments are primarily used by plants for photosynthesis, but also for colour. Examples include chlorophyll, carotenoids, anthocyanins and betalains.
polyphenols – see phenols.
pome – an accessory fruit from the Apple tribe of the Rose family. Rowan berries are pomes.
pseudofruit – see accessory fruit.
quercetin – an antioxidant bioflavonoid with antihistamine, anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory properties.
rapadura sugar – whole organic sugar produced by evaporating sugar cane juice over a low heat without separating out the molasses or adding anti-caking agents.
RDA – the Recommended Daily Allowance of vitamins, minerals and trace elements considered sufficient to maintain good health. It was developed during the Second World War as part of a broader attempt to improve the nutritional health of the population. RDA guidelines are reviewed and changed from time to time and vary from country to country.
resveratrol – a natural phenol produced by plants to help protect them from natural pathogens. It is particularly concentrated in the skins of red grapes and mulberries, and is thought to have very significant effects on human health. Studies suggest that resveratrol can improve stamina, prevent certain cancers, protect against heart and skin diseases and act as an anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory and antiviral.
riboflavin – another name for vitamin B2, which plays a key role in human energy metabolism. It is orange-red in colour and can be used as a food additive (E101).
rutin – a quercetin compound with antibacterial and antioxidant properites found in abundance in berries such as aronia, cranberry and mulberry. It helps maintain the health of the blood and circulation.
salicylic acid – a phenolic phyto-hormone, originally obtained from willow bark (Salix). It can be used to ease aches and pains, reduce fevers and inflammations and as an antiseptic and food preservative. It also has an anti-diabetic effect. Aspirin is made by reacting salicylic acid with acetic anhydride in the presence of an acid catalyst.
scurvy – the medical condition resulting from severe vitamin C deficiency characterized by extreme lethargy and bleeding from mucous membranes.
seitan – also called ‘wheat meat’, this is made from wheat gluten and has the appearance and texture of cooked meat. It is very high in protein, low in fat and carbohydrate, and rich in iron.
sorbic acid – a natural organic compound, first isolated from rowan berries, that has antimicrobial and antifungal properties and is used as a food preservative (E200–203).
tannin – an astringent, tart and bitter polyphenol, used by plants for growth regulation and as a pesticide. Tannin concentrations fall as plants ripen and they can be used in plant medicine for their astringent, antibacterial, antiviral and anti-parasitic properties.
tempeh – a traditional Indonesian soy product made by fermenting whole soybeans and then pressing them into a firm cake. It has an earthy flavour and is an extremely good source of protein, fibre and vitamins.
thiamin (thiamine) – another name for vitamin B1, which is necessary for maintaining the health of the nervous and cardiovascular systems.
tofu – also known as bean curd, tofu is made by coagulating soy milk and pressing the curd into solid blocks. There are many different types available, all with a bland flavour unless spices or soy sauce are added, but all are low in calories and high in protein.
tomatillo – a small green or green-purple berry, which is surrounded by a papery husk and related to the golden berry.
xylitol – a low-calorie sugar that is absorbed by the body slowly. It is used as a sweetener for low-calorie diabetic foods and occurs naturally in various berries and other plant foods.
zeaxanthin or zeathanthin – a common carotenoid pigment that gives colour to paprika peppers, wolfberries, grapes and many other plants. Diet-derived zeaxanthins contribute one of the main carotenoid pigments in the retina of the eye.