Act of Tolerance for Protestants (France), 433
Adeo nota (Pius VI), 432
Alexander I (Tsar of Russia), 236, 581, 588
Alexander III (Tsar of Russia), 236
“Allocution on the Death of Louis XVI” (Pius VI), 434–35
American Revolution (1776), 26–27, 114–15. See also United States
Anglo-Russian Trade Treaty (1921), 621
anti-Jewish pogroms (Russia), 290, 311, 383, 505, 513–25. See also Jews
anti-philosphes. See counterrevolution
anti-Protestantism: conspiracy myths and, 485–86; counterrevolutionaries and, 490–91. See also Protestants
anti-revolution, 7, 58–59. See also counterrevolution
anti-Semitism: Bolshevik silence on, 523–25; during Ukraine rebellion, 515–26; Lenin’s criticism of, 512, 524; religious dimension of, 486–87; Russian, 63, 65, 290, 311, 383, 464, 485, 502–8. See also Jews
Anti-Soviet Trotskyite Center, 654–55
Antonov-Ovseenko, Vladimir, 252, 393
Arendt, Hannah, 3, 4, 9, 16, 23, 24, 31, 37, 40–41, 73, 83–84, 98, 112–15
Aristotle, 130
d’Artois, Comte, 48, 187, 549, 553, 591, 593, 596. See also Charles X (France)
Aulard, Alphonse, 154–55, 156, 157, 438
Auschwitz, 346–48. See also anti-Semitism
Austria: battle of Leipzig and, 580; French victories over, 574; war between France and, 197, 553–54, 564
authority: force element of, 74–75; Weber’s construction of, 80. See also sovereignty
Avignon prison massacre (1791), 502
Bacon, Francis, 132
Barère de Vieuzac, Bertrand, 197, 333–34, 354
Barruel, Abbé Augustin, 61
Becker, Carl, 145
Beilis affair (1911–13), 65, 483, 485, 507
Benedict XIV, Pope, 435
Bernis, Cardinal François-Joachim de Pierre de, 426, 433
Berry, Duc de, 592
Bertier de Sauvigny, L.-B.-F., 85
Bibliothèque Nationale (Paris), 45
Bignon commission (Vendée rebellion), 344–45
Billaud-Varenne, Jean Nicolas, 105, 107–8, 198, 338
Bloch, Ernst, 135
Bloch, Marc, 25
Blücher, Gebhard Lehrecht von, 580, 586
Blue Terror. See Red Terror (France)
Bodin, Jean, 99
Boky, Gleb, 281
Bolsheviks: Brest-Litovsk pressed by, 270; civil war legacy to, 405–6; collaboration/break with Makhnovites, 382, 385, 386; compared to Jacobins, 231; comparison of French terror to, 651–53; foreign intervention fought by, 11, 263–64; international isolation of, 12–13, 32, 34, 66, 613–14; Jews among, 509–13; Kronstadt revolt and, 398–403; Orthodox Church relations with, 461–78; peasantry and the, 58–59, 374, 375–76, 404; politics religionized by, 144–45; provisional government set up by, 245–47; resistance to, 49, 50; response to attempt on Lenin’s life, 278–82; response to sovereignty collapse by, 282–84; revolutionary goals of the, 29; Russia’s prison/exile literature and, 239; Samara government challenge to, 265; silence regarding anti-Semitism, 523–25; social base during 1917 election of, 247–48; sovereignty breakdown and rise of, 36, 49; split between Socialist Revolutionaries and, 270–72; Stalin purges of, 645–46; torn between domestic/international affairs, 302–4; violence justified/used by, 45, 233–34, 253–59. See also Russian civil war
Bonaparte, Joseph, 576
Bordeaux rebellion, 205
Bouillé, François-Claude-Amour de, 172, 548–49
Brest-Litovsk Treaty (Soviet Russia), 10, 79, 259–64, 270. See also World War I
Brissot, Jacques Pierre, 88, 177, 197, 525, 543–44, 560–61
Brunswick Manifesto (1792), 121, 172, 173, 175, 183, 553, 555–57
Bukharin, Nikolai Ivanovich, 260, 615, 618, 619, 629, 634, 654, 655, 659–60
Burckhardt, Jacob, 6, 38, 48, 107, 219
“Burial of the Martyrs” (Russia), 458, 460
Burke, Edmund, 9, 16, 31, 37, 39, 53, 54, 55, 56, 59, 61, 75, 120–21, 146–47, 172, 436–37
Calas Affair of 1761 (France), 60–61, 65, 483
Callot, Jacques, 578
Calonne, Charles Alexandre de, 48
Cambon, Pierre Joseph, 198
Capet, Louis. See Louis XVI (King of France)
Carrier, Jean-Baptiste, 103, 207, 213–14, 340–45, 351–52, 362, 363
Castlereagh, Viscount Robert, 582
Castre, Sabrier de, 61
Catholics: hostility between Protestants and, 490–93; Montauban religious conflict and, 493–96; Nîmes religious conflict and, 496–500. See also Gallican Catholic Church; religious conflict (France)
Chair of the History of the French Revolution (Sorbonne), 153–54
Chalier, Joseph, 200, 201, 202
Champ de Mars demonstration (1791), 173–74
charismatic rule, 80
Charles IV (Spain), 576
Charles X (France), 596–97. See also d’Artois, Comte
Chateaubriand, François Rene de, 5, 13
the Cheka: civil war mission/organization of, 234–235, 256–257; concentration camps organized by, 295–98; criminal/political control by, 235–36; purged of Socialist Revolutionaries, 272; terror carried out by, 274, 280–82, 293–98. See also Bolsheviks; Siberian exile system
Chénier, Marie-Joseph, 193
Chernov, Victor, 249
Chicherin, Georgy, 302, 622, 623–24
Church of the Cordeliers, 494, 501
Churchill, Winston, 136, 286, 620, 680, 683, 693
church-state relations. See state-religion separation (France); state-religion relations (Russia)
Civil Constitution of the Clergy (France), 420–22, 428, 430–31, 434, 435–36
civil society: breakdown of post-revolutionary Russian, 609–11; Calas Affair significance to, 60–61; French Revolution goal of new, 38–41; persistence of violence in, 71–73; religion permeated in French/Russian, 141–43; revolution and breakdown of, 35–38; vengeance behavior in, 127; violence and restructuring of, 75–78. See also political society
civil war: American, 114; anti-revolution epicenter of, 7; ending of, 349–50; foreign war vs., 5–6, 75; as revolutionary agent, 4–5; revolution vs., 26; violence of, 323. See also Russian civil war; Vendée rebellion of 1793 (France)
Clausewitz, Carl von, 323, 534, 539
Clément, Jean-Marie-Bernard, 61
clergy. See Gallican Catholic clergy; Russian Orthodox Church clergy
Cold War (first), 622
Cold War (second), 675–76, 679–82, 687–90. See also Soviet Union
Collenot d’Angremont, Louis-David, 175
Committee of Public Safety (France): establishment of, 191; response to Lyons rebellion by, 198, 200, 201; Vendée investigation by, 358–59; Vendée rebellion instructions by, 336–37, 354, 360; Vendée rhetoric of, 339–40
Committee for the Struggle Against the Counterrevolution (Soviet Russia), 244
Commune of March–May 1871 (France), 108–9, 348–50
Communism, 112. See also Bolsheviks
concentration camp history, 239–40. See also Siberian exile system
Concordat of 1801 (France), 572–73
Condorcet, Marie-Jean-Antoine-Nicolas, 88, 174, 180–81, 213, 457
Congress of the Peoples of the East of 1920 (Soviet Russia), 32
conservatism: counterrevolution and, 51–52; in French Revolution, 53–55; violence of, 75–78
Constant, Benjamin, 585
Constituent Assembly of 1918 (Russia), 248–49, 277, 287
Constitutional Church (France), 436–41, 551. See also Gallican Catholic Church
Convention Against Torture (1984), 89n. 6
Corcyra (Corfu) [Peloponnesian War], 5, 7, 75, 130
Corday, Charlotte, 191–92, 224n. 91, 278
Cossack forces, 252, 262, 264. See also Russian civil war
Cossack funeral (1917), 458–60
Counter-Enlightenment, 7, 46, 61–62
counterrevolution: in French Revolution, 53–63; anti-revolution and, 7, 57–59; conservative element of, 51–55; ideology of, 52–53; reactive nature of, 50–51; revolution link to, 6–7, 45–46, 57–58; of Russian civil war, 63–67, 279; Schmitt gravitation toward, 80–81; violence/terror and, 120–21; word-concept of, 46–47. See also Russian civil war; Vendée rebellion of 1793 (France)
coup d’état of Brumaire, 568–69, 570. See also Napoleon Bonaparte
Croce, Benedetto, 25
Cult of Reason (France), 154, 155, 158, 442–43
Cult of Supreme Being (France), 154, 155, 158, 442–44
Danton, Georges Jacques, 174, 177, 180, 181, 190, 196, 542
David, Jacques-Louis, 193, 194–95, 443
The Death of Marat (painting by David), 195
de-Christianization (France), 436–41
Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, 15, 27, 31, 54; intelligentsia support of, 94; papal denouncement of, 428, 430, 432, 492; popular violence and issue of, 85–86, 116; religious freedom included in, 419, 491; as Revolution’s catechism, 156, 158
Declaration of the Rights of the Toiling and Exploited People of 1918 (Soviet Russia), 32
Decree on Peace of 1917 (Soviet Russia), 32
Decree on Red Terror of 1918 (Soviet Russia), 11, 280, 284, 293, 296. See also Red Terror (Soviet Russia)
Decree on the Separation of Church and State (Soviet Russia), 463–64
Decree on Land of 1917 (Soviet Russia), 32
Delessard, Jean-Marie Antoine, 197
Democratic Party (Germany), 78
Denikin, Anton Ivanovich, 266, 267, 285, 289, 291, 292–93, 294, 298, 299, 520–21
Disasters of War (etchings by Goya), 578
Dmowski, Roman, 300
Dolchstoss legend (Germany), 81
Dostoevsky, Feodor Mikhalovich, 65, 238
Dubois-Crancé, General, 201
Dukhonin, N. N., 251
Dumouriez, Charles-François, 189, 191, 559
Duport, Adrien J.-F., 31
Durkheim, Emile, 156
Dzerzhinsky, Felix, 235, 256, 278, 294, 295, 296, 393, 641
Eastern Europe, 679–82, 687–88. See also Soviet Union
Ebert, Friedrich, 79
Edict of Nantes of 1685 (France), 104
Edict of Nantes revocation, 106
Edict of Toleration (France), 487–88, 491
Edict of Toleration (Russia), 455–56
émigrés (French): Brunswick Manifesto and, 172–73; confiscated properties indemnified to, 596; fear of vengeance by, 121; return to France of, 211. See also Vendée rebellion of 1793 (France)
Engels, Friedrich, 11, 30, 31, 54, 77, 78, 98, 232, 541
England: aid to White Guards by, 285–86; General Strike (1926) in, 623; and Napoleonic wars, 574, 576, 577; Soviet Union relations with, 679–80, 683. See also international politics
the Enlightenment: anticlericalism within, 59–61, 62–63; and Counter-Enlightenment, 7; peasants closed to, 62; pre-revolutionary influence of, 14–15, 27; sensitivity to minorities by, 483–84
Estates-General of 1789 (France): radical recasting of, 48; reform expectations of, 27; religious ceremony opening, 415–17
“Exposition of Principles” of 1790 (French episcopate), 429
Extraordinary Criminal Tribunal. See Revolutionary Tribunal (France)
Ezhov, Nikolai, 649, 653, 654, 655, 656, 657, 658
Fascism, 46, 67, 112, 650, 673. See also Nazi Germany
Favras, Marquis de, 48
Federalist rebellion of 1793 (France), 30, 50
Ferdinand VII (Spain), 576, 578, 588, 593
Ferrand, Count Antoine François Claude, 187
Festival of Reason (France), 442
Fifth All-Russian Congress of Soviets (1918), 271, 273
Firestone Library (Princeton University), 45
First All-Russian Congress of Workers and Soldiers Deputies, 243
Five-Year Plan (first), Soviet Union, 13, 614, 618, 626, 627, 629–30, 631
Five-Year Plan (second), Soviet Union, 630–31
Flesselles, Jacques de, 85
flight to Varennes (1791), 171, 173, 424, 547–51
foreign war: civil war vs., 5–6, 75; following French Revolution, 34, 189, 197, 536–38; Girondins on, 197–98, 536–37, 543, 551–52; as revolutionary agent, 4–5, 32–33, 533–36; Russian Provisional Government use of, 229. See also French Republic wars; international politics; Napoleonic wars
Foullon de Doué, Joseph-François, 85
Francastel, Marie-Pierre-Adrien, 343, 352, 357, 358–59
France (restoration): Bourbon restoration, 581–84, 595–96; costs of second restoration, 588–91; intervention in Spain by, 594; monarchists/ultraroyalists struggle in, 592–94; Napoleon’s Hundred Days in, 584–86; second restoration of Louis XVIII, 586–87; Treaty of Paris (May, 1814) and, 583; Treaty of Paris (November, 1814) and, 587. See also French Republic
France (pre-revolutionary): compared to Russia (1917), 227, 229; conditions in, 7, 14–15; monarchy/Church alliance in, 414–18; penal system of, 106, 108–9; religious permeation of society in, 141–43; religious tolerance granted in, 419, 488–89, 491; rural/peasant population of, 413; Russian geography compared to, 371, 373. See also French Republic
Francis II (Austria), 552, 579, 581
Frederick William II (Prussia), 546
Frederick William III (Prussia), 575, 579, 581
French Republic: Concordat with Catholic Church and, 572–73; Constitutional Church and, 436–41; deteriorating conditions of, 195–97; prison massacres of 1792 in, 118, 178–79, 180–81, 182–84, 190; rebellions against, 200–205; republican calendar adopted, 438–39; revolutionary tribunal established in, 189–91; search for secular religion by, 441–5; Vendée legacy to, 359–63; Vendée rebellion against, 30, 50, 64, 155, 205–9; White Terror prison massacres of, 213. See also France (restoration); France (pre-revolutionary); the Terror of 1789–95
French Republic wars: declared against Austria and Prussia, 197, 553–54; declared against Great Britain, Spain, and Holland, 189, 561; Jacobin resurgence following, 565–68. See also foreign war; Napoleonic wars
French Revolution (1792–94): American Revolution compared to, 114–15; as attack on religion, 56, 149–53, 436–41, 444–45; Brunswick Manifesto on, 103, 121, 172, 173, 175, 183, 553, 555–57; comparative analysis of Russian and, 14–16; comparison of Russian terror to, 651–53; counterrevolution in, 53–63; de-Christianization drive of, 436–41; externalization of, 558–61, 597–99; foreign war following, 34, 189, 197, 536–38; growing incidence of violence in, 84–86; international response to, 10–12, 542–53; model for Russian Revolution, 28–30, 232, 249; nature of revolution in, 27–28; new society as goal of, 38–41; papal response to, 426–36; philosophes used to legitimize, 9–10, 27–28; Protestant supporters of the, 489–90; rural anti-revolution in, 58–59; sovereignty breakdown during, 36, 37, 48–49; state-church conflict in, 23, 146–49, 154–59, 418–36; successive governments’ expansion of, 11–12; thematic/theoretic construction of, 17; Vendée rebellion’s significance to, 361; war as radicalizing agent of, 4. See also the Terror of 1789–95 (French Revolution); Vendée rebellion of 1793 (France)
Fréron, Elie, 61
Fréron, Louis-Stanislas, 178
Freud, Sigmund, 144
friend-enemy disjunction: between Bolshevism and Orthodoxy, 468; Catholic-Protestant, 491–92; de-Christianization stimulus for, 439–40; in French Revolution, 328; French war fever and, 544–45; revolution-Church relations and, 426; Rome break with French Revolution and, 433–34; in Russian Revolution, 231, 276, 305, 309
Frunze, Michael Vasilev, 306, 386
Gallican Catholic Church: alliance between monarchy and, 414–18; Civil Constitution of the Clergy and, 420–22, 428, 430–31, 434, 435–36; Enlightenment questioning of, 27; influence of, 8, 413–14; mass drownings of Vendean clergy, 346; Napoleon’s reconciliation with, 572–73; philosophes’ conflict with, 60, 62–63, 148–53; property and clergy of, 414; revolutionary reform of, 418–36; revolutionary seizure of property of, 438–39; revolutionary wounds of the, 594–95; schism within, 436–41; terror used by, 100; tradition of vengeance and, 129–30. See also Catholics; religious conflict (France); state-religion separation (France)
Gallican Catholic clergy: alliance with restoration government by, 595–96; reform movement within, 417–18; response to Civil Constitution by, 421–22, 428, 430–31, 434, 435–36; revolutionary oath decree and, 171, 178, 422–26
Gamon, François, 214
Gewalt (force, violence), 77, 79
Geyl, Peter, 538
Girondins (France): concern with foreign affairs, 197–98, 536–37, 543, 551–52, 560–61; exile rejected by, 107; on execution of king, 187, 188; on revolutionary tribunal, 189; violence approved by, 118
Glorious Revolution of 1688 (England), 26
Gobel, Jean-Baptiste, 439, 442
Goddess of Reason (France), 442
Goremykin, I. L., 455
Gossec, François, 193
Goya y Lucientes, Francisco Jose de, 578
Grand Alliance of 1941–45, 12–13
Graves, William, 290
Great Depression (1930s), 627, 678
great-man logic, 97
Great Terror (Soviet Union), 13–14, 640–48, 657–64
Green Army (Tambov uprising), 392–93
Green Terror (Makhnovites), 387–88, 403
Green Terror (Tambov uprising), 393, 396–98, 405
Grégoire, Abbé, 439
Grigorev, Nikifor, 381, 382–83, 389, 517–18
Guchkov, A. I., 242
Guizot, François, 569, 591, 592
the Gulag, 640–44. See also Siberian exile system
The Gulag Archipelago (Solzhenitsyn), 238
Guyomar, Pierre-Marie-Augustin, 197
Hamlet (Shakespeare), 131
Haxo, General, 342, 343, 348, 360
The Heavenly City of the Eighteenth-Century Philosophers (Becker), 145
Hébert, Jacques-René, 192, 197, 441
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 31, 40, 94, 133
Heidegger, Martin, 81
Hentz, Nicholas-Joseph, 354, 357, 358–59
d’Herbois, Collot, 202, 203, 207
Hitler, Adolf, 136, 538, 607, 646, 649, 650, 665, 666, 667–68
Hobbes, Thomas, 16, 73, 74, 76–77, 79, 81
Hoche, Lazare-Louis, 363
Holy Alliance of the Throne and the Altar, 587–88, 593–94, 691–92
Hugo, Victor, 62
Humanism and Terror: An Essay on the Communist Problem (Merleau-Ponty), 110
ideology: of counterrevolution, 52–53; defining characteristics of, 34–35; of revolutionary attacks on religion, 444–45; revolutionary role of, 9–10, 23–24, 34, 35; in Russian civil war, 308–9; of Soviet Cold Wars, 675–77, 692–93; terror as linked to, 96, 98, 113, 119; of Vendée rebellion, 366–67; violence justified by Manichaean, 45
Industrial Party trial (1930), 645–6
international politics: Bolshevik isolation, 12–13, 32, 34, 66, 613–14; Brunswick Manifesto (1792) and, 121, 172, 173, 175, 183, 553, 555–57; flight to Varennes and, 548–51; French monarchist/ultra-royalist strife and, 593–94; Holy Alliance role in, 587–88, 593–94, 691–92; prior to World War II, 649–50; response to Nazi-Soviet Pact, 668–69; response to Soviet Eastern European policies, 681–82; Soviet isolation in, 613–14, 693–95. See also foreign war; Napoleonic wars; World War II
Isnard, Henri Maximin, 214
Iudenich, Nikolai, 231–32, 268, 285, 298, 299
Ivan IV, the Terrible (Tsar of Russia), 236, 617
Jacobins (France): compared to Bolsheviks, 231; control in Lyons by, 200–201; de ported under Napoleon, 673; “Gospel of Liberty” by, 443; move to enshrine Marat by, 192; peasantry and, 58–59; politics religionized by, 144–45, 153; revolutionary role of ideology by, 9, 45; sovereignty breakdown and rise of, 36; terror as enforcement by, 103–4, 105–6, 196, 199; Vendée rebellion role of, 206–7, 367–68; as zealots, 561. See also French Revolution (1792–94); Red Terror (France)
Jalès movement (France), 500–501
Jefferson, Thomas, 94
Jews: anti-Semitism against Russian, 63, 65, 290, 311, 383, 464, 485–86, 502–9, 513–14; Bolshevik party membership by, 509–13; Pale of Settlement and Russian, 504, 505, 508, 509; pogroms in Ukraine, 513–26; Russian pogroms against, 290, 311, 383, 505; status of Russian, 502–5
Journal de Lyon, 215
Judeo-Christian vengeance tradition, 128–30
Kadet Party (Russia), 241–2, 243–4, 247, 248, 252, 253, 256
Kagarlitsky, Boris, 95
Kalmykov, Ivan, 289
Kamenev, Lev, 471, 510, 647, 653, 654
Kannegiser, Leonid Akimovich, 278, 281
Kellermann, François Christopher, 201
Kennan, George F., 677, 688, 694
Kerensky, Alexander, 49, 79, 229, 242–43, 245, 257, 374, 459, 460
Khrapovitsky, Antony, Bishop of Kharkov, 460
Kirov, Sergei, 646, 647, 648, 653
Kleber, Jean-Baptiste, 351, 352, 360
Kolchak, Alaksandr Vasiliyovich, 264–65, 266, 285, 287, 288–91, 292
Kornilov, Lavr Georgiyevich, 50, 229, 243, 244, 251, 252, 253, 257, 262, 460
Krasikov, P. A., 467
Krasnitsky, Vladimir, 472, 474
Krasnov, Peter N., 245, 251, 252
Krivoshein, A. V., 305
Kronstadt rising (Soviet Russia), 398–403
Lafayette, Marquis de, 173, 542
Laporte, Armand, 175
La Roche-Aymon, Cardinal de, 414, 415
Launay, Marquis de, 85
Law of the Maximum (France), 365, 438
Law of Suspects of 1793 (France), 11, 197, 337, 365, 438
Lebas, François-Joseph, 198
Left Opposition (Soviet Union), 634
Legislative Assembly (France): establishment of, 116; interim executive council formed by, 176; loyalty oath decree by, 171, 178, 422–26; papal response to actions of, 427–36; prison massacres and, 180; religious tolerance granted by, 488–89; state-church re forms by, 418, 421; tribunal instituted by, 174–75
Leipzig battle (1813), 580
Lenin, Vladimir Ilich, 40, 50, 58; Brest-Litovsk treaty support by, 260–61; civil war urged by, 232, 245; compulsory labor supported by, 283, 297, 298; head of provisional government, 245; on Jewish revolutionaries, 507; on Jewish disabilities, 503; outlaws Kadet party, 253; on peasantry, 374–75; religion/Church policies of, 160–61, 163, 467, 468, 470–72, 477; reprisals for attempt on life of, 277–82; revolutionary violence supported by, 255, 258, 271, 275, 277, 402; speaks against anti-Semitism, 512, 524
Leopold II (Austria), 546, 552
Lepeletier de Saint-Fargeau, Michel, 194
levée en masse decree (France), 11
Liebknecht, Karl, 80
Linguet, Simon-Nicolas-Henri, 61
Litvinov, Maxim, 650
Living Church (Soviet Russia), 473–76, 477–78. See also Russian Orthodox Church
Lloyd George, David, 620
Loménie de Brienne, Cardinal Etienne-Charles de, 429–30, 433–34
Louis XI (France), 104
Louis XIV (France), 104
Louis XVI (France): alliance between Church and, 414–18; arrest and suspension of, 173–74; Brunswick Manifesto and fate of, 556–57; Civil Constitution of the Clergy sanctioned by, 422, 429, 435; clergy oath decree signed by, 423; confinement and debated status of, 184–86; European concern with fate of, 548–51; flight to Varennes by, 424, 547–51; papal appeals to, 428–29, 431; papal response to execution of, 435–36; reinstatement of, 173; stately reburial of, 584; trial and execution of, 185–89
Louis XVIII (France): death of, 596; political challenges faced by, 591–92; restoration of, 582, 583–84; second restoration of, 586, 587, 588
Louvel, Louis Pierre, 592
Lucs-sur-Boulogne massacre, 354–55
Lunacharsky, Anatoli Vasilyevich, 161–62
Lvov, Prince Georgy (Russia), 49, 242, 243, 374
Lyons: Chalier martyred in, 200–201, 202–3; prisoners massacred in, 202; rebellion and recapture of, 198, 200–201, 204; White Terror vengeance in, 215–16
Machecoul massacre, 355
Machiavelli, Niccolo, 4, 16, 40, 41, 73, 74, 76, 77, 79, 83, 84, 99, 142
Maistre, Joseph de, 16, 39, 40, 53, 56, 59, 61, 147, 534
Makhno, Nestor, 378, 380–89, 518, 524
Malesherbes, Chrétien Guillaume de Lamoignon de, 185
Mallet du Pan, Jacques, 534
Manuel, Louis, 180
Marat, Jean-Paul: assassination of, 191–95, 277–78, 336; as champion of terror, 101, 102, 177; prison massacres reconsidered by, 182–83
Marcé, Louis de, 206, 330, 333, 334
Marie-Antoinette (Queen of France), 48, 546, 584
Marshall, George C., 676, 684, 685–86, 688
Marxism: pre-revolutionary influence of, 15–16; as religious-like mythology, 145–46, 163–64; violence legitimized by, 111–12
Marx, Karl, 11, 16, 30, 31, 48, 54, 58, 63; on Napoleonic strategem, 541; on religion, 143–44, 159–60, 163, 164; on violence and transition, 77–78, 98, 232
Mary Stuart (Queen of Scotland), 435
Mathiez, Albert, 154, 155–56, 157
Maury, Father Jean-Siffrein, 426
Memoirs from the House of the Dead (Dostoevsky), 238
Menshevik party (Russia), 10, 239, 241–42, 244, 247, 249, 286–88
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice, 5, 37, 40, 41, 75, 110–12
Merlin de Douai, Philippe Auguste, 214
Metternich, Klemens Wenzel Lothar von, 588, 593, 594, 599
Michael, Alexandrovich, Grand Duke, 86, 241
Michelet, Jules, 4, 36, 47, 95, 117, 137, 138, 149, 185, 325, 340, 360, 361, 442, 558
military conscription resistance (Vendée), 329–30
Mirabeau, Honoré, Comte de, 24, 419, 549
Miseries and Calamities of War (etchings by Callot), 578
Molotov, Vyacheslav Mikhailovich, 471, 635, 648, 655, 656, 665, 667, 687
Montaigne, Michel Eyquem de, 16, 75, 132–33
Montesquieu, Charles de, 16, 26, 61, 100, 133, 323
Montmorin, Armand Marc, Comte de, 121, 183, 432
Mornet, Daniel, 46
Morris, Roland, 290
Napoleon Bonaparte: abdication and exile to Elba, 581; abdication and exile to Saint Helena, 586; Concordat with Catholic Church, 572–73; dependence on war by, 542; given Italian army command, 563–64; historical debate over, 538; Leipzig defeat (1813) of, 580–81; proclaimed Emperor, 574; returns from exile to reclaim power, 584–86; revolutionary reforms maintained by, 539–41; rise to power by, 561–64, 568–70; viewed as revolutionary, 598–99; Waterloo defeat (1814) of, 586
Napoleonic wars: battle of Leipzig (1813) defeat during, 580; battle of Waterloo (1814) ending the, 586; brutality of, 578; European balance of power and, 574–76; as extension of 1792 war, 573–74; as externalization of French Revolution, 598–99; French occupation of Spain during, 576–78; human costs of, 600–601; invasion of Russia during, 579–80; limited violence of, 538–39. See also foreign war; French Republic wars
National Assembly. See Legislative Assembly (France)
National Convention: trial of Louis XVI by, 185–89; Revolutionary Tribunal established by, 189–91; vengeful White Terror of, 211. See also French Republic
National Socialism (Germany): anti-Communism of, 67; Counter-Enlightenment and, 46; Schmitt’s embrace of, 80–81
Nazi Germany, 7, 25, 47, 136, 137, 240, 346–47, 607, 664–74
NEP (New Economic Policy of 1921) [Soviet Russia], 10, 40, 609, 611–12, 613, 614, 617–18, 621, 622, 625
Ney, Michel, 590
Nicholas I (Tsar of Russia), 237
Nicholas II (Tsar of Russia), 11, 48, 57, 64; abdication of, 86, 116; coronation of, 453–55; internment and execution of, 229, 275–77; reforms by, 240–41
Nietzsche, Friedrich, 133, 134–35, 143
NKVD (People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs), 640, 641, 657, 658
Novikov, Nikolai, 678
Oath of the Clergy of 1790 (France), 171, 178, 422–26, 436
The Oath of the Tennis Court (painting by David), 193, 423
October Manifesto (Russia), 64, 233
the Okhrana (Russia), 237, 239
The Old Regime and the French Revolution (Tocqueville), 148
The Origin of Russian Communism (Berdyaev), 145
Padua Circular (1791), 172, 553
Pale of Settlement (Russia), 504, 505, 508, 509
peasantry (France): anti-revolution by, 58–59; Enlightenment view of, 62; Gallican Church influence on, 413–14; role in Vendée rebellion, 326, 330–31
peasant rebellions (Soviet Russia): break-down of sovereignty and, 378; due to prices/quotas, 376–77; Green Terror during, 387–88, 403; in Makhno’s Ukraine, 380–89; military desertion and, 378–79; in Tambov region, 389–98
peasantry (Soviet Russia): Bolsheviks and, 58–59, 374, 375–76, 404; ignored by Marxist theory, 374–75; relationship between Church and, 453; widespread insurrections of, 371, 373–74
Péguy, Charles, 40
The Peloponnesian War (Thucydides), 130
penal system (France), 106, 108–9
Peter the Great (Tsar of Russia), 236, 617
Peters, Iakov, 279
Petliura, Simon, 5, 6, 513, 515, 518–19
Petrograd revolts (1917, 1919), 241, 293–94, 299, 399, 400–402
philosophes: anticlericalism of French, 60, 62–63, 148–53; blamed for French Revolution, 62; enlisted to legitimate revolution, 9–10, 27–28; religious toleration advocated by, 488; on state-church separation, 143–44, 145; on terror as despotism weapon, 99–100; vengeance condemned by, 132–36
Pillnitz Declaration, 172, 550–51, 553, 556
Pilsudski, Jozef, 300, 301–2, 303, 304, 306, 620, 623
Pius VI, Pope, 8, 188, 423, 426–36, 488, 492, 569
Plekhanov, Georgi Valentinovich, 160, 161, 162, 163
Polish-Russian conflict (1919–1921), 299–304
political society: Calas Affair significance to, 60–61; revolutionary reconstitution of, 38; revolution and breakdown of, 35–38; shift to conservatism, 51–52; violence and re structuring of, 75–78. See also civil society
“Politics as a Vocation” (lecture by Weber), 79
prison massacres (France): of anti-Jacobin White Terror, 213; of September 1792, 118, 178–79, 180–81, 182–84
Protestants: civil rights granted to French, 487–89; conspiracy myths regarding, 485–86; hostility between Catholics and, 490–93; Montauban religious conflict and, 493–96; Nîmes religious conflict and, 496–500; as political scapegoats, 485; religiously sanctified hostility to, 486–87; second White Terror (1815–1816) and, 589–91; supporters of the Revolution among, 489–90. See also religious conflict (France)
Protocols of the Elders of Zion, 65
Provence, Comte de, 187
Prudhomme, Louis-Marie, 181–82
Prussia: battle of Leipzig and, 580; in Napoleonic wars, 553–54, 574–75; war between French Republic and, 197
Quinet, Edgar, 17, 28, 74, 102–5, 118, 149; on loyalty oath as blunder, 425; on revolutionary break with religion, 442, 444; Vendée analysis by, 206, 324, 325, 326, 329, 340; on White and Red Terrors, 217, 218–19
Quod aliquantum (Pius VI), 430, 432
Red Army, 266, 267. See also Soviet Russia
Red Terror (France): and anti-federalist rebellions, 200–205; background of, 171, 206–7, 209, 210; calculating human costs of, 309–10, 320n. 199; compared to Russian Red Terror, 288; compared to White Terror, 217–20; decree attempting to limit, 336–37; mass drownings of, 345–46; role of vengeance in, 171, 219; of Vendée rebellion, 30, 50, 64, 155, 205–9, 335–36, 338–46, 353–59. See also the Terror of 1789–95
Red Terror (Soviet Russia): against Makhnovites, 387; attempt on Lenin’s life and, 277–82; calculating human costs of, 310–11, 320n. 199; Cheka as instrument of, 274, 280–82, 293–98; compared to French Red Terror, 288; compared to White Terror, 311–13; directed against clergy, 466–67, 472–73; during Tambov uprising, 393, 395–96; following White’s Crimean defeat, 306–7; crescendo of, 250–59, 277
Reflections on the Revolution in France (Burke), 53, 54, 56
religion: Enlightenment attacks on, 59–61, 62–63; French Revolution in conflict with, 56, 149–53, 436–41, 444–45; permeated French/Russian society, 141–3; secularized by revolution, 146–49, 154–59; as source of civil discord, 99–100; Vendée and issues of, 324–25; vengeance and, 128–30, 132–33, 134–35. See also Gallican Catholic Church; state-religion separation (France)
religious conflict (France): fed by vengeance, 501–2; friend-enemy dissociation of, 491–92; increase of Protestant-Catholic, 490–93; Jalès movement as, 500–501; in Montauban, 493–96; in Nîmes, 496–500; as revolutionizing force, 8–9; as symptom of corruption, 485
religious tolerance (France), 419, 488–89, 491
religious tolerance (Russia), 502–3
resistance, as word concept, 47. See also counterrevolution
Ressentiment, 134, 135. See also vengeance
revolution: breakdown of sovereignty and, 35–38, 47–49; changing word-concept of, 24–28, 30–32; civil society breakdown due to, 35–38; civil society reconstruction and, 38–41, 116; counterrevolution link to, 6–7, 45–46, 57–58; elements of religion in, 105; farreaching changes by, 23–24; foreign war as agent of, 4–5, 32–33, 533–36; historical explanation of, 16–17; ideology and, 9–10, 23–24; international politics and, 10–12; modern redefinition of, 3; postulation on inherent violence of, 4; religious conflict as fuel for, 8–9; violence/terror and dialectic of, 120–21. See also counterrevolution
revolutionary terror: compared to violence, 87–89; environmentalists vs. geneticists on, 97–99; escalation into enforcement tool, 100–108, 112–14; history of, 99–100, 115–22; hot vs. cold, 120; Merleau-Ponty’s exploration of, 110–12; phases of accelerating, 119–20; theoretical debate over, 93–96; three major hypotheses on, 96–97; vengeance and, 126–27, 207–9. See also Red Terror (Soviet Russia); the Terror of 1789–95
Revolutionary Tribunal (France), 189–91, 197
revolutionary violence: comparative analysis of, 14–16; compared to terror, 87–89; as element of foundation and conservation, 75–78; French Revolution’s initial, 84–86; intended targets of, 118, 119; Russian Revolution’s crescendo of, 86–87, 232–35. See also the Terror of 1789–95; violence
The Revolution and the Church (Soviet periodical), 467
La Révolution (Quinet), 102
Right Opposition (Soviet Union), 633–34
Right-Trotskyite Bloc trial (1938), 659–60
Rivarol, Antoine, 61
Roberts, Frank K., 677
Robespierre, Maximilien de, 10, 58, 98; on Cult of Reason, 442–44; on de-Christianization, 441; fall and execution of, 210, 363, 563; on practice of vengeance, 208; on prison massacres, 183; regarding execution of Louis XVI, 186–87; use of terror by, 101–2, 112, 196; war opposed by, 552
Roederer, Pierre-Louis, Comte de, 543
Ronsin, Charles-Philippe, 176
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 55, 61, 77, 154, 433
Roux, Jacques, 196
Royer-Collart, Pierre Paul, 591
Royer, Jean-Baptiste, 196
Russian civil war: anti-Jewish pogroms during, 290; calculating human costs of, 310–11, 320n. 199, 404–5, 410n. 87; comparing Red and White Terror of, 311–13; hostage taking during, 296; ideology of, 308–9; Kolchak’s campaigns during, 288–92; legacy of, 405–6; mutineers and strikers during, 291–92; origins of, 248–54; overview of, 307–9; Polish-Russian conflict and, 299–304; progression of, 234–35, 264–70; Red Army Petrograd victory during, 299; as scourge of goverment, 230–32; state-religion separation and, 466–68; two phases of, 378; White’s defeat in Crimea during, 305–7; White Terror during, 279, 289, 298, 310–11; World War I Allies and, 284–85. See also Bolsheviks; Red Terror (Soviet Russia); White Guards (Russia)
Russian Orthodox Church: Bolshevik victory over, 476–78; criticism of, 159–64; dominance of, 451–53; influence of, 8; link between state and, 452–55; Living Church reforms of, 473–76; recasting of, 464–65; relationship between peasants and, 453; response to Bolshevik decrees by, 461–65; rites of coronation and, 453–55; state seizure of property from, 469–73
Russian Orthodox clergy: anti-Jewish violence and, 521; initial response to revolution by, 456–57; Living Church reforms and, 473–76; support of White Guards by, 466; terror directed toward, 466–67, 472–73; tried for resisting confiscations, 471–72
Russian Provisional Governments: attitudes on continuation of war, 229; Bolsheviks form fourth, 245–46; civil war between Bolsheviks and, 230–32, 234–35, 245; clergy support of first, 456–57; and election of 1917, 247–48; origin and mission of, 242; various coalitions of, 243–44
Russian Revolution (1917–21): breakdown of sovereignty in, 36, 48–49; church-religion issue in, 457–58; civil war actors in, 231–32; civil war during, 230–32, 234–35, 245, 251–54, 264–70; comparison of French and, 13–15, 651–53; counterrevolution in, 63–67; drive for secularization in, 146–49; escalation of terror during, 250–59; French Revolution influence on, 28–30, 232, 249; initial violence of, 86–87; institutional use of terror by, 113–14; international influence of, 10–12; issue of violence and terror in, 95; nature of revolution in, 27; peasant anti-revolution in, 58–59; significance of Brest-Litovsk Treaty to, 10, 79, 259–64, 270; war as radicalizing agent of, 4, 33–34, 230. See also Soviet Russia
Russian Terror. See Red Terror (Soviet Russia)
Russia (pre-1917): compared to France on eve of 1789, 227, 229, 371, 373–74; counterrevolution tradition in, 7; demographics of, 449, 451; French geography compared to, 371, 373; Napoleonic invasion (1812) of, 579–80; Napoleonic wars/treaty (1807) with, 575; Peter the Great’s modernization of, 617; place of Orthodox Church in, 452–55; pre-revolutionary conditions of, 15–16, 64–65; religious permeation of society in, 141–43; rites of coronation in, 453–55; Siberian exile sys tem, 236–0; fitful role of peasants, 371, 373–75
Russo-Japanese War, 64
Russo-Polish war (1920–21), 620–21
sailors and soldiers rebellion (Kronstadt revolt), 398–403
Saint-André, Jean Bon, 189
Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, 99, 104, 184, 235, 345, 485, 502
Saint-Etienne, Rabaut, 88, 180, 488, 489
Saint-Just, Louis, 103, 104–5, 153, 185–86, 198, 208
Samara government (Soviet Russia), 265, 266
Savonarola, Girolamo, 74
Scheidemann, Philipp, 79
Scheler, Max, 135
Schmitt, Carl, 6, 16, 73, 80–82, 98
Sedov, Lev, 653
Semenov, Grigory, 289
September prison massacres of 1792 (France), 118, 178–79, 180–81, 182–84, 190
the Shakhty trial (1928), 645
Siberian exile system: history of, 236–40; “model” for Soviets, 282–84, 295, 298, 640–44
Skoropadski, P. P., Herman, 380, 514, 515
Sobor (or Church Council) [Orthodox Church], 460
Social Contract (Rousseau), 433
“Socialism in One Country” (Soviet Russia), 13, 32
Socialist Fatherland in Danger decree (Soviet Russia), 11
Socialist Revolutionary party (Soviet Russia), 10, 239, 242, 244, 245, 247, 248–49, 253, 265, 271–72, 280, 281, 287, 390–91
Solzhenitsyn, Alexander Isayevich, 238–39, 674
sovereignty: alliance of Church and French royal, 414–18; breakdown in French Revolution, 36, 37, 48–49, 497–98; breakdown in Russian Revolution, 36, 48–49; force as element of, 74–75; impact of violence on, 87–89; religious conflict and breakdown of, 497–98; revolution and breakdown of, 35–38, 47–49
Soviet Russia: civil war legacy to, 405–6; Czech Legion revolt against, 283–84; decrescendo of counterrevolution, 66–67; famine of 1921–22 in, 468–69, 476; international isolation of, 12–13, 34, 66, 613–14; Kronstadt rising, 398–403; Makhnovite uprising, 380–89; New Economic Policy, 10, 40, 609, 611–12; Petrograd revolts (1917, 1919), 241, 293–94, 399, 400–402; rebuilding tasks after 1945, 609–10; reestablishment of single sovereignty of, 621; Russo-Polish war (1920–21) of, 620–21; Tambov region rebellion, 389–98, 405; types of terror in, 113–14. See also Bolsheviks; Russian civil war; Russia (pre-revolution)
Soviet Union: achievements of Five-Year Plans, 630–31; Cold War (second) policies, 675–76, 679–82, 687–90; collectivization drive, 631–39; conditions in 1945, 690–95; debate over industrialization, 618–19; escalation of Stalin terror, 648–51; fear of anti-Soviet conspiracies, 623–25; first Cold War, 622; Gulag in service of modernization, 640–44; human costs of German invasion, 673–74; industrialization efforts, 614–15, 628–31; international isolation of, 613–14, 693–95; Jewish population of, 671; military factor in industrialization of, 625–27, 631; Nazi-Soviet Pact, 67, 666–67, 669–74; peaceful coexistence policy of, 622; Prague subjugated by, 687–88; purges of military officers, 657–58; rejection of Marshall Plan, 686–88; relations with U.S., 676–79, 682–87, 689–90, 693–95; relations with W.W. II Allies, 674–80, 682; social costs of modernization in, 663–64; Stalinshchina/Ezhovshchina terror (1930s), 13–14, 640–48, 657–64; transition from moderation to terror, 653–55; Tukhachevsky affair, 655–57; turn from NEP to Five-Year Plans, 614
Sovnarkom, 258, 259, 280, 291, 294, 304, 376, 464, 621
Spain: Ferdinand VII restored to, 594; Franco’s uprising in, 649–50; French occupation of, 576–78; Joseph Bonaparte made king of, 576; Stalin intervention in civil war, 651
Stalin, Joseph, 13, 110–11, 260; elected party secretary, 612; escalation of terror by, 648–51; Great Terror under, 13–14, 640–48, 657–64; Gulag system under, 640–44; historical context of, 607, 609, 627, 662, 669; modernization goals/efforts of, 614–16, 619, 633–39, 662–63; political and social goals of, 691, 692–95; prophesies on world capitalism by, 627–28; response to threat by Nazi Germany, 665–69; response to world destabilization by, 650–51; rivalry between Trotsky and, 612–13, 624–25; Socialism in One Country promoted by, 613–14, 619, 628, 632, 669; use of political and functional terror by, 616–17, 618. See also Soviet Union
Stalinshchina of 1930s: compared to first terror, 13–14
state-church separation (France): philosophes on, 143–44, 145; revolutionary role of, 23, 146–9, 154–59, 418–36. See also Gallican Catholic Church; religion
state-church relations (Russia): Edict of Toleration and, 455–56; events affecting development of, 455–60; pre-revolutionary, 452–55
state-church relations (Soviet Russia): Bolsheviks decrees and, 461–65; civil war correlation with, 466–68; 1921 famine and seizure of church property, 468–73, 476
Talleyrand-Périgord, Charles-Maurice, Duc de, 581, 582, 587, 591
Tallien, Jean Lambert, 214
Tambov region rebellion (Soviet Russia), 389–98, 405
Tennis Court Oath, 193, 423, 546
Terror of 1789–95: assassination of Marat and, 191–95; consternation over, 181–82; development and escalation of, 176–77, 189–205; during Vendée rebellion of 1793, 30, 50, 64, 155, 205–9, 335–36, 338–46, 353–59; execution of Louis XVI and, 184–89; first executions of, 175–76; justifications for, 103–4; military casualties vs. victims of, 208–9; preemptive vengeance and, 177–80; prison massacres of 1792, 118, 178–79, 180–81, 182–84; as revolutionary policy instrument, 196–97; Revolutionary Tribunal and, 189–91; use of guillotine, 106–7; Vendée terror com pared to, 363–67; vengeance/revengeance cycle and, 171. See also Red Terror (France); revolutionary terror; White Terror (France)
“Theory of the Terror” (Quinet), 17
Thermidorean Convention (France): continuation of war and, 537–38; crucible of Bonapartism, 561–64; terror discredited by, 102; White Terror of, 107, 209–14, 217–20, 107
Third All-Russian Congress of Soviets (1918), 250
Third International (Comintern), 303
Thirty Years Wars, 75
Tikhon, Patriarch, 8, 460, 462–63, 464, 465, 468, 469, 474, 475, 477, 521
Tocqueville, Alexis de, 16, 37, 38, 46, 48, 104, 114–15, 148–9, 444
total enemy theory (Schmitt), 81–82
“Total Enemy, Total War, and Total State” (Schmitt), 82
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk of 1918 (Soviet Russia), 66
Treaty of Campo Formio (Austria), 564, 565
Treaty of Paris (May, 1814), 583
Treaty of Paris (November, 1814), 587
Treaty of Riga of 1920 (Soviet Russia), 34, 66, 304, 621
Trotsky, Leon: exile of, 652; first great show trial and, 653; modernization promoted by, 619; murder of, 658; revolutionary role of, 79, 245, 253, 255–56, 259–60, 266, 301, 306, 382, 471, 510; rivalry with Stalin, 612–13, 618, 624–25
Trubetskoi, Prince F. N., 252
Truman, Harry, 682, 683, 684, 686, 688, 689
Tukhachevsky, General, 13, 304, 392, 394, 395, 620, 621, 625
Turreau, Louis Marie, 207, 346, 351, 352, 353, 354, 355–56, 357–58, 360, 363
Ukraine famine (1932–33), 639
Ukraine rebellion (Soviet Russia): Makhnovites and, 380–89; Petliura regime during, 518–19; political disaffection leading to, 514–15; violence against Jews during, 513–26
Union for the Regeneration of Russia, 272–74
United Opposition (Soviet Union), 624
United States: American Revolution, 26–27, 114–15; relations with Soviets, 676–79, 682–87, 689–90, 693–95
Uritsky, Moisei Solomonovich, 277, 278, 279, 281
Uspensky Cathedral (Kremlin), 460
Varga, Eugen, 627
Vedensky, Father Alexander, 472, 474, 476
Vendée rebellion of 1793 (France), 30, 50, 64, 155; Auschwitz compared to terror in, 346–48; escalation into counterrevolution, 332; events/politics leading to, 328–32, 360–61; human costs of, 364; ideology of, 366–67; initial response by Paris to, 333–35, 337–38; legacy of, 359–63; mass drownings of, 345–46; nobility/clergy/peasantry coalition in, 327–29, 331; pacification of, 350–59, 362–63; prisoners of war during, 341–42; religious elements of, 324–25, 327; resistance to military service and, 329–30; role of peasants in, 326, 330–31; significance to revolution of, 361; terror rhetoric/acts during, 30, 50, 64, 155, 205–9, 335–36, 338–46, 353–59; three phases of terror during, 364–67; Ukrainian Green rebellion compared to, 388; urban terror compared to terror of, 363–67; Vendée geography and, 326–27. See also French Revolution (1792–94)
Vendémiaire insurrection of 1795 (France), 50
vengeance: classical Greece tradition of, 130–31; fear of émigrés’, 121; Judeo-Christian tradition on, 128–30; legally grounded vs. popular, 174; memory and resentment root of, 134, 135; 19th/20th century, 136–37; philosophical censure of, 132–36; prison massacres of 1792 (France) as, 118, 178–79, 180–81, 182–84; real and imagined reasons for, 137–38; religious conflict fed by, 501–2; revolutionary terror and, 126–27, 207–9; Revolutionary Tribunal exercise of, 197; role in Red and White Terror, 171, 211–12, 219–20; through judicial system, 127–28
Vergniaud, Pierre Victorien, 175
Very Great War (World War I), 233, 241, 250, 284–86, 310, 405, 410n. 87, 508. See also Brest-Litovsk Treaty (Soviet Russia)
Villèle, Jean-Baptiste, Comte de, 593–96
violence: of civil war, 323; through the ages, 71–73; impact on sovereignty, 87–89; revolution as founded on, 4; Schmitt’s theory of, 80–82; social/political construction of, 73–75; used to restore order, 108–9; Weber’s theory of, 78–80. See also revolutionary violence
Voltaire, 26, 56, 58, 60, 61, 65, 144, 159, 193, 215, 434, 584
Vyshinsky, Andrei, 648
War Communism of 1918 (Soviet Russia), 10
Wars of Religion. See religious conflict (France)
Waterloo battle (1814), 586
Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, First Duke of, 577, 580, 586, 593
Westermann, François Joseph, 335, 339–40, 351
White Guards (Soviet Russia): Allied aid to, 284–86; clergy support of, 466; Crimean defeat of, 305–7; disadvantages during civil war, 308–9; lands repossessed from peasants by, 377; resistance by, 231–32, 251, 252, 254, 262; terror against Ukraine Jews by, 519–25; terror committed by, 279, 289, 298, 310–13. See also Russian civil war
White Terror (France): background of, 171, 206–7, 209, 210; by Vendée rebels, 335–36; compared to Red Terror, 217–20; of Lyons, 215–17; outbreak of second (1815–1816), 589–91; prison massacres of, 213; role of vengeance in, 171, 211–12, 219–20; of Thermidorean Convention, 107, 209–14, 217–20. See also the Terror of 1789–95
White Terror (Russia), 279, 289, 298, 310–13, 519–26. See also Russian civil war
Witte, Count Sergei, 457
World War I, 233, 241, 250, 284–86, 310, 405, 410n. 87, 508. See also Brest-Litovsk Treaty (Soviet Russia)
World War II: Bolshevik diplomacy during Phony Peace, 664–66; Grand Alliance during, 12–13; international events prior to, 649–50; relations between Soviets and Allies of, 674–79; Soviet Cold War policies following, 679–82; world politics at end of, 691
Yaroslavl uprisings of 1918 (Soviet Russia), 50
Yustshinsky, Andrei, 65