NOTES
Introduction
1. In his study, National Anthems, Paul Nettl tells the story of how, in 1853, Costa Rica, embarrassed to learn that dignitaries visiting from Great Britain and the United States were expecting to be welcomed to the country with the Costa Rican national anthem, set about to produce one. The strategy was simple. The country's foremost practising musician, Manuel María Gutiérrez, was detained by the authorities until he produced an anthem, which he duly did. According to Nettl, ‘The poor devil insisted that he knew nothing about the art of musical composition. But that did him no good. He was thrown into prison and promised that he would not be released until he produced a usable piece of music’ (Nettl 1952: 185). This anthem remains the national anthem of Costa Rica.
2. Quoted in Eyck 1995: 43.
3. For example, popular music has been very important in disseminating the idea of common Afghan national identity in a state with very distinct national/ethnic cleavage (Baily 1994).
4. The source of this classification is Kelen and Pavković 2010. Unfortunately, there is no space here to discuss other classifications of national anthems, in particular the one offered in Eyck 1995.
5. Two principal sources for this part are Jelavich 1983 and Pavković 2000. The most comprehensive recent account of Serb national ideology is found in Vujačić 2015.
6. Only one national ideology in southeast Europe, that of Slovenes, did not base its recovery of independence claim on the basis of a medieval state; nonetheless the Slovene national poet Presern did write an epic about the pre-Christian Slovene lords (see Chapter 3).
7. Here is the poem in full:
Montenegro (1877)
THEY rose to where their sovereign eagle sails,
They kept their faith, their freedom, on the height,
Chaste, frugal, savage, arm'd by day and night
Against the Turk; whose inroad nowhere scales
Their headlong passes, but his footstep fails,
And red with blood the Crescent reels from fight
Before their dauntless hundreds, in prone flight
By thousands down the crags and thro' the vales.
O smallest among peoples! rough rock-throne
Of Freedom! warriors beating back the swarm
Of Turkish Islam for five hundred years,
Great Tsernogora! never since thine own
Black ridges drew the cloud and brake the storm
Has breathed a race of mightier mountaineers.
(Alfred Lord Tennyson, Ballads and other poems, 1880)
8. The statelet was conquered by the Croatian army with US support in 1995, prior to the NATO intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
9. Another striking difference is the great powers' approach to the massacres and targeting of civilians. In 1878, the great powers made no attempt to bring to justice those who ordered or committed the massacres of civilians that were supposed to justify their later military intervention. In 1993, however, through the UN Security Council (which they controlled) the great powers established the International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia (ICTY) whose task was to try those responsible for war crimes and crimes against humanity during the wars in that region.
Chapter 1 ‘Live, live the spirit of the Slavs’ (1834): ‘Hey Slavs’ from 1942 to 2006
1. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is one of the two entities of the sovereign state of Bosnia and Herzegovina that is, not officially, a federation. In view of this, we can perhaps say that there is no longer officially a sovereign state of South Slavs. For the anthems of Bosnia and Herzegovina see Chapter 7.
2. Both Maxwell (2006: 161) and Pavlović (1990: 34) maintain that the song was written in Czech.
3. The original text is reproduced Pavlović 1990: 33. Translation by the authors, using the partial translation in Maxwell 2006.
4. Translation from Wikipedia article ‘Poland is not yet lost’. Available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland_Is_Not_Yet_Lost (accessed 27 December 2013). No translator identified.
5. Pavlović (1990: 52–3) cites as one source, the memoirs of the first president of Czechoslovakia, Tomas Masaryk, entitled Svĕtova revoluce za valky (Prague, 1925).
6. The abandonment of this officially selected anthem closely parallels the earlier case in which the Serbian government, under the Karadjordjević dynasty in 1909, abandoned the song by Aleksa Šantić, which in 1906 had been officially selected as the new anthem of the Kingdom of Serbia, and returned to the previous anthem ‘God of Justice’, which it had abolished upon the overthrow of the rival Obrenović dynasty in 1903 (see Chapter 4).
7. These public opinion polls apparently did not specifically canvass the view of non-Slav nationalities, in particular Albanians and Hungarians. The results among those, one may assume, would probably be different.
8. This translation is taken from http://www.slobodnajugoslavija.com/hej_slaveni.html (accessed 15 February 2009). No translator identified.
9. The authors’ translation of the text from in Antifašističke pesme (Anti-Fascist Songs), published in the short-lived Communist-ruled Užice republic in Serbia in October 1941 and reproduced in Pavlović 1998: 48.
Chapter 2 Loving one's homeland: Croatia 1835
1. The law specifies the occasions on which the anthem has to be performed as well as the occasions on which it may be performed, while prohibiting the performances which ‘offend the reputation and the dignity of the Republic of Croatia’. However, the law does not set penalties for the misuse of the anthem as it does for the misuse of the flag and the coat of arms (Zakon 1990: 15–22).
2. Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration of the Republic of Croatia. Available at http://www.mvpei.hr/MVP.asp?pcpid=953 (accessed 11 August 2010). No translator identified.
3. The words in brackets are those used in the official translation. These are all incorrect translations.
4. For an outline of the relevant period of the history of the Habsburg Empire see Kann 1973: 288–99, 396–402 and Okey 2001.
5. The changing borders of Croatia are well illustrated in the historical maps in Srkulj & Lučič 1996, The preface of this book was written by the late Dr Franjo Tudjman, the first president of independent Croatia.
6. Runjanin was a Serb Orthodox by birth (and would be thus considered to be an ethnic Serb) and was baptised in a Serb Orthodox church as ‘Josif’. His name is often given as ‘Josip’, suggesting, wrongly that he was a Roman Catholic.
7. Andrija Tomašek, telephone conversation on 18 February 2010.
8. Only two issues of this magazine were ever published. It was edited by the tutor of the niece of the reigning prince, Anka Obrenović, and prominently featured some of her literary compositions. Some scholars maintain that Mihanović fell in love with Anka (who reciprocated his love). Prince Miloš disapproved of this liaison and this might have been one of the reasons why he asked the Austrian authorities to recall Mihanović from Beograd (Pavlović 1990: 118–21).
9. ‘The only prince of an Illyrian tribe’ a few years later requested Mihanović's recall from Serbia. Mihanović subsequently served as an Austrian diplomat in various cities of the Ottoman Empire, Greece and Romania.
10. The original is reproduced on the Croatian Sabor web page. Available at http://www.sabor.hr/Default.aspx?art=12965 (accessed 10 January 2014). The translation is by the authors.
11. Words in italics have been changed in the current official version of the anthem.
12. Mihanović was convinced of the superior quality of Croat and Hungarian wine. In the early 1830s he went on a promotional tour of North and South America in an attempt to secure markets for those wines, apparently without much success (Očak 1998: 149–56).
13. A local version of a lute, which may be regarded as a Croat national instrument.
14. A round dance.
15. The words in italics were removed or changed in later versions of the song and do not occur in the current lyrics of the anthem.
16. The word ‘narod’ in the Croatian government's official translation into English is given as a ‘homeland’, which is an obvious mistranslation.
17. The current Montenegrin anthem has apparently copied this device from the Croatian one. See Chapter 5.
Chapter 3 A toast to a cosmopolitan nation: Slovenia 1844
1. In 1980 a Slovenian scholar discovered a previously unknown poem ‘The Golden Era’ (‘Zlatni vek’) by Mojsije Georgijević published in 1842 in the ‘Illyrian’ magazine Ba?ka vila in Novi Sad (then in Hungary), which deals with a similar themes, uses a similar vocabulary and even a similar glass-shaped graphic format of a drinking song. It is interesting to note that Prešìern was a subscriber to this magazine (Paljetak 1982: 335).
2. Available at http://www.preseren.net/slo/3_poezije/13_zdravljica.asp (accessed on 4 August 2010).
3. This seventh stanza, is the current anthem of Slovenia.
4. The following is the officially recommended translation of the whole poem by Janko Lavrin found on the website of the Government of Slovenia. It is quite a free translation which seems to add words or phrases not found in the original.
A Toast
The vintage, friends, is over,
And here sweet wine makes, once again,
Sad eyes and hearts recover,
Puts fire into every vein.
Drowns dull care
Everywhere
And summons hope out of despair.
To whom with acclamation
And song shall we our first toast give?
God save our land and nation
And all Slovenes where'er they live,
Who own the same
Blood and name,
And who one glorious Mother claim.
Let thunder out of heaven
Strike down and smite our wanton foe!
Now, as it once had thriven,
May our dear realm in freedom grow.
May fall the last
Chains of the past
Which bind us still and hold us fast!
Let peace, glad conciliation,
Come back to us throughout the land!
Towards their destination
Let Slavs henceforth go hand-in-hand!
Thus again
Will honour reign
To justice pledged in our domain.
To you, our pride past measure,
Our girls! Your beauty, charm and grace!
There surely is no treasure
To equal maidens of such race.
Sons you'll bear,
Who will dare
Defy our foe no matter where.
Our hope now, our to-morrow –
The youths – we toast and toast with joy.
No poisonous blight or sorrow
Your love of homeland shall destroy.
With us indeed
You're called to heed
Its summons in this hour of need.
God's blessing on all nations,
Who long and work for that bright day,
When o'er earth's habitations
No war, no strife shall hold its sway;
Who long to see
That all men free
No more shall foes, but neighbours be.
At last to our reunion –
To us the toast! Let it resound,
Since in this gay communion
By thoughts of brotherhood we're bound
May joyful cheer
Ne'er disappear
From all good hearts now gathered here. (Translated by Janko Lavrin)
Available at http://www.vlada.si/en/about_slovenia/political_system/national_insignia (accessed 4 August 2010).
5. Krst na Savici, Uvod. Available at http://www.preseren.net/ang/3–1_poezije.asp, (accessed 17 July 2013). Translation by the authors.
6. One of the leading scholars of Prešìern, Boris Paternu, sees ‘Zdravljica’ as a ‘Slovene Marseillaise’ partly because of its occasional fighting tone directed against the enemies (Paternu 1977: 244). But in a more recent study another well-known scholar, Janko Kos, notes that in spite of the fighting tone ‘Zdravljica’ appears to belong to a quite different kind of poetry to the ‘Marseillaise’.
7. See comments by the anonymous author of ‘Zdravica ali Zdravljica’ on the website of the self-described nationalist and traditionalist association of societies Hervardi (Hervardi, no date). The site also reproduces several manuscript versions of ‘Zdravljica’ arguing that the current version does not correspond to the original intentions of its author.
8. Born in 1913 in Trieste in a Slovene family, Boris Pahor spent most of his life in the city teaching and writing in Slovene.
9. Janez Janšìa, who recently supported the changes in the text, was the Minister of Defence (1990–4) in the government that passed the Constitution of 1991 and the Law on the Anthem of 1994. As a Minister of Defence, he was also responsible for establishing ‘Forward the Flag of Slava/Glory’ as the anthem of the defence (later armed) forces of Slovenia.
10. This story about the composition of the anthem was possibly related by Davorin Jenko himself.
11. The poem was the first literary text translated from Slovenian into English. For the circumstances of the translation see Doborovoljec 1951.
12. The text and its translation comes from SPIN. No translator identified.
13. The anthemhood of the song was confirmed by the government Decree on the Insignia of the Slovenian Army, Article 6, promulgated in 1995 (Bric 2010: 27). See also http://flagspot.net/flags/si%5E.html (accessed 21 July 2013).
14. Translation by the authors.
15. A similar question faced the president and government of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) upon its establishment in 1949: how to choose an anthem that would present in an acceptable way the new Germany to those outside of Germany? The Nazis had used the first stanza of the nineteenth-century national song and later state anthem, Deutschlandlied or ‘Deutschland Über Alles’. For that reason the first president of the new Germany, Theodor Heuss, was very much against the use of this song. However, the first Chancellor, Konrad Adenauer argued that choosing only one stanza, which was not used by the Nazis, would be acceptable. The third stanza expresses universal as opposed to national values and this, he argued, would make the new Germany acceptable to its new friends and allies:
Unity and justice and freedom
For the German fatherland!
For these let us all strive
Brotherly with heart and hand!
Unity and justice and freedom
Are the pledge of fortune;
Flourish in this fortune's blessing,
Flourish, German fatherland!
Like the seventh stanza of ‘Zdravljica’ the third stanza of ‘Deutschlandlied’ sings of ‘brotherhood’ although here it is the brotherhood of Germans, not of all peoples. Despite the fact that it is decidedly not cosmopolitan, the third stanza does express the (allegedly) universally desired (and politically correct) values of unity, justice and freedom. Chancellor Adenauer's choice of the third stanza presented the renewed Germany to the international audiences in a positive way and, as a traditional national anthem, was widely accepted among the Germans (Eyck 1995: 175). In a similar way, ‘Zdravljica’ presented to the other states the new and soon-to-be-independent Slovenia as a friendly, convivial nation.
13. An earlier version of this chapter was published in the Nationalities Papers (2014).
Chapter 4 Praying for one's people: Serbia 1872
1. Like its Croatian counterpart (see Chapter 2), the Serbian law on anthems specifies on which occasions the anthem is to be performed. Unlike its Croatian counterpart, it allows, in Article 36, that the anthem be performed on ‘other occasions if its use is not contravening the law’. In Article 37, the law allows the performance ‘in exceptional circumstances’ of the first two stanzas only; the law offers no suggestions as to what the ‘exceptional circumstances’ may be. As with its Croatian counterpart (see Chapter 2), the law determines the penalties for the misuse of the flag and the coat of arms but does not set any penalty for a misuse of the anthem (Zakon 2009).
2. See also a later critical analysis of the anthem by the anti-nationalist writer Filip David (David 2008).
3. For an example, see the interview with a 49-year-old Bosniak citizen of Serbia in Golubović 2003: 347.
4. The title is sometimes translated as ‘God, give us justice’. However, the title is taken from the first two words of its first verse and these two words ‘Bo?e pravde’ are in the vocative case, indicating an invocation of the God of Justice. This vocative invocation could be translated as ‘Hail, God of Justice’. In view of this, ‘God, give us justice’ does not appear to be the correct translation.
5. ‘Srpski’ is here translated as ‘Serb’. The English word ‘Serbian’ (found in most translations of this song) refers to Serbia and is the correct translation of the adjective ‘srbijanski’. There is no reference to Serbia in this song.
6. ‘Hrani’ in Serbian.
7. ‘Rod’ is here translated as ‘people’. Its original meaning is ‘kin’.
8. This translation is available at http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~deutschzerne/Files/village2.html (accessed 26 October 2008).
9. This translation is available at http://www.hymn.ru/god-save-the-tsar-en.html (accessed 25 February 2009).
10. An interesting fourth term in the comparison would be Kolcsey's Hungarian anthem:
God, bless the Hungarian
With abundance, gladness,
Graciously protect him when
Faced with foes or sadness.
Bring for people torn by fate
Happy years and plenty;
Sins of future, sins of late,
Both are paid for amply. (Kunz 1955: 44–5)
Here the deity is exhorted to acknowledge the Christ-like suffering of a nation that has already paid for the sins it is yet to commit.
11. The contingent nature of reign is spelt out more explicitly in the rarely sung third stanza of ‘God save the King/Queen’:
Thy choicest gifts in store,
On her be pleased to pour;
Long may she reign:
May she defend our laws,
And ever give us cause,
To sing with heart and voice
God save the Queen.
(Scholes 1942: 2)
Here we see how the song covertly supports a Protestant succession and a constitutional monarchy by insisting that the individual singer has God's ear and that the sovereign reigns by virtue of popular support.
12. In February 2008, the Kosovo Albanian parliament declared the independence of the province of Kosovo (Kosovo and Metohija in Serbian terminology) from Serbia. At the time of writing in 2013, Serbia, Russia and China do not recognise its independence. The first declaration of independence by Kosovo Albanian parliament deputies was made in 1990; this was followed by an armed rebellion of Kosovo Albanians in 1998, the NATO bombing of Serbia and the replacement of the Serbian government in Kosovo by a UN administration in 1999. For a brief account of the war see Pavković 2000, 185–201. See also Chapter 8.
13. The Serbian text is available at http://www.czipm.org/stevovic%2002.html (accessed 20 August 2013). Translation by the authors.
14. Two stanzas are omitted here.
15. The translation is by Slobodan Cekić modified by the authors. The text and translation can be found at Serbo-Croation Poetry translations. Available at https://sites.google.com/site/projectgoethe/Home/jovan-jovanovic-zmaj/jututunska-narodna-himna (accessed 21 August 2013).
16. For a discussion of the mythical significance of this border see Goldstein 2005.
17. This was the poem that the Serbian writer and educationalist Dositej Obradović wrote in 1804 to celebrate the First Serbian Uprising in the same year.
18. The translation by Aleksandra Rebić accessed at http://www.heroesofserbia.com/2009/08/mars-na-drinu-march-on-drina.html, on 18 August 2013. The translation has been modified in a few places by the authors.
19. For a list of recordings in the world see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_on_the_Drina (accessed 20 August 2013).
Chapter 5 A love of mountains and mothers: Montenegro 1863(?)
1. The word ‘svjetao’ in the context of a dawn appears to mean ‘radiant’ rather than ‘bright’ as the word is usually translated in this verse. We shall depart from the usual translation and use ‘radiant’ throughout.
2. Milo Djukanović is probably the longest serving ex-Communist prime minister and head of state of all the former Communist states of Eastern Europe. Formerly a high ranking Communist official, he was the Prime Minister of Montenegro from 1991 to 98, President of Montenegro from 1998 to 2002, and then again Prime Minister from 2002 until the present (2013) with two ‘retirements’ in 2006 (15 months) and 2010 (22 months).
3. In 2003, the percentage of Serbs, according to the official census, stood at 31.99; at the same time the percentage of Montenegrins was 43.16 (the rest of the population were mainly Albanians and Muslim/Bosniaks) (Statistički godišnjak 2006: 44). The official censa in 1981 and 1991 gave significantly smaller numbers of Serbs, suggesting that as Montenegro moved closer to independence, a large number of its citizens changed their identification from Montenegrin to Serb possibly because, officially, Montenegrins were no longer considered to be a part of the Serb nation.
4. This is not, of course, the only example of a transformation of a romantic and unifying patriotic song into a separatist official anthem. The current Croatian state anthem ‘Our Beautiful Homeland’ is a result of a similar, although less obvious, transformation. Its original verses are found in the romantic national awaking poem ‘The Croat Homeland’ by the Croat poet Antun Mihanović. This poem was first published in 1835 in the journal of the Illyrian movement in Croatia, which strove to construct a single cultural space and literary language for Štokavian speakers, including Croats, Serbs and Montenegrins. Four stanzas of the 14 stanza poem were put to music, without the knowledge of its author, in the late 1840s and in the early twentieth century the song entitled ‘Our Beautiful Homeland’ became the national song and later anthem exclusive to the Croats (see Chapter 2).
5. In his tragedy Miloš Obilić written in Montenegro around 1827, but published in 1837. See Vujović 1998.
6. This was the poet who on behalf of the Serbian Ministry of Education in 1864–5 invited several well-known fellow-poets to write the first official Serbian anthem: see Chapter 4.
7. Radojević, 2011: 381.
8. The 2007 Constitution of Montenegro in Article 15 prohibits any union with another state that leads to a loss of the sovereignty (and thus independence).
9. Under Communist rule in the 1970s a grandiose mausoleum was built there for the cleric and statesman who died more than a hundred years earlier: originally, following his own wishes, Bishop Njegoš was buried in a small chapel on the same site.
10. The South Slav word ‘ubava’ is here usually translated as ‘beautiful’. However, the word in the present context does not have carry only aesthetic but also ethical and political connotations and thus ‘splendid’ appears to be more apposite.
11. This was not always the case. In 1993 all the lands to which ‘There, over there …’ refers to were at the time located in a single state, the newly established Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and the song could no longer be viewed only as a dream of, or an aspiration for, a Serb/Montenegrin state. Consequently, in the discussion over the selection of the Montenegrin anthem in the National Assembly, ‘There, over there …’ was considered the best candidate. However, the political parties at the time could not agree on that or any other choice and Montenegro was then left without an anthem of its own. (Markuš 2007: 91).
12. The English translation from the Citenzdia.org website, has been changed in order to preserve more of a literal translation of the text. See http://www.citizendia.org/Oj,_svijetla_majska_zoro (accessed 29 June 2013).
13. The deputy president of the Serb People's Party Goran Danilović explaining why his party voted against the Law on the state symbols (RSE 2004).
14. As Borislav Cimeša (2011) noted: ‘The work of Sekula [Drljević] and his opus are an example and the message which says that for the purposes of Montenegrin state, people's, national and physical survival, one should fight for one's state of Montenegro and one's own Montenegrin people and nation and that this fight is in this sense always historically justified’ (italics added, translation by the authors).
Chapter 6 A fight for rights: Macedonia 1941
1. The issue of the flag design was resolved in 1995 when the Macedonian Assembly adopted a new design that still had a representation of the sun and its rays but did not resemble the Vergina Star. In return, the Greek government lifted the economic blockade of Macedonia and signed an interim accord with the Macedonian government (Rossos 2008: 272).
2. The Greek government appeared to be here following the Ancient Roman legal motto ‘nomina sunt consequentia rerum’, arguing that there is only one thing that the word ‘Macedonia’ can refer to and that is the Greek province of Macedonia.
3. From the website of the President of the Republic. Available at http://www.president.gov.mk/mk/za-makedonija/2011–07–08–08–04–15.html (accessed 2 September 2013).
4. The above, official, translation of the song translates ‘slobodna’ as ‘liberated’ and ‘slobodno’ as ‘in liberty’. These words could be more simply translated as ‘free’ so that the last two couple of verses would read as ‘Free Macedonia, lives free’.
5. Below is the song in the Macedonian standard, not in its Bulgarian original:
Изгреј зора на слободата
Изгреј зора на слободата
Зора на вечната борба
Изгреј во душите и во срцата
На сите робови по светот!
Тирани чудо ќе направиме
Ние туѓо ропство не трпиме
Со јуначка крв ќе ве удавиме
И пак ќе се ослободиме!
Јунаци смели пак развија
Окрвавени знамиња
Комити нови зашетаа
Низ македонската земја!
Тирани чудо ќе направиме
Ние туѓо ропство не трпиме
Со јуначка крв ќе ве удавиме
И пак ќе се ослободиме!
Ечат шуми, полиња, планини
Од бојни песни и Ура
Одат борците – великани
Напред, готови за борба!
Тирани чудо ќе направиме
ние туѓо ропство не трпиме
со јуначка крв ќе ве удавиме
и пак ќе се ослободиме!!
Нас ништо веќе не ќе не исплаши
И така живееме ден за ден
Свети се горите наши
Во нив слободни ќе умреме!
Тирани чудо ќе направиме
ние туѓо ропство не трпиме
со јуначка крв ќе ве удавиме
и пак ќе се ослободиме!
Available at http://www.macedoniantruth.org/forum/showthread.php?t=3395&page=2 (accessed 20 August 2013).
6. See the current VMRO in Bulgaria website. Available at http://www.vmro.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=30&Itemid=31 (accessed 2 March 2012).
7. ‘Sidari’ means ‘builders’ but it also refers to free masons. Some of the founders of the Kruševo Republic were allegedly free masons.
8. The Macedonian original is taken from Nova Macedonija 2011a. The translation is based on an official translation of the current anthem (see above) with the additional verses translated by the authors.
9. There is a fair bit of historical controversy as to whether the organisation was originally known as the Bulgarian Secret Macedonian Adrianople Revolutionary Organisation. The Macedonian sources, in particular Makedonska Enciklopedija 2009, use the SMARO appellation (in Macedonian).
10. For an account of the Ilinden uprising and its contemporary significance see Rossos 2008: 105–13. For more detailed biographical sketches see the Makedonska Enciklopedija 2009.
11. Zapisnik 1992. Apart from the ‘Today over ‘Macedonia', the other two candidates considered by the Committee were ‘The Anthem’ (‘Himna’) by Taki Hrisik and ‘That You Should be Eternal’ (‘Da ni bideš večna’) by Aleksandar Džambazov. The texts of these candidate anthems have not been published but one can safely assume that both were composed after 1941 and were thus much younger than ‘Today over Macedonia’. We are grateful to Boško Stankovski for providing us with this copy of the minutes of the Committee for the Constitutional Questions of the Assembly of the Republic of Macedonia kept in the Archives of the Assembly.
12. We are grateful to Mr Trajanovski for making available to us the manuscript of his highly informative and perceptive analysis of the process through which the Macedonian anthem was introduced and politically justified. For a different and shorter version of his work see also Trajanovski 2009.
13. Robert Badinter, a former judge of the French Constitutional Court, presided over the EC Abritration Commission on Yugoslavia and was involved in the drafting of the Ohrid Framework Agreement (August 2001), which ended a brief but violent conflict between ethnic Albanian insurgent groups and the Macedonian government. The agreement between the ethnic Albanian representatives and the Macedonian government envisages all decisions over ‘ethnically sensitive’ matters such as the anthem to be reached by majorities of the representatives of the groups who are not ethnic Macedonians and who do not form a majority in Macedonia.
Chapter 7 To sing or not to sing? Anthems and anti-anthems: Bosnia and Herzegovina 1995/99
1. Coincidentally, Carlos Westendrop y Cabeza, who gave Bosnia and Herzegovina the lyrics-free anthem, is a former foreign minister of Spain.
2. Alejandro Blanco, the president of the Spanish Olympic Committee, commenting on the reasons for his withdrawal of the proposal of the lyrics. From the New York Times online edition. Available at http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/18/world/europe/18briefs-anthem.html?ref=world (accessed 7 July 2013).
3. Whose religious background is, respectively, Eastern Orthodox Christianity, Roman Catholicism and Islam.
4. Three of them came from Slav backgrounds, speaking the local language(s) of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
5. These figures come from the ICTY Demographic team investigations. See Zwierzcjpwski and Tabeau 2010. Some Bosniak party leaders and journalists believe the estimated death toll to be too low but they have failed to offer any data, matching those of the ICTY, in support of higher estimates.
6. The attitudes of these three national groups towards the flag and coat of arms also introduced by the High Representative were very similar to the attitudes towards the anthem (Kostić 2008: 309). This shows the non-acceptance of the Bosnian Serb and Bosnian Croat populations not only of the state anthem but of all the state symbols of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
7. For the comparison see Himna Djon 2009.
8. Dusan Šestić is a Bosnian Serb composer and choirmaster from Banja Luka, the administrative capital of Republika Srpska. Prior to settling in Banja Luka, in the Communist-ruled Yugoslavia, he was a member of the Yugoslav People's Army Orchestra in Beograd, Serbia.
9. Translation by the authors.
10. Examples of such anthems include those of Bulgaria, Bangladesh, Egypt, Sri Lanka and Brazil.
11. The third secessionist state, the Croat-controlled Herzeg-Bosna, on the territory of Herzegovina, which seceded from Bosnia and Herzegovina also in 1992 did not have its own anthem. The Croatian ‘Our Beautiful Homeland’ appears to have been in use instead. Herceg-Bosna was reincorporated in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1994 (Pavković 2000: 159, 174).
12. Translation of the title by the authors. The song continues: ‘All the pain of the world is in Bosnia tonight, I will stay in spite of the pain’.
13. Available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jedna_si_jedina (accessed 25 April 2011).
14. Translation by the authors.
15. Sava is a river forming the northern border of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Croatia. It also flows through Serbia.
16. Drina is a river forming most of the eastern border of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Serbia.
17. Una is a river in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is a tributary to Sava.
18. As already mentioned, the 2005 survey found that 93 per cent of Bosnian Serbs felt that this anthem best expresses their feelings towards their homeland.
19. Dušan Šestić, the author of the ‘Intermezzo’ and one of the authors of its proposed text, also entered this competition and his proposal came a close second.
20. Translation from the National Anthems forum by anonymous ‘avtandil’. Available at http://www.nationalanthems.us/forum/YaBB.pl?num=1217183554/0 (accessed 11 July 2013). The translation was modified by the authors to make it more literal.
21. ‘Republika Srpska is today a parliamentary republic with limited international subjectivity. Hence she realises some of her interests through the mediation of common state organs on the level of Bosnia and Herzegovina as an internationally recognised state’. Translation by the authors. (Republika Srpska geografija 2013).
22. We are grateful to Merima Dizdarević for her assistance in researching and writing this section.
23. Available at http://www.efm.ba (online streaming).
24. Available at http://www.pro.ba/en/dogodilo-se-na-danasnji-dan/ (accessed 26 April 2011).
25. Available at http://www.sarajevo-x.com/kultura/clanak/081024072 (accessed 26 April 2011).
26. Available at http://www.sarajevo-x.com/showtime/muzika/clanak/041201011. Audio available for download (accessed 26 April 2011).
27. Translation by the authors.
28. Kulin was ruler of Bosnia from about 1180–1204 as ban (vassal or viceroy) first of the Byzantine Empire and then of the Kingdom of Hungary.
29. Available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pEdOXNH2n1k (accessed 29 April 2011).
30. Dosta! aims to promote accountability and government responsibility to the people, and to spark civic participation of all Bosnian citizens, no matter what religious or ethnic group. With several hundred people from 15 cities around the country involved in non-violent actions, this grassroots movement has established itself as a visible actor in Bosnia's civil society. See http://www.nonviolent-conflict.org/index.php/learning-and-resources/on-the-ground/1139-darko-brkan (accessed 30 April 2011).
31. Several concerts attended by Christopher Kelen.
32. The poem ‘An die Freude’ (To Joy) was written by Friedrich Schiller in 1785 as a ‘celebration of the brotherhood of man’. The poem was later used for the choral movement of Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 in D minor. Officially the European anthem does not have any lyrics. However, it is still sometimes performed with the original lyrics in German (Rudolf 2001: 267–8).
The state symbols of Bosnia and Herzegovina are strongly influenced by the EU. The flag, including the colours yellow and blue, the yellow part being a right angle triangle (isosceles) in the middle of the blue, suggest a map of the country and its three constituent peoples. The flag is embellished with seven full five-pointed (white) stars and two half stars on the top and bottom along the hypotenuse, reminiscent of the circle of stars on the EU flag. In Bosnia and Herzegovina a standing joke is that the flag motif was taken from the ‘Ikar’ can that supposedly contained beef and was received as humanitarian help during the war. A monument of the can, the work of artist Nebojša Šerić-Shoba, was raised in Sarajevo in 2007 with the inscription: ‘The Monument to the International Community’ from the ‘Grateful Citizens of Sarajevo’. This satirical kind of work is of a piece with the anthem parodies discussed above, as many Bosnians criticised the international community for sending this sort of dubious humanitarian help (no expiration date shown) while letting the war drag on until 1995.
33. Brčko district – a neutral, self-governing administrative unit, under the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Formally a part of both entities of Bosna and Herzegovina.
34. Orašje, Neum, Olovo, Teslić, Kaknj, Prnjavor, Vakuf, Trebinje – cities/towns in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Chapter 8 Wishing to be one with Europe: Kosovo 2008
1. It proved impossible for us to find an authoritative text of this anthem either in Albanian or in English translation.
2. For a discussion of conflicting historical accounts or myths about Kosovo, see Pavković 2001 and Kostoviceva 2005.
3. See Nettl 1952: 185 for a story of how the authorities of Costa Rica in 1953 had to quickly find a national anthem to welcome UK and US dignitaries and for that purpose detained the foremost practising musician until he ‘produced’ a suitable anthem (See Introduction).
4. For an account of the war and its results see Judah 2008 and Kubo 2011. The NATO bombing of Serbia in 1999, carried out without UN Security Council approval, was (and still is) highly controversial. For a discussion of this operation and of the issues raised in this controversy see Waller et al. 2001 and Jokic 2003.
5. And, reportedly, showing their disapproval of the official Kosovo anthem by whistling when it is played during football matches (BBC 2010).
Epilogue: What do these anthems tell us?
1. The lyrics of old Yugoslav anthem ‘Hey Slavs’ fails to convey either of the two. The context and the habitus of its singing make it clear that the singers are citizens of Yugoslavia and not any other Slav country.