INDEX

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Abbaye prison, 182, 192

Act of Tolerance for Protestants (France), 433

Adeo nota (Pius VI), 432

Alexander I (Tsar of Russia), 236, 581, 588

Alexander III (Tsar of Russia), 236

Alexeev, Mikhail, 251, 252

“Allocution on the Death of Louis XVI” (Pius VI), 43435

American Revolution (1776), 2627, 11415. See also United States

Anglo-Russian Trade Treaty (1921), 621

anti-Jewish pogroms (Russia), 290, 311, 383, 505, 51325. See also Jews

anti-philosphes. See counterrevolution

anti-Protestantism: conspiracy myths and, 48586; counterrevolutionaries and, 49091. See also Protestants

anti-revolution, 7, 5859. See also counterrevolution

anti-Semitism: Bolshevik silence on, 52325; during Ukraine rebellion, 51526; Lenin’s criticism of, 512, 524; religious dimension of, 48687; Russian, 63, 65, 290, 311, 383, 464, 485, 5028. See also Jews

Anti-Soviet Trotskyite Center, 65455

Antonov, Alexander, 389, 390

Antonov-Ovseenko, Vladimir, 252, 393

Arendt, Hannah, 3, 4, 9, 16, 23, 24, 31, 37, 4041, 73, 8384, 98, 11215

Aristotle, 130

d’Artois, Comte, 48, 187, 549, 553, 591, 593, 596. See also Charles X (France)

Aulard, Alphonse, 15455, 156, 157, 438

Auschwitz, 34648. See also anti-Semitism

Austria: battle of Leipzig and, 580; French victories over, 574; war between France and, 197, 55354, 564

authority: force element of, 7475; Weber’s construction of, 80. See also sovereignty

Avignon prison massacre (1791), 502

Bacon, Francis, 132

Barère de Vieuzac, Bertrand, 197, 33334, 354

Barruel, Abbé Augustin, 61

Bastille (1789), 48, 85, 94

Becker, Carl, 145

Beilis affair (1911–13), 65, 483, 485, 507

Benedict XIV, Pope, 435

Berdyaev, Nicolas, 145, 162

Bernis, Cardinal François-Joachim de Pierre de, 426, 433

Berry, Duc de, 592

Bertier de Sauvigny, L.-B.-F., 85

Bibliothèque Nationale (Paris), 45

Bignon commission (Vendée rebellion), 34445

Billaud-Varenne, Jean Nicolas, 105, 1078, 198, 338

Blanc, Louis, 183, 218

Bloch, Ernst, 135

Bloch, Marc, 25

Blücher, Gebhard Lehrecht von, 580, 586

Blue Terror. See Red Terror (France)

Bodin, Jean, 99

Boky, Gleb, 281

Bolsheviks: Brest-Litovsk pressed by, 270; civil war legacy to, 4056; collaboration/break with Makhnovites, 382, 385, 386; compared to Jacobins, 231; comparison of French terror to, 65153; foreign intervention fought by, 11, 26364; international isolation of, 1213, 32, 34, 66, 61314; Jews among, 50913; Kronstadt revolt and, 398403; Orthodox Church relations with, 46178; peasantry and the, 5859, 374, 37576, 404; politics religionized by, 14445; provisional government set up by, 24547; resistance to, 49, 50; response to attempt on Lenin’s life, 27882; response to sovereignty collapse by, 28284; revolutionary goals of the, 29; Russia’s prison/exile literature and, 239; Samara government challenge to, 265; silence regarding anti-Semitism, 52325; social base during 1917 election of, 24748; sovereignty breakdown and rise of, 36, 49; split between Socialist Revolutionaries and, 27072; Stalin purges of, 64546; torn between domestic/international affairs, 3024; violence justified/used by, 45, 23334, 25359. See also Russian civil war

Bonaparte, Joseph, 576

Bordeaux rebellion, 205

Bouillé, François-Claude-Amour de, 172, 54849

Brest-Litovsk Treaty (Soviet Russia), 10, 79, 25964, 270. See also World War I

Brissot, Jacques Pierre, 88, 177, 197, 525, 54344, 56061

Brunswick Manifesto (1792), 121, 172, 173, 175, 183, 553, 55557

Bukharin, Nikolai Ivanovich, 260, 615, 618, 619, 629, 634, 654, 655, 65960

Burckhardt, Jacob, 6, 38, 48, 107, 219

“Burial of the Martyrs” (Russia), 458, 460

Burke, Edmund, 9, 16, 31, 37, 39, 53, 54, 55, 56, 59, 61, 75, 12021, 14647, 172, 43637

Calas Affair of 1761 (France), 6061, 65, 483

Callot, Jacques, 578

Calonne, Charles Alexandre de, 48

Cambon, Pierre Joseph, 198

Capet, Louis. See Louis XVI (King of France)

Carnot, Lazare, 191, 585

Carrier, Jean-Baptiste, 103, 207, 21314, 34045, 35152, 362, 363

Castlereagh, Viscount Robert, 582

Castre, Sabrier de, 61

Catholics: hostility between Protestants and, 49093; Montauban religious conflict and, 49396; Nîmes religious conflict and, 496500. See also Gallican Catholic Church; religious conflict (France)

Chair of the History of the French Revolution (Sorbonne), 15354

Chalier, Joseph, 200, 201, 202

Champ de Mars demonstration (1791), 17374

charismatic rule, 80

Charitas (Pius VI), 431, 432

Charles IV (Spain), 576

Charles X (France), 59697. See also d’Artois, Comte

Chateaubriand, François Rene de, 5, 13

the Cheka: civil war mission/organization of, 234235, 256257; concentration camps organized by, 29598; criminal/political control by, 23536; purged of Socialist Revolutionaries, 272; terror carried out by, 274, 28082, 29398. See also Bolsheviks; Siberian exile system

Chénier, Marie-Joseph, 193

Chernov, Victor, 249

Chicherin, Georgy, 302, 622, 62324

Christian Scriptures, 12930

Church of the Cordeliers, 494, 501

Churchill, Winston, 136, 286, 620, 680, 683, 693

church-state relations. See state-religion separation (France); state-religion relations (Russia)

Civil Constitution of the Clergy (France), 42022, 428, 43031, 434, 43536

civil society: breakdown of post-revolutionary Russian, 60911; Calas Affair significance to, 6061; French Revolution goal of new, 3841; persistence of violence in, 7173; religion permeated in French/Russian, 14143; revolution and breakdown of, 3538; vengeance behavior in, 127; violence and restructuring of, 7578. See also political society

civil war: American, 114; anti-revolution epicenter of, 7; ending of, 34950; foreign war vs., 56, 75; as revolutionary agent, 45; revolution vs., 26; violence of, 323. See also Russian civil war; Vendée rebellion of 1793 (France)

Clausewitz, Carl von, 323, 534, 539

Clément, Jean-Marie-Bernard, 61

clergy. See Gallican Catholic clergy; Russian Orthodox Church clergy

Code Napoléon, 540, 569

Cold War (first), 622

Cold War (second), 67576, 67982, 68790. See also Soviet Union

Collenot d’Angremont, Louis-David, 175

Committee of Public Safety (France): establishment of, 191; response to Lyons rebellion by, 198, 200, 201; Vendée investigation by, 35859; Vendée rebellion instructions by, 33637, 354, 360; Vendée rhetoric of, 33940

Committee for the Struggle Against the Counterrevolution (Soviet Russia), 244

Commune of March–May 1871 (France), 1089, 34850

Communism, 112. See also Bolsheviks

concentration camp history, 23940. See also Siberian exile system

Concordat of 1801 (France), 57273

Condorcet, Marie-Jean-Antoine-Nicolas, 88, 174, 18081, 213, 457

Congress of the Peoples of the East of 1920 (Soviet Russia), 32

conservatism: counterrevolution and, 5152; in French Revolution, 5355; violence of, 7578

Constant, Benjamin, 585

Constituent Assembly of 1918 (Russia), 24849, 277, 287

Constitutional Church (France), 43641, 551. See also Gallican Catholic Church

Convention Against Torture (1984), 89n. 6

Corcyra (Corfu) [Peloponnesian War], 5, 7, 75, 130

Corday, Charlotte, 19192, 224n. 91, 278

Cossack forces, 252, 262, 264. See also Russian civil war

Cossack funeral (1917), 45860

Counter-Enlightenment, 7, 46, 6162

counterrevolution: in French Revolution, 5363; anti-revolution and, 7, 5759; conservative element of, 5155; ideology of, 5253; reactive nature of, 5051; revolution link to, 67, 4546, 5758; of Russian civil war, 6367, 279; Schmitt gravitation toward, 8081; violence/terror and, 12021; word-concept of, 4647. See also Russian civil war; Vendée rebellion of 1793 (France)

coup d’état of Brumaire, 56869, 570. See also Napoleon Bonaparte

Couthon, Aristide, 201, 202

Croce, Benedetto, 25

Cult of Reason (France), 154, 155, 158, 44243

Cult of Supreme Being (France), 154, 155, 158, 44244

Czech Legion revolt, 28384

Czechoslovakia, 685, 687

Danton, Georges Jacques, 174, 177, 180, 181, 190, 196, 542

David, Jacques-Louis, 193, 19495, 443

The Death of Marat (painting by David), 195

de-Christianization (France), 43641

Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, 15, 27, 31, 54; intelligentsia support of, 94; papal denouncement of, 428, 430, 432, 492; popular violence and issue of, 8586, 116; religious freedom included in, 419, 491; as Revolution’s catechism, 156, 158

Declaration of the Rights of the Toiling and Exploited People of 1918 (Soviet Russia), 32

Decree on Peace of 1917 (Soviet Russia), 32

Decree on Red Terror of 1918 (Soviet Russia), 11, 280, 284, 293, 296. See also Red Terror (Soviet Russia)

Decree on the Separation of Church and State (Soviet Russia), 46364

Decree on Land of 1917 (Soviet Russia), 32

Delessard, Jean-Marie Antoine, 197

Democratic Party (Germany), 78

Denikin, Anton Ivanovich, 266, 267, 285, 289, 291, 29293, 294, 298, 299, 52021

Diderot, Denis, 60, 61, 62

Disasters of War (etchings by Goya), 578

Dmowski, Roman, 300

Dolchstoss legend (Germany), 81

Dostoevsky, Feodor Mikhalovich, 65, 238

Dreyfus Affair, 60, 65, 503

Dubois-Crancé, General, 201

Dukhonin, N. N., 251

Dulles, John Foster, 67778

Dumouriez, Charles-François, 189, 191, 559

Duport, Adrien J.-F., 31

Durkheim, Emile, 156

Dzerzhinsky, Felix, 235, 256, 278, 294, 295, 296, 393, 641

Eastern Europe, 67982, 68788. See also Soviet Union

Ebert, Friedrich, 79

Edict of Nantes of 1685 (France), 104

Edict of Nantes revocation, 106

Edict of Toleration (France), 48788, 491

Edict of Toleration (Russia), 45556

émigrés (French): Brunswick Manifesto and, 17273; confiscated properties indemnified to, 596; fear of vengeance by, 121; return to France of, 211. See also Vendée rebellion of 1793 (France)

Engels, Friedrich, 11, 30, 31, 54, 77, 78, 98, 232, 541

England: aid to White Guards by, 28586; General Strike (1926) in, 623; and Napoleonic wars, 574, 576, 577; Soviet Union relations with, 67980, 683. See also international politics

the Enlightenment: anticlericalism within, 5961, 6263; and Counter-Enlightenment, 7; peasants closed to, 62; pre-revolutionary influence of, 1415, 27; sensitivity to minorities by, 48384

Estates-General of 1789 (France): radical recasting of, 48; reform expectations of, 27; religious ceremony opening, 41517

“Exposition of Principles” of 1790 (French episcopate), 429

Extraordinary Criminal Tribunal. See Revolutionary Tribunal (France)

Ezhov, Nikolai, 649, 653, 654, 655, 656, 657, 658

Fascism, 46, 67, 112, 650, 673. See also Nazi Germany

Favras, Marquis de, 48

Federalist rebellion of 1793 (France), 30, 50

Ferdinand VII (Spain), 576, 578, 588, 593

Ferrand, Count Antoine François Claude, 187

Festival of Reason (France), 442

Feuerbach, Ludwig, 143, 160

Fifth All-Russian Congress of Soviets (1918), 271, 273

Firestone Library (Princeton University), 45

First All-Russian Congress of Workers and Soldiers Deputies, 243

Five-Year Plan (first), Soviet Union, 13, 614, 618, 626, 627, 62930, 631

Five-Year Plan (second), Soviet Union, 63031

Flesselles, Jacques de, 85

flight to Varennes (1791), 171, 173, 424, 54751

Foch, Ferdinand, 286, 620

force, 74. See also violence

foreign war: civil war vs., 56, 75; following French Revolution, 34, 189, 197, 53638; Girondins on, 19798, 53637, 543, 55152; as revolutionary agent, 45, 3233, 53336; Russian Provisional Government use of, 229. See also French Republic wars; international politics; Napoleonic wars

Fouché, Joseph, 202, 203, 207

Foullon de Doué, Joseph-François, 85

foundation myths, 71, 7576

foundation violence, 7578

Francastel, Marie-Pierre-Adrien, 343, 352, 357, 35859

France (restoration): Bourbon restoration, 58184, 59596; costs of second restoration, 58891; intervention in Spain by, 594; monarchists/ultraroyalists struggle in, 59294; Napoleon’s Hundred Days in, 58486; second restoration of Louis XVIII, 58687; Treaty of Paris (May, 1814) and, 583; Treaty of Paris (November, 1814) and, 587. See also French Republic

France (pre-revolutionary): compared to Russia (1917), 227, 229; conditions in, 7, 1415; monarchy/Church alliance in, 41418; penal system of, 106, 1089; religious permeation of society in, 14143; religious tolerance granted in, 419, 48889, 491; rural/peasant population of, 413; Russian geography compared to, 371, 373. See also French Republic

Francis II (Austria), 552, 579, 581

Frederick William II (Prussia), 546

Frederick William III (Prussia), 575, 579, 581

French Republic: Concordat with Catholic Church and, 57273; Constitutional Church and, 43641; deteriorating conditions of, 19597; prison massacres of 1792 in, 118, 17879, 18081, 18284, 190; rebellions against, 200205; republican calendar adopted, 43839; revolutionary tribunal established in, 18991; search for secular religion by, 4415; Vendée legacy to, 35963; Vendée rebellion against, 30, 50, 64, 155, 2059; White Terror prison massacres of, 213. See also France (restoration); France (pre-revolutionary); the Terror of 1789–95

French Republic wars: declared against Austria and Prussia, 197, 55354; declared against Great Britain, Spain, and Holland, 189, 561; Jacobin resurgence following, 56568. See also foreign war; Napoleonic wars

French Revolution (1792–94): American Revolution compared to, 11415; as attack on religion, 56, 14953, 43641, 44445; Brunswick Manifesto on, 103, 121, 172, 173, 175, 183, 553, 55557; comparative analysis of Russian and, 1416; comparison of Russian terror to, 65153; counterrevolution in, 5363; de-Christianization drive of, 43641; externalization of, 55861, 59799; foreign war following, 34, 189, 197, 53638; growing incidence of violence in, 8486; international response to, 1012, 54253; model for Russian Revolution, 2830, 232, 249; nature of revolution in, 2728; new society as goal of, 3841; papal response to, 42636; philosophes used to legitimize, 910, 2728; Protestant supporters of the, 48990; rural anti-revolution in, 5859; sovereignty breakdown during, 36, 37, 4849; state-church conflict in, 23, 14649, 15459, 41836; successive governments’ expansion of, 1112; thematic/theoretic construction of, 17; Vendée rebellion’s significance to, 361; war as radicalizing agent of, 4. See also the Terror of 1789–95 (French Revolution); Vendée rebellion of 1793 (France)

Fréron, Elie, 61

Fréron, Louis-Stanislas, 178

Freud, Sigmund, 144

friend-enemy disjunction: between Bolshevism and Orthodoxy, 468; Catholic-Protestant, 49192; de-Christianization stimulus for, 43940; in French Revolution, 328; French war fever and, 54445; revolution-Church relations and, 426; Rome break with French Revolution and, 43334; in Russian Revolution, 231, 276, 305, 309

Frunze, Michael Vasilev, 306, 386

Gallican Catholic Church: alliance between monarchy and, 41418; Civil Constitution of the Clergy and, 42022, 428, 43031, 434, 43536; Enlightenment questioning of, 27; influence of, 8, 41314; mass drownings of Vendean clergy, 346; Napoleon’s reconciliation with, 57273; philosophes’ conflict with, 60, 6263, 14853; property and clergy of, 414; revolutionary reform of, 41836; revolutionary seizure of property of, 43839; revolutionary wounds of the, 59495; schism within, 43641; terror used by, 100; tradition of vengeance and, 12930. See also Catholics; religious conflict (France); state-religion separation (France)

Gallican Catholic clergy: alliance with restoration government by, 59596; reform movement within, 41718; response to Civil Constitution by, 42122, 428, 43031, 434, 43536; revolutionary oath decree and, 171, 178, 42226

Gamon, François, 214

Garat, Dominique, 8889

Gewalt (force, violence), 77, 79

Geyl, Peter, 538

Girondins (France): concern with foreign affairs, 19798, 53637, 543, 55152, 56061; exile rejected by, 107; on execution of king, 187, 188; on revolutionary tribunal, 189; violence approved by, 118

Glorious Revolution of 1688 (England), 26

Gobel, Jean-Baptiste, 439, 442

Goddess of Reason (France), 442

Goldeschekin, Philip, 27576

Goremykin, I. L., 455

Gorky, Maxim, 258, 511

Gosplan, 613, 619, 629, 658

Gossec, François, 193

Goya y Lucientes, Francisco Jose de, 578

Grand Alliance of 1941–45, 1213

Graves, William, 290

Great Depression (1930s), 627, 678

great-man logic, 97

Great Terror (Soviet Union), 1314, 64048, 65764

Green Army (Tambov uprising), 39293

Green Terror (Makhnovites), 38788, 403

Green Terror (Tambov uprising), 393, 39698, 405

Grégoire, Abbé, 439

Grigorev, Nikifor, 381, 38283, 389, 51718

Guchkov, A. I., 242

guillotine ritual, 1068

Guizot, François, 569, 591, 592

the Gulag, 64044. See also Siberian exile system

The Gulag Archipelago (Solzhenitsyn), 238

Guyomar, Pierre-Marie-Augustin, 197

Hamlet (Shakespeare), 131

Haxo, General, 342, 343, 348, 360

The Heavenly City of the Eighteenth-Century Philosophers (Becker), 145

Hébert, Jacques-René, 192, 197, 441

Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 31, 40, 94, 133

Heidegger, Martin, 81

Hentz, Nicholas-Joseph, 354, 357, 35859

d’Herbois, Collot, 202, 203, 207

Hitler, Adolf, 136, 538, 607, 646, 649, 650, 665, 666, 66768

Hobbes, Thomas, 16, 73, 74, 7677, 79, 81

Hoche, Lazare-Louis, 363

Holland, 189, 536, 561

Holy Alliance of the Throne and the Altar, 58788, 59394, 69192

Huché, General, 355, 356

Hugo, Victor, 62

Humanism and Terror: An Essay on the Communist Problem (Merleau-Ponty), 110

ideology: of counterrevolution, 5253; defining characteristics of, 3435; of revolutionary attacks on religion, 44445; revolutionary role of, 910, 2324, 34, 35; in Russian civil war, 3089; of Soviet Cold Wars, 67577, 69293; terror as linked to, 96, 98, 113, 119; of Vendée rebellion, 36667; violence justified by Manichaean, 45

Industrial Party trial (1930), 6456

international politics: Bolshevik isolation, 1213, 32, 34, 66, 61314; Brunswick Manifesto (1792) and, 121, 172, 173, 175, 183, 553, 55557; flight to Varennes and, 54851; French monarchist/ultra-royalist strife and, 59394; Holy Alliance role in, 58788, 59394, 69192; prior to World War II, 64950; response to Nazi-Soviet Pact, 66869; response to Soviet Eastern European policies, 68182; Soviet isolation in, 61314, 69395. See also foreign war; Napoleonic wars; World War II

Isnard, Henri Maximin, 214

Iudenich, Nikolai, 23132, 268, 285, 298, 299

Ivan IV, the Terrible (Tsar of Russia), 236, 617

Jacobins (France): compared to Bolsheviks, 231; control in Lyons by, 200201; de ported under Napoleon, 673; “Gospel of Liberty” by, 443; move to enshrine Marat by, 192; peasantry and, 5859; politics religionized by, 14445, 153; revolutionary role of ideology by, 9, 45; sovereignty breakdown and rise of, 36; terror as enforcement by, 1034, 1056, 196, 199; Vendée rebellion role of, 2067, 36768; as zealots, 561. See also French Revolution (1792–94); Red Terror (France)

Jalès movement (France), 500501

Jaurès, Jean, 24, 159

Jefferson, Thomas, 94

Jewish Scriptures, 12830

Jews: anti-Semitism against Russian, 63, 65, 290, 311, 383, 464, 48586, 5029, 51314; Bolshevik party membership by, 50913; Pale of Settlement and Russian, 504, 505, 508, 509; pogroms in Ukraine, 51326; Russian pogroms against, 290, 311, 383, 505; status of Russian, 5025

Journal de Lyon, 215

Judeo-Christian vengeance tradition, 12830

Kadet Party (Russia), 2412, 2434, 247, 248, 252, 253, 256

Kagarlitsky, Boris, 95

Kaledin, A. M., 252, 253

Kalmykov, Ivan, 289

Kamenev, Lev, 471, 510, 647, 653, 654

Kannegiser, Leonid Akimovich, 278, 281

Kant, Immanuel, 71, 94

Kaplan, Fania, 278, 281

Kellermann, François Christopher, 201

Kennan, George F., 677, 688, 694

Kerensky, Alexander, 49, 79, 229, 24243, 245, 257, 374, 459, 460

Khrapovitsky, Antony, Bishop of Kharkov, 460

Kirov, Sergei, 646, 647, 648, 653

Kleber, Jean-Baptiste, 351, 352, 360

Kolchak, Alaksandr Vasiliyovich, 26465, 266, 285, 287, 28891, 292

Kornilov, Lavr Georgiyevich, 50, 229, 243, 244, 251, 252, 253, 257, 262, 460

Krasikov, P. A., 467

Krasnitsky, Vladimir, 472, 474

Krasnov, Peter N., 245, 251, 252

Krestinsky, Nikolai, 65960

Krivoshein, A. V., 305

Kronstadt rising (Soviet Russia), 398403

Lafayette, Marquis de, 173, 542

Lamballe, Madame de, 179, 183

Laporte, Armand, 175

La Roche-Aymon, Cardinal de, 414, 415

Latsis, M. I., 277, 280

Launay, Marquis de, 85

Law of the Maximum (France), 365, 438

Law of Suspects of 1793 (France), 11, 197, 337, 365, 438

Lebas, François-Joseph, 198

Left Opposition (Soviet Union), 634

Legislative Assembly (France): establishment of, 116; interim executive council formed by, 176; loyalty oath decree by, 171, 178, 42226; papal response to actions of, 42736; prison massacres and, 180; religious tolerance granted by, 48889; state-church re forms by, 418, 421; tribunal instituted by, 17475

Leipzig battle (1813), 580

Lenin, Vladimir Ilich, 40, 50, 58; Brest-Litovsk treaty support by, 26061; civil war urged by, 232, 245; compulsory labor supported by, 283, 297, 298; head of provisional government, 245; on Jewish revolutionaries, 507; on Jewish disabilities, 503; outlaws Kadet party, 253; on peasantry, 37475; religion/Church policies of, 16061, 163, 467, 468, 47072, 477; reprisals for attempt on life of, 27782; revolutionary violence supported by, 255, 258, 271, 275, 277, 402; speaks against anti-Semitism, 512, 524

Leopold II (Austria), 546, 552

Lepeletier de Saint-Fargeau, Michel, 194

levée en masse decree (France), 11

Liebknecht, Karl, 80

Linguet, Simon-Nicolas-Henri, 61

Litvinov, Maxim, 650

Living Church (Soviet Russia), 47376, 47778. See also Russian Orthodox Church

Lloyd George, David, 620

Loménie de Brienne, Cardinal Etienne-Charles de, 42930, 43334

Louis XI (France), 104

Louis XIV (France), 104

Louis XVI (France): alliance between Church and, 41418; arrest and suspension of, 17374; Brunswick Manifesto and fate of, 55657; Civil Constitution of the Clergy sanctioned by, 422, 429, 435; clergy oath decree signed by, 423; confinement and debated status of, 18486; European concern with fate of, 54851; flight to Varennes by, 424, 54751; papal appeals to, 42829, 431; papal response to execution of, 43536; reinstatement of, 173; stately reburial of, 584; trial and execution of, 18589

Louis XVIII (France): death of, 596; political challenges faced by, 59192; restoration of, 582, 58384; second restoration of, 586, 587, 588

Louvel, Louis Pierre, 592

Lucs-sur-Boulogne massacre, 35455

Lunacharsky, Anatoli Vasilyevich, 16162

Luxemburg, Rosa, 80, 95

Lvov, Prince Georgy (Russia), 49, 242, 243, 374

Lyons: Chalier martyred in, 200201, 2023; prisoners massacred in, 202; rebellion and recapture of, 198, 200201, 204; White Terror vengeance in, 21516

Machecoul massacre, 355

Machiavelli, Niccolo, 4, 16, 40, 41, 73, 74, 76, 77, 79, 83, 84, 99, 142

Maistre, Joseph de, 16, 39, 40, 53, 56, 59, 61, 147, 534

Makhno, Nestor, 378, 38089, 518, 524

Malesherbes, Chrétien Guillaume de Lamoignon de, 185

Mallet du Pan, Jacques, 534

Manuel, Louis, 180

Marat, Jean-Paul: assassination of, 19195, 27778, 336; as champion of terror, 101, 102, 177; prison massacres reconsidered by, 18283

Marcé, Louis de, 206, 330, 333, 334

Marie-Antoinette (Queen of France), 48, 546, 584

Marseilles rebellion, 2045

Marshall, George C., 676, 684, 68586, 688

Marshall Plan, 68687, 688

Martov, Julius, 287, 288

Marxism: pre-revolutionary influence of, 1516; as religious-like mythology, 14546, 16364; violence legitimized by, 11112

Marx, Karl, 11, 16, 30, 31, 48, 54, 58, 63; on Napoleonic strategem, 541; on religion, 14344, 15960, 163, 164; on violence and transition, 7778, 98, 232

Mary Stuart (Queen of Scotland), 435

Mathiez, Albert, 154, 15556, 157

Maury, Father Jean-Siffrein, 426

Memoirs from the House of the Dead (Dostoevsky), 238

Menshevik party (Russia), 10, 239, 24142, 244, 247, 249, 28688

Merleau-Ponty, Maurice, 5, 37, 40, 41, 75, 11012

Merlin de Douai, Philippe Auguste, 214

Metternich, Klemens Wenzel Lothar von, 588, 593, 594, 599

Michael, Alexandrovich, Grand Duke, 86, 241

Michelet, Jules, 4, 36, 47, 95, 117, 137, 138, 149, 185, 325, 340, 360, 361, 442, 558

military conscription resistance (Vendée), 32930

Miliukov, Paul, 48, 239, 252

Mirabeau, Honoré, Comte de, 24, 419, 549

Miseries and Calamities of War (etchings by Callot), 578

Molotov, Vyacheslav Mikhailovich, 471, 635, 648, 655, 656, 665, 667, 687

Montaigne, Michel Eyquem de, 16, 75, 13233

Montesquieu, Charles de, 16, 26, 61, 100, 133, 323

Montmorin, Armand Marc, Comte de, 121, 183, 432

Mornet, Daniel, 46

Morris, Roland, 290

Napoleon Bonaparte: abdication and exile to Elba, 581; abdication and exile to Saint Helena, 586; Concordat with Catholic Church, 57273; dependence on war by, 542; given Italian army command, 56364; historical debate over, 538; Leipzig defeat (1813) of, 58081; proclaimed Emperor, 574; returns from exile to reclaim power, 58486; revolutionary reforms maintained by, 53941; rise to power by, 56164, 56870; viewed as revolutionary, 59899; Waterloo defeat (1814) of, 586

Napoleonic wars: battle of Leipzig (1813) defeat during, 580; battle of Waterloo (1814) ending the, 586; brutality of, 578; European balance of power and, 57476; as extension of 1792 war, 57374; as externalization of French Revolution, 59899; French occupation of Spain during, 57678; human costs of, 600601; invasion of Russia during, 57980; limited violence of, 53839. See also foreign war; French Republic wars

National Assembly. See Legislative Assembly (France)

National Convention: trial of Louis XVI by, 18589; Revolutionary Tribunal established by, 18991; vengeful White Terror of, 211. See also French Republic

National Socialism (Germany): anti-Communism of, 67; Counter-Enlightenment and, 46; Schmitt’s embrace of, 8081

Nazi Germany, 7, 25, 47, 136, 137, 240, 34647, 607, 66474

Nazi-Soviet Pact, 67, 66667

NEP (New Economic Policy of 1921) [Soviet Russia], 10, 40, 609, 61112, 613, 614, 61718, 621, 622, 625

Ney, Michel, 590

Nicholas I (Tsar of Russia), 237

Nicholas II (Tsar of Russia), 11, 48, 57, 64; abdication of, 86, 116; coronation of, 45355; internment and execution of, 229, 27577; reforms by, 24041

Nietzsche, Friedrich, 133, 13435, 143

NKVD (People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs), 640, 641, 657, 658

Novikov, Nikolai, 678

Oath of the Clergy of 1790 (France), 171, 178, 42226, 436

The Oath of the Tennis Court (painting by David), 193, 423

October Manifesto (Russia), 64, 233

OGPU (Soviet Union), 640, 641

the Okhrana (Russia), 237, 239

The Old Regime and the French Revolution (Tocqueville), 148

On War (Clausewitz), 323, 534

The Origin of Russian Communism (Berdyaev), 145

Padua Circular (1791), 172, 553

Pale of Settlement (Russia), 504, 505, 508, 509

Paris Commune, 17475

peasantry (France): anti-revolution by, 5859; Enlightenment view of, 62; Gallican Church influence on, 41314; role in Vendée rebellion, 326, 33031

peasant rebellions (Soviet Russia): break-down of sovereignty and, 378; due to prices/quotas, 37677; Green Terror during, 38788, 403; in Makhno’s Ukraine, 38089; military desertion and, 37879; in Tambov region, 38998

peasantry (Soviet Russia): Bolsheviks and, 5859, 374, 37576, 404; ignored by Marxist theory, 37475; relationship between Church and, 453; widespread insurrections of, 371, 37374

Péguy, Charles, 40

Peloponnesian War, 5, 75

The Peloponnesian War (Thucydides), 130

penal system (France), 106, 1089

Peter the Great (Tsar of Russia), 236, 617

Peters, Iakov, 279

Pétion, Jérôme, 31, 180, 181

Petliura, Simon, 5, 6, 513, 515, 51819

Petrograd revolts (1917, 1919), 241, 29394, 299, 399, 400402

Petrovsky, Grigory, 27980

philosophes: anticlericalism of French, 60, 6263, 14853; blamed for French Revolution, 62; enlisted to legitimate revolution, 910, 2728; religious toleration advocated by, 488; on state-church separation, 14344, 145; on terror as despotism weapon, 99100; vengeance condemned by, 13236

Pillnitz Declaration, 172, 55051, 553, 556

Pilsudski, Jozef, 300, 3012, 303, 304, 306, 620, 623

Pius VI, Pope, 8, 188, 423, 42636, 488, 492, 569

Pius VII, Pope, 574, 595

Plekhanov, Georgi Valentinovich, 160, 161, 162, 163

Poland, 620, 668, 67071, 672

Polish-Russian conflict (1919–1921), 299304

political society: Calas Affair significance to, 6061; revolutionary reconstitution of, 38; revolution and breakdown of, 3538; shift to conservatism, 5152; violence and re structuring of, 7578. See also civil society

“Politics as a Vocation” (lecture by Weber), 79

prison massacres (France): of anti-Jacobin White Terror, 213; of September 1792, 118, 17879, 18081, 18284

Protestants: civil rights granted to French, 48789; conspiracy myths regarding, 48586; hostility between Catholics and, 49093; Montauban religious conflict and, 49396; Nîmes religious conflict and, 496500; as political scapegoats, 485; religiously sanctified hostility to, 48687; second White Terror (1815–1816) and, 58991; supporters of the Revolution among, 48990. See also religious conflict (France)

Protocols of the Elders of Zion, 65

Provence, Comte de, 187

Prudhomme, Louis-Marie, 18182

Prussia: battle of Leipzig and, 580; in Napoleonic wars, 55354, 57475; war between French Republic and, 197

Quinet, Edgar, 17, 28, 74, 1025, 118, 149; on loyalty oath as blunder, 425; on revolutionary break with religion, 442, 444; Vendée analysis by, 206, 324, 325, 326, 329, 340; on White and Red Terrors, 217, 21819

Quod aliquantum (Pius VI), 430, 432

Red Army, 266, 267. See also Soviet Russia

Red Terror (France): and anti-federalist rebellions, 200205; background of, 171, 2067, 209, 210; calculating human costs of, 30910, 320n. 199; compared to Russian Red Terror, 288; compared to White Terror, 21720; decree attempting to limit, 33637; mass drownings of, 34546; role of vengeance in, 171, 219; of Vendée rebellion, 30, 50, 64, 155, 2059, 33536, 33846, 35359. See also the Terror of 1789–95

Red Terror (Soviet Russia): against Makhnovites, 387; attempt on Lenin’s life and, 27782; calculating human costs of, 31011, 320n. 199; Cheka as instrument of, 274, 28082, 29398; compared to French Red Terror, 288; compared to White Terror, 31113; directed against clergy, 46667, 47273; during Tambov uprising, 393, 39596; following White’s Crimean defeat, 3067; crescendo of, 25059, 277

Reflections on the Revolution in France (Burke), 53, 54, 56

Reinhard, Marcel, 154, 15759

religion: Enlightenment attacks on, 5961, 6263; French Revolution in conflict with, 56, 14953, 43641, 44445; permeated French/Russian society, 1413; secularized by revolution, 14649, 15459; as source of civil discord, 99100; Vendée and issues of, 32425; vengeance and, 12830, 13233, 13435. See also Gallican Catholic Church; state-religion separation (France)

religious conflict (France): fed by vengeance, 5012; friend-enemy dissociation of, 49192; increase of Protestant-Catholic, 49093; Jalès movement as, 500501; in Montauban, 49396; in Nîmes, 496500; as revolutionizing force, 89; as symptom of corruption, 485

religious tolerance (France), 419, 48889, 491

religious tolerance (Russia), 5023

resistance, as word concept, 47. See also counterrevolution

Ressentiment, 134, 135. See also vengeance

revolution: breakdown of sovereignty and, 3538, 4749; changing word-concept of, 2428, 3032; civil society breakdown due to, 3538; civil society reconstruction and, 3841, 116; counterrevolution link to, 67, 4546, 5758; elements of religion in, 105; farreaching changes by, 2324; foreign war as agent of, 45, 3233, 53336; historical explanation of, 1617; ideology and, 910, 2324; international politics and, 1012; modern redefinition of, 3; postulation on inherent violence of, 4; religious conflict as fuel for, 89; violence/terror and dialectic of, 12021. See also counterrevolution

revolutionary terror: compared to violence, 8789; environmentalists vs. geneticists on, 9799; escalation into enforcement tool, 100108, 11214; history of, 99100, 11522; hot vs. cold, 120; Merleau-Ponty’s exploration of, 11012; phases of accelerating, 11920; theoretical debate over, 9396; three major hypotheses on, 9697; vengeance and, 12627, 2079. See also Red Terror (Soviet Russia); the Terror of 1789–95

Revolutionary Tribunal (France), 18991, 197

revolutionary violence: comparative analysis of, 1416; compared to terror, 8789; as element of foundation and conservation, 7578; French Revolution’s initial, 8486; intended targets of, 118, 119; Russian Revolution’s crescendo of, 8687, 23235. See also the Terror of 1789–95; violence

The Revolution and the Church (Soviet periodical), 467

La Révolution (Quinet), 102

Ricoeur, Paul, 16, 73, 84

Right Opposition (Soviet Union), 63334

Right-Trotskyite Bloc trial (1938), 65960

Riutin, Mikhail, 64647

Rivarol, Antoine, 61

Roberts, Frank K., 677

Robespierre, Maximilien de, 10, 58, 98; on Cult of Reason, 44244; on de-Christianization, 441; fall and execution of, 210, 363, 563; on practice of vengeance, 208; on prison massacres, 183; regarding execution of Louis XVI, 18687; use of terror by, 1012, 112, 196; war opposed by, 552

Roederer, Pierre-Louis, Comte de, 543

Roland, Madame, 180, 181, 213

Ronsin, Charles-Philippe, 176

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 55, 61, 77, 154, 433

Roux, Jacques, 196

Royer-Collart, Pierre Paul, 591

Royer, Jean-Baptiste, 196

Russian civil war: anti-Jewish pogroms during, 290; calculating human costs of, 31011, 320n. 199, 4045, 410n. 87; comparing Red and White Terror of, 31113; hostage taking during, 296; ideology of, 3089; Kolchak’s campaigns during, 28892; legacy of, 4056; mutineers and strikers during, 29192; origins of, 24854; overview of, 3079; Polish-Russian conflict and, 299304; progression of, 23435, 26470; Red Army Petrograd victory during, 299; as scourge of goverment, 23032; state-religion separation and, 46668; two phases of, 378; White’s defeat in Crimea during, 3057; White Terror during, 279, 289, 298, 31011; World War I Allies and, 28485. See also Bolsheviks; Red Terror (Soviet Russia); White Guards (Russia)

Russian Orthodox Church: Bolshevik victory over, 47678; criticism of, 15964; dominance of, 45153; influence of, 8; link between state and, 45255; Living Church reforms of, 47376; recasting of, 46465; relationship between peasants and, 453; response to Bolshevik decrees by, 46165; rites of coronation and, 45355; state seizure of property from, 46973

Russian Orthodox clergy: anti-Jewish violence and, 521; initial response to revolution by, 45657; Living Church reforms and, 47376; support of White Guards by, 466; terror directed toward, 46667, 47273; tried for resisting confiscations, 47172

Russian Provisional Governments: attitudes on continuation of war, 229; Bolsheviks form fourth, 24546; civil war between Bolsheviks and, 23032, 23435, 245; clergy support of first, 45657; and election of 1917, 24748; origin and mission of, 242; various coalitions of, 24344

Russian Revolution (1917–21): breakdown of sovereignty in, 36, 4849; church-religion issue in, 45758; civil war actors in, 23132; civil war during, 23032, 23435, 245, 25154, 26470; comparison of French and, 1315, 65153; counterrevolution in, 6367; drive for secularization in, 14649; escalation of terror during, 25059; French Revolution influence on, 2830, 232, 249; initial violence of, 8687; institutional use of terror by, 11314; international influence of, 1012; issue of violence and terror in, 95; nature of revolution in, 27; peasant anti-revolution in, 5859; significance of Brest-Litovsk Treaty to, 10, 79, 25964, 270; war as radicalizing agent of, 4, 3334, 230. See also Soviet Russia

Russian Terror. See Red Terror (Soviet Russia)

Russia (pre-1917): compared to France on eve of 1789, 227, 229, 371, 37374; counterrevolution tradition in, 7; demographics of, 449, 451; French geography compared to, 371, 373; Napoleonic invasion (1812) of, 57980; Napoleonic wars/treaty (1807) with, 575; Peter the Great’s modernization of, 617; place of Orthodox Church in, 45255; pre-revolutionary conditions of, 1516, 6465; religious permeation of society in, 14143; rites of coronation in, 45355; Siberian exile sys tem, 2360; fitful role of peasants, 371, 37375

Russo-Japanese War, 64

Russo-Polish war (1920–21), 62021

sailors and soldiers rebellion (Kronstadt revolt), 398403

Saint-André, Jean Bon, 189

Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, 99, 104, 184, 235, 345, 485, 502

Saint-Etienne, Rabaut, 88, 180, 488, 489

Saint-Just, Louis, 103, 1045, 153, 18586, 198, 208

Samara government (Soviet Russia), 265, 266

Savinkov, Boris, 27273

Savonarola, Girolamo, 74

Scheidemann, Philipp, 79

Scheler, Max, 135

Schmitt, Carl, 6, 16, 73, 8082, 98

Sedov, Lev, 653

Semenov, Grigory, 289

September prison massacres of 1792 (France), 118, 17879, 18081, 18284, 190

the Shakhty trial (1928), 645

Shulgin, V. V., 522, 525

Siberian exile system: history of, 23640; “model” for Soviets, 28284, 295, 298, 64044

Skoropadski, P. P., Herman, 380, 514, 515

Sobor (or Church Council) [Orthodox Church], 460

Soboul, Albert, 154, 156, 157

Social Contract (Rousseau), 433

“Socialism in One Country” (Soviet Russia), 13, 32

Socialist Fatherland in Danger decree (Soviet Russia), 11

Socialist Revolutionary party (Soviet Russia), 10, 239, 242, 244, 245, 247, 24849, 253, 265, 27172, 280, 281, 287, 39091

Solzhenitsyn, Alexander Isayevich, 23839, 674

sovereignty: alliance of Church and French royal, 41418; breakdown in French Revolution, 36, 37, 4849, 49798; breakdown in Russian Revolution, 36, 4849; force as element of, 7475; impact of violence on, 8789; religious conflict and breakdown of, 49798; revolution and breakdown of, 3538, 4749

Soviet Russia: civil war legacy to, 4056; Czech Legion revolt against, 28384; decrescendo of counterrevolution, 6667; famine of 1921–22 in, 46869, 476; international isolation of, 1213, 34, 66, 61314; Kronstadt rising, 398403; Makhnovite uprising, 38089; New Economic Policy, 10, 40, 609, 61112; Petrograd revolts (1917, 1919), 241, 29394, 399, 400402; rebuilding tasks after 1945, 60910; reestablishment of single sovereignty of, 621; Russo-Polish war (1920–21) of, 62021; Tambov region rebellion, 38998, 405; types of terror in, 11314. See also Bolsheviks; Russian civil war; Russia (pre-revolution)

Soviet Union: achievements of Five-Year Plans, 63031; Cold War (second) policies, 67576, 67982, 68790; collectivization drive, 63139; conditions in 1945, 69095; debate over industrialization, 61819; escalation of Stalin terror, 64851; fear of anti-Soviet conspiracies, 62325; first Cold War, 622; Gulag in service of modernization, 64044; human costs of German invasion, 67374; industrialization efforts, 61415, 62831; international isolation of, 61314, 69395; Jewish population of, 671; military factor in industrialization of, 62527, 631; Nazi-Soviet Pact, 67, 66667, 66974; peaceful coexistence policy of, 622; Prague subjugated by, 68788; purges of military officers, 65758; rejection of Marshall Plan, 68688; relations with U.S., 67679, 68287, 68990, 69395; relations with W.W. II Allies, 67480, 682; social costs of modernization in, 66364; Stalinshchina/Ezhovshchina terror (1930s), 1314, 64048, 65764; transition from moderation to terror, 65355; Tukhachevsky affair, 65557; turn from NEP to Five-Year Plans, 614

Sovnarkom, 258, 259, 280, 291, 294, 304, 376, 464, 621

Spain: Ferdinand VII restored to, 594; Franco’s uprising in, 64950; French occupation of, 57678; Joseph Bonaparte made king of, 576; Stalin intervention in civil war, 651

Stalin, Joseph, 13, 11011, 260; elected party secretary, 612; escalation of terror by, 64851; Great Terror under, 1314, 64048, 65764; Gulag system under, 64044; historical context of, 607, 609, 627, 662, 669; modernization goals/efforts of, 61416, 619, 63339, 66263; political and social goals of, 691, 69295; prophesies on world capitalism by, 62728; response to threat by Nazi Germany, 66569; response to world destabilization by, 65051; rivalry between Trotsky and, 61213, 62425; Socialism in One Country promoted by, 61314, 619, 628, 632, 669; use of political and functional terror by, 61617, 618. See also Soviet Union

Stalinshchina of 1930s: compared to first terror, 1314

state-church separation (France): philosophes on, 14344, 145; revolutionary role of, 23, 1469, 15459, 41836. See also Gallican Catholic Church; religion

state-church relations (Russia): Edict of Toleration and, 45556; events affecting development of, 45560; pre-revolutionary, 45255

state-church relations (Soviet Russia): Bolsheviks decrees and, 46165; civil war correlation with, 46668; 1921 famine and seizure of church property, 46873, 476

Steinberg, Isaac, 87, 88

Stimson, Henry L., 681, 682

Struve, Peter, 252, 305

Sverdlov, Iakov, 249, 276

Talleyrand-Périgord, Charles-Maurice, Duc de, 581, 582, 587, 591

Tallien, Jean Lambert, 214

Tambov region rebellion (Soviet Russia), 38998, 405

Tennis Court Oath, 193, 423, 546

Terror of 1789–95: assassination of Marat and, 19195; consternation over, 18182; development and escalation of, 17677, 189205; during Vendée rebellion of 1793, 30, 50, 64, 155, 2059, 33536, 33846, 35359; execution of Louis XVI and, 18489; first executions of, 17576; justifications for, 1034; military casualties vs. victims of, 2089; preemptive vengeance and, 17780; prison massacres of 1792, 118, 17879, 18081, 18284; as revolutionary policy instrument, 19697; Revolutionary Tribunal and, 18991; use of guillotine, 1067; Vendée terror com pared to, 36367; vengeance/revengeance cycle and, 171. See also Red Terror (France); revolutionary terror; White Terror (France)

“Theory of the Terror” (Quinet), 17

Thermidorean Convention (France): continuation of war and, 53738; crucible of Bonapartism, 56164; terror discredited by, 102; White Terror of, 107, 20914, 21720, 107

Thiers, Adolphe, 109, 349

Third All-Russian Congress of Soviets (1918), 250

Third International (Comintern), 303

Thirty Years Wars, 75

Thucydides, 5, 130

Tikhon, Patriarch, 8, 460, 46263, 464, 465, 468, 469, 474, 475, 477, 521

Tocqueville, Alexis de, 16, 37, 38, 46, 48, 104, 11415, 1489, 444

total enemy theory (Schmitt), 8182

“Total Enemy, Total War, and Total State” (Schmitt), 82

Toulon rebellion, 204, 205

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk of 1918 (Soviet Russia), 66

Treaty of Campo Formio (Austria), 564, 565

Treaty of Paris (May, 1814), 583

Treaty of Paris (November, 1814), 587

Treaty of Riga of 1920 (Soviet Russia), 34, 66, 304, 621

Trotsky, Leon: exile of, 652; first great show trial and, 653; modernization promoted by, 619; murder of, 658; revolutionary role of, 79, 245, 253, 25556, 25960, 266, 301, 306, 382, 471, 510; rivalry with Stalin, 61213, 618, 62425

Trubetskoi, Prince F. N., 252

Truman, Harry, 682, 683, 684, 686, 688, 689

Tukhachesvsky affair, 65557

Tukhachevsky, General, 13, 304, 392, 394, 395, 620, 621, 625

Turreau, Louis Marie, 207, 346, 351, 352, 353, 354, 35556, 35758, 360, 363

Ukraine famine (1932–33), 639

Ukraine rebellion (Soviet Russia): Makhnovites and, 38089; Petliura regime during, 51819; political disaffection leading to, 51415; violence against Jews during, 51326

Union for the Regeneration of Russia, 27274

United Opposition (Soviet Union), 624

United States: American Revolution, 2627, 11415; relations with Soviets, 67679, 68287, 68990, 69395

Uritsky, Moisei Solomonovich, 277, 278, 279, 281

Uspensky Cathedral (Kremlin), 460

Varga, Eugen, 627

Vedensky, Father Alexander, 472, 474, 476

Vendée rebellion of 1793 (France), 30, 50, 64, 155; Auschwitz compared to terror in, 34648; escalation into counterrevolution, 332; events/politics leading to, 32832, 36061; human costs of, 364; ideology of, 36667; initial response by Paris to, 33335, 33738; legacy of, 35963; mass drownings of, 34546; nobility/clergy/peasantry coalition in, 32729, 331; pacification of, 35059, 36263; prisoners of war during, 34142; religious elements of, 32425, 327; resistance to military service and, 32930; role of peasants in, 326, 33031; significance to revolution of, 361; terror rhetoric/acts during, 30, 50, 64, 155, 2059, 33536, 33846, 35359; three phases of terror during, 36467; Ukrainian Green rebellion compared to, 388; urban terror compared to terror of, 36367; Vendée geography and, 32627. See also French Revolution (1792–94)

Vendémiaire insurrection of 1795 (France), 50

vengeance: classical Greece tradition of, 13031; fear of émigrés’, 121; Judeo-Christian tradition on, 12830; legally grounded vs. popular, 174; memory and resentment root of, 134, 135; 19th/20th century, 13637; philosophical censure of, 13236; prison massacres of 1792 (France) as, 118, 17879, 18081, 18284; real and imagined reasons for, 13738; religious conflict fed by, 5012; revolutionary terror and, 12627, 2079; Revolutionary Tribunal exercise of, 197; role in Red and White Terror, 171, 21112, 21920; through judicial system, 12728

Vergniaud, Pierre Victorien, 175

Very Great War (World War I), 233, 241, 250, 28486, 310, 405, 410n. 87, 508. See also Brest-Litovsk Treaty (Soviet Russia)

Villèle, Jean-Baptiste, Comte de, 59396

Vimeux, General, 36263

violence: of civil war, 323; through the ages, 7173; impact on sovereignty, 8789; revolution as founded on, 4; Schmitt’s theory of, 8082; social/political construction of, 7375; used to restore order, 1089; Weber’s theory of, 7880. See also revolutionary violence

Voltaire, 26, 56, 58, 60, 61, 65, 144, 159, 193, 215, 434, 584

Vyshinsky, Andrei, 648

Wallace, Henry A., 68182

War Communism of 1918 (Soviet Russia), 10

Wars of Religion. See religious conflict (France)

Waterloo battle (1814), 586

Weber, Max, 16, 73, 75, 7880

Weimar Republic, 78, 80

Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, First Duke of, 577, 580, 586, 593

Westermann, François Joseph, 335, 33940, 351

White Guards (Soviet Russia): Allied aid to, 28486; clergy support of, 466; Crimean defeat of, 3057; disadvantages during civil war, 3089; lands repossessed from peasants by, 377; resistance by, 23132, 251, 252, 254, 262; terror against Ukraine Jews by, 51925; terror committed by, 279, 289, 298, 31013. See also Russian civil war

White Terror (France): background of, 171, 2067, 209, 210; by Vendée rebels, 33536; compared to Red Terror, 21720; of Lyons, 21517; outbreak of second (1815–1816), 58991; prison massacres of, 213; role of vengeance in, 171, 21112, 21920; of Thermidorean Convention, 107, 20914, 21720. See also the Terror of 1789–95

White Terror (Russia), 279, 289, 298, 31013, 51926. See also Russian civil war

Wilson, Woodrow, 620, 684

Witte, Count Sergei, 457

World War I, 233, 241, 250, 28486, 310, 405, 410n. 87, 508. See also Brest-Litovsk Treaty (Soviet Russia)

World War II: Bolshevik diplomacy during Phony Peace, 66466; Grand Alliance during, 1213; international events prior to, 64950; relations between Soviets and Allies of, 67479; Soviet Cold War policies following, 67982; world politics at end of, 691

Wrangel, Peter, 267, 3057

Yakovlev, Iakov, 275, 276

Yaroslavl uprisings of 1918 (Soviet Russia), 50

Yustshinsky, Andrei, 65

Zinoviev, Grigorii, 249, 262, 271, 647, 653, 716