Short titles are used in the notes. Full references will be found in the bibliography. The following abbreviations are used in notes and bibliography:
GARF | Gosudarstvennyi arkhiv Rossiiskoi Federatsii |
IA | Istoricheskii arkhiv |
ITsKKPSS | Izvestiya Tsentral’nogo Komiteta Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soyuza |
OA | Osobyi arkhiv |
PSS | V. I. Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii |
RTsKhIDNI | Rossiiskii Tsentr dlya Khraneniya i Issledovaniya Dokumentov Noveishei Istorii |
SEER | Slavonic and East European Review |
SVI | Shestoi s’’ezd RSDRP(b). Avgust 1917 goda. Protokoly |
SVIII | Vos’moi s’’ezd RKP(b). Mart 1919 goda. Protokoly |
SX | Desyatyi s’’ezd RKP(b). Mart 1921 g. Stenograficheskii otchët |
SXVII | Semnadtsatyi s’’ezd VKP(b). 26 yanvarya – 10 fevralya 1934 goda. Stenograficheskii otchët |
SXVIII | Vosemnadtsatyi s’’ezd. 10–21 marta 1939 goda. Stenograficheskii otchët |
SXX | Dvadtsatyi s’’ezd Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soyuza. 14–25 fevralya 1956 goda. Stenograficheskii otchët |
SXXII | Dvadtsat’ vtoroi s’’ezd Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soyuza. 17–31 oktyabrya 1961 goda. Stenograficheskii otchët |
SXXIV | Dvadtsat’ chetvërtyi s’’ezd Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soyuza. 30 marta – 9 aprelya 1971 goda. Stenograficheskii otchët |
SXXVII | Dvadtsat’ sed’moi s’’ezd Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soyuza. 25 fevralya – 6 marta 1986 goda. Stenograficheskii otchët |
TP | The Trotsky Papers, 1917–1922 |
VIKPSS | Voprosy istorii Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soyuza |
1 The last serious such endeavour was M. S. Gorbachëv, Perestroika. New Thinking for Our Country and the World.
2 Otto Bauer, Bolschewismus oder Sozialdemokratie? (Vienna, 1920).
3 K. Kautsky, The Dictatorship of the Proletariat; Yu. Martov, Mirovoi bol’shevizm; B. Russell, The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism; T. Dan, The Origins of Bolshevism.
4 L. D. Trotsky, The Revolution Betrayed.
5 I. A. Il’in, O soprotivlenii zlu siloyu; A. I. Solzhenitsyn, Letter to the Soviet Leaders and Kak nam obustroit’ Rossiyu?
6 N. Berdyaev, The Russian Idea. Ideas of a not dissimilar nature can be found in B. Kerblay, Modern Soviet Society and S. White, Political Culture and Soviet Politics.
7 R. Fülöp-Miller, The Mind and Face of Bolshevism: An Examination of Cultural Life in Soviet Russia.
8 N. S. Trubetskoi, K probleme russkogo samosoznaniya: sobranie statei.
9 N. Ustryalov, Pod znakom revolyutsii. A recent work stressing the imperial and ethnic dimensions of the USSR is H. Carrère d’Encausse, Decline of an Empire.
10 L. N. Gumilëv, V poiskakh vymyshlennogo tsarstva and Ritmy Evrazii.
11 E. H. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution; B. Moore Jr, The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy.
12 R. Neumann, Behemoth; M. Fainsod, How Russia is Ruled; L. Schapiro, The Communist Party of the Soviet Union and Totalitarianism.
13 M. Djilas, The New Class: An Analysis of the Communist System;M. Voslensky, Nomenklatura: The Anatomy of the Soviet Ruling Class.
14 D. Bell, The End of Ideology.
15 See I. Kershaw, The Nazi Dictatorship, pp. 34–46.
16 D. Granick, Management of the Industrial Firm in the USSR, A Study in Soviet Economic Planning; J. Berliner, Factory and Manager in the USSR. The journal Soviet Studies regularly carried accounts of political, economic and social life below the level of the Kremlin.
17 R. Suny, The Baku Commune.
18 R. Service, The Bolshevik Party in Revolution.
19 D. Koenker, Moscow Workers; S. A. Smith, Red Petrograd.
20 F. Benvenuti, The Bolsheviks and the Red Army; O. Figes, Peasant Russia, Civil War; R. Stites, Revolutionary Dreams: Utopian Vision and Experimental Life in the Russian Revolution.
21 R. W. Davies, The Soviet Economy in Turmoil; M. Lewin, The Making of the Soviet System.
22 F. Benvenuti, Fuoco sui Sabotatori!; D. Filtzer, Soviet Workers and Stalinist Industrialization; L. Siegelbaum. Stakhanovism and the Politics of Productivity in the USSR, 1935–1941.
23 V. Buldakov, Krasnaya smuta.
24 S. Fitzpatrick, The Russian Revolution.
25 S. Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain: Stalinism as a Civilization.
26 M. Lewin, Lenin’s Last Struggle; S. F. Cohen, Bukharin and the Russian Revolution; R. W. Davies, The Socialist Offensive.
27 J. Hough, The Soviet Prefects; J. Hough, The Soviet Union and Social Science Theory; H. G. Skilling and F. Griffiths, Interest Groups in Soviet Politics. See also J. Hough’s 1979 revisions of the original edition of Merle Fainsod, How Russia is Ruled.
28 M. Lewin, The Gorbachev Phenomenon.
29 T. H. Rigby, The Changing Soviet System and Political Elites in the USSR: Central Leaders and Local Cadres from Lenin to Gorbachev.
30 A. Brown, ‘Political Power and the Soviet State’, in N. Harding (ed.), The State in Socialist Society.
31 M. Malia, Russia Under Western Eyes; R. Pipes, Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime.
32 R. Conquest, Power and Policy in the USSR; M. Fainsod, Smolensk Under Soviet Rule.
33 A. Brown, The Gorbachëv Factor.
34 G. A. Hosking, A History of the Soviet Union.
1 T. von Laue, Serge Witte and the Industrialisation of Russia.
2 O. Crisp, Studies in the Russian Economy before 1914, p. 154.
3 Ibid., pp. 34–5.
4 S. M. Dubrovskii, Sel’skoe khozyaistvo i krest’yanstvo Rossii v period imperializma, p. 225.
5 T. Shanin, The Awkward Class, ch. 2.
6 This figure does not include Russian-ruled Poland: A. Gershenkron, ‘Agrarian Policies and Industrialisation’, p. 730.
7 A. G. Rashin, Naselenie Rossii za 100 let, pp. 297–9.
8 M. Perrie and R. W. Davies, ‘The Social Context’, p. 40.
9 A. G. Rashin, Formirovanie rabochego klassa Rossii, p. 171.
10 R. Kaiser, The Geography of Nationalism in Russia and the Soviet Union, p. 53.
11 J. M. Hartley, Alexander I, p. 118.
12 H. Rogger, National Consciousness in Eighteenth-Century Russia, ch. 1.
13 B. Eklof, Russian Peasant Schools, pp. 243–4.
14 O. Figes, A People’s Tragedy, p. 196.
15 Kaiser, The Geography of Nationalism, table 2:10.
16 Ibid., table 2:8.
17 H. Seton-Watson, The Russian Empire, 1801–1917.
18 A. Ascher, The Russian Revolution of 1905, p. 163.
19 S. M. Dubrovskii, Stolypinskaya agrarnaya reforma, pp. 572, 583, 586.
20 G. A. Hosking, The Russian Constitutional Experiment, ch. 2.
21 C. Ferenczi, ‘Freedom of the Press, 1905–1914’, pp. 198, 211.
22 R. Service, Lenin: A Political Life, vol. 1, p. 135.
23 Figes, A People’s Tragedy, pp. 1–17.
24 V. S. Dyakin et al., Krizis samoderzhaviya v Rossii, 1895–1917, p. 448.
25 R. McKean, St Petersburg Between the Revolutions, ch. 10.
26 P. Waldron, ‘States of Emergency’, p. 4.
1 D. Lieven, Russia and the Origins of the First World War, pp. 67–9.
2 D. Lieven, Nicholas II: Emperor of all the Russias, pp. 200–205.
3 N. Stone, The Eastern Front, p. 66.
4 P. V. Volobuev, Ekonomicheskaya politika Vremennogo Pravitel’stva, ch. 1.
5 R. Pearson, The Russian Moderates and the Crisis of Tsarism, p. 117.
6 S. G. Wheatcroft, ‘The Balance of Grain Production and Utilisation in Russia before and during the Revolution’, pp. 3–5.
7 R. W. Davies, ‘Industry’, p. 135.
8 I. I. Mints, Istoriya Velikogo Oktyabrya, vol. 1, p. 325.
9 Volobuev, Ekonomicheskaya politika, p. 365.
10 A. L. Sidorov, Istoricheskie predposylki Velikoi oktyabr’skoi sotsialisticheskoi revolyutsii, pp. 31–2.
11 R. McKean, St Petersburg Between the Revolutions, pp. 380–85.
12 Stone, The Eastern Front, pp. 240, 247.
13 Pearson, The Russian Moderates, pp. 125–6.
14 P. Gatrell, ‘The First World War and War Communism’, p. 218.
15 Ibid.
16 A. M. Anfimov, introduction to Krest’anskoe dvizhenie, pp. 14–18.
17 S. A. Smith, Red Petrograd. Revolution in the Factories, p. 46.
18 W. G. Rosenberg, Liberals in the Russian Revolution, p. 57.
19 Their dominance was such that the first cabinet was not referred to as the First Coalition.
20 A. H. Wildman, The End of the Russian Imperial Army, vol. 1, pp. 186–8.
21 L. Lande, ‘Some Statistics of the Unification Congress’, p. 389; O. H. Radkey, The Agrarian Foes of Communism, p. 236.
22 Z. Galili, The Menshevik Leaders in the Russian Revolution, pp. 269–73.
23 See M. Perrie, ‘The Peasants’, pp. 22–3.
24 Rosenberg, Liberals, p. 174.
25 Smith, Red Petrograd, p. 55.
26 Ibid., pp. 145–9.
27 V. I. Kostrikin, ‘Krest’yanskoe dvizhenie nakanune Oktyabrya’, p. 24.
28 Smith, Red Petrograd, pp. 169–70.
29 J. Channon, ‘The Landowners’, p. 124.
30 H. White, ‘The Provisional Government and the Problem of Power in the Provinces’.
31 J. Reshetar, The Ukrainian Revolution; A. F. Upton, The Finnish Revolution; R. G. Suny, The Baku Commune. Class and Nationality in the Russian Revolution.
32 S. F. Jones, ‘The Non-Russian Nationalities’, pp. 55–6.
1 It ought to be added that they did not intend to scrap such nationally-based units as already existed. Finland was the prime example.
2 I. Getzler, ‘Soviets as Agents of Democratisation’, pp. 7–30.
3 R. Service, Lenin, vol. 2, pp. 154–5.
4 PSS, vol. 31, pp. 113–16.
5 Service, Lenin, vol. 2, pp. 156–60.
6 R. Service, The Bolshevik Party in Revolution, p. 54.
7 Ibid., p. 43.
8 Ibid., pp. 46, 53.
9 PSS, vol. 31, p. 267.
10 W. G. Rosenberg, Liberals in the Russian Revolution, p. 174.
11 A. Rabinowitch, Prelude to Revolution, ch. 5.
12 R. A. Wade, The Russian Search for Peace, p. 111.
13 P. V. Volobuev, Ekonomicheskaya politika, p. 379.
14 Ibid., p. 385.
15 T. Kitanina, Voina, khleb i revolyutsiya, p. 344.
16 D. Lieven, Nicholas II, p. 238.
17 J. S. Curtiss, The Russian Church and the Soviet State, p. 38.
18 A. Rabinowitch, The Bolsheviks Come to Power in Petrograd, p. 126.
19 H. White, ‘The Urban Middle Classes’, pp. 78–9.
20 P. V. Volobuev, Proletariat i burzhuaziya, p. 219.
21 PSS, vol. 34, p. 389.
22 A. V. Shestakov, Ocherki po sel’skomu khozyaistvu, p. 142.
23 M. Perrie, ‘The Peasants’, p. 17.
24 S. A. Smith, ‘Workers’ Control: February–October 1917’, pp. 22–3.
25 A. H. Wildman, The End of the Russian Imperial Army, vol. 1, ch. 9.
26 Z. Galili, The Menshevik Leaders in the Russian Revolution, pp. 387–91.
27 Ibid., pp. 387–9.
28 ‘Iz rechi tov. Bukharina na vechere vospominanii 1921 g.’, Proletarskaya revolyutsiya, no.10 (1921), p. 319.
29 Service, Lenin, vol. 2, pp. 251–7.
30 Ibid., pp. 273–4.
31 I. Getzler, Martov: A Political Biography of a Russian Social-Democrat, pp. 155–6.
32 R. G. Suny, The Baku Commune, ch. 3.
1 PSS, vol. 33, pp. 1–120.
2 R. Service, Lenin, vol. 2, pp. 220–24.
3 Pravda, 29 October 1917.
4 I. Getzler, Martov, p. 162; A. Rabinowitch, The Bolsheviks, p. 292.
5 T. H. Rigby, Lenin’s Government, p. 27.
6 L. Trotsky, My Life. An Attempt at Autobiography, p. 355.
7 Resheniya partii i pravitel’stva po khozyaistvennym voprosam, vol. 1, pp. 11–12.
8 Ibid., pp. 12–14.
9 Ibid., pp. 15–16.
10 Service, Lenin, vol. 2, pp. 270–71.
11 PSS, vol. 35, pp. 51–2.
12 G. Leggett, The Cheka. Lenin’s Secret Police, p. 17.
13 Service, Lenin, vol. 2, pp. 285–6.
14 Dekrety Sovetskoi vlasti, vol. 1, p. 40.
15 N. Valentinov, Vstrechi s Leninym, pp. 40–41.
16 Service, Lenin, vol. 2, p. 185.
17 Ibid., vol. 1, p. 186.
18 PSS, vol. 49, p. 340.
19 This figure is based upon the Central Committee full members; it also takes into account the redating of Stalin’s birth.
20 Service, Lenin, vol. 2, pp. 10–11.
21 SVI, p. 41: report by I. T. Smilga.
22 Service, Lenin, vol. 2, pp. 184–5.
23 Ibid., vol. 3, p. 135.
24 O. Figes, Peasant Russia, Civil War, pp. 63–4.
25 J. H. L. Keep, The Russian Revolution. A Study in Mass Mobilisation, chs 26, 27.
26 W. Mosse, ‘Revolution in Saratov’, p. 57.
27 L. D. Trotskii, O Lenine. Materialy dlya biografii, pp. 91–2.
28 PSS, vol. 31, pp. 64–5, 197, 250.
29 O. H. Radkey, Russia Goes to the Polls, pp. 18–19.
30 Service, Lenin, vol. 2, pp. 295–6.
31 Protokoly Tsentral’nogo Komiteta RSDRP(b), p. 168; PSS, vol. 35, pp. 243–52.
32 Trotskii, O Lenine, p. 81; Protokoly Tsentral’nogo Komiteta, pp. 168–9.
33 C. Duval, ‘Yakov Sverdlov’, pp. 226–7.
34 Protokoly Tsentral’nogo Komiteta, p. 213.
35 B. Pearce, How Haig Saved Lenin, pp. 7–8.
36 S. G. Wheatcroft, ‘The Balance of Grain Production and Utilisation’, pp. 7, 15–17.
37 A. Nove, An Economic History of the USSR, ch. 3.
38 S. Malle, The Economic Organisation of ‘War Communism’, pp. 33, 55.
39 The word used for ‘Russian’ was Rossiiskaya, which (unlike Russkaya) did not imply a national orientation to ethnic Russians.
1 O. H. Radkey, Russia Goes to the Polls, pp. 16, 18–19.
2 R. Service, ‘The Industrial Workers’, pp. 159–60.
3 R. Service, Lenin, vol. 2, pp. 245–6.
4 Ibid., pp. 239–40.
5 S. F. Jones, ‘The Non-Russian Nationalities’, pp. 46–7.
6 T. Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan, pp. 138–9.
7 Dekrety Sovetskoi vlasti, vol. 1, p. 40.
8 PSS, vol. 35, pp. 221–3.
9 This was its name until the 1930s, when the order of the words ‘socialist’ and ‘soviet’ was reversed and the name therefore became Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic.
10 M. Perrie, ‘The Peasants’, p. 30.
11 D. Atkinson, The End of the Russian Land Commune, pp. 181–2, 209.
12 O. Figes, Peasant Russia, pp. 207–8.
13 M. McAuley, Bread and Justice. State and Society in Petrograd, pp. 270–71.
14 S. A. Smith, ‘Workers’ Control’, p. 23.
15 J. Channon, ‘The Landowners’, p. 157.
16 F. Lorimer, The Population of the Soviet Union. History and Prospects, p. 87.
17 Izvestiya, 19 July 1918.
18 Figes, Peasant Russia, pp. 138–44.
19 T. Shanin, The Awkward Class, p. 174; V. P. Danilov, Rural Russia under the New Regime, pp. 211–14.
20 R. Service, The Bolshevik Party, p. 77.
21 S. F. Cohen, Bukharin and the Russian Revolution, p. 73.
22 P. Kenez, The First Propaganda State, pp. 129–31.
23 SVIII, pp. 390–410.
24 Izvestiya, 2 August 1918.
25 G. E. Zinoviev, N. Lenin. Vladimir Il’ich Lenini.
26 V. Brovkin, The Mensheviks after October.
27 Yu. G. Fel’shtinskii, Bol’sheviki i levye esery, pp. 145–9.
28 He did not mention the Bolsheviks by name; but his meaning was sufficiently clear.
29 A. Pyman, The Life of Alexander Blok, vol. 2, p. 281.
30 C. Read, Culture and Power in Revolutionary Russia, chs 2, 3.
31 PSS, vol. 38, p. 437.
32 PSS, vol. 36, pp. 296–300.
33 E. H. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 2, pp. 88–9.
34 PSS, vol. 35, p. 311.
35 D. Orlovsky, ‘State Building in the Civil War Era’, p. 202.
36 V. Brovkin, The Mensheviks, p. 181.
37 PSS, vol. 33, p. 74.
1 PSS, vol. 36, p. 172.
2 PSS, vol. 50, p. 186.
3 B. Pearce, How Haig Saved Lenin, p. 65
4 ITsKKPSS, no. 4 (1984), pp. 143–4.
5 V. Fic, The Bolsheviks and the Czechoslovak Legion, pp. 20–21, 26–7, 80–91.
6 Yu. G. Fel’shtinskii, Bol’sheviki i levye esery, pp. 214–15.
7 L. Trotsky, My Life, p. 324.
8 PSS, vol. 50, p. 178.
9 RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 2, d. 1, item 5; GARF, f. R-130, op. 2, d. 1 (3), item 4 and d. 2 (2). See also Yu. Buranov and V. Khrustalëv, Gibel’ imperatorskogo doma, p. 261 and R. Service, Lenin, vol. 3, pp. 37–8.
10 S. Lyandres, ‘The 1918 Attempt on the Life of Lenin’, pp. 437–41.
11 PSS, vol. 37, pp. 244–5, 250.
12 Quoted in Komsomol’skaya pravda, 12 February 1992.
13 Ibid.
14 G. Leggett, The Cheka, p. 114.
15 See note 12.
16 Leggett, The Cheka, pp. 464–7.
17 R. Conquest, The Great Terror. A Reassessment, p. 310.
18 Service, Lenin, vol. 3, p. 53.
19 E. H. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 2, pp. 52–3.
20 SVIII, p. 354.
21 A. Nove, An Economic History, p. 62.
22 R. W. Davies, The Development of the Soviet Budgetary System, pp. 9, 31.
23 Nove, An Economic History, p. 94.
24 D. Orlovsky, ‘The City in Danger’, p. 74.
25 Service, Lenin, vol. 3, p. 42.
26 T. H. Rigby, Communist Party Membership, pp. 52–3.
27 R. Service, ‘From Polyarchy to Hegemony’, pp. 86–7.
28 R. Service, The Bolshevik Party, pp. 96–9, 106–9.
29 See note 27.
30 F. Benvenuti, The Bolsheviks and the Red Army, pp. 92–108.
31 Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, pp. 110–11.
32 R. G. Suny, The Making of the Georgian Nation, p. 202.
33 See for example GARF, f. 1318, op. 1, ed. khr. 4 (Collegium meeting from 25 August 1919 onwards).
34 R. Pipes, The Formation of the Soviet Union, pp. 164–6.
35 Ibid., p. 174.
36 SVIII, p. 425.
37 RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 9.
38 Service, Lenin, vol. 3, p. 191.
39 P. Kenez, ‘The Ideology of the White Movement’, pp. 78–83.
40 TP, vol. 2, p. 278.
41 J. Channon, ‘Siberia in Revolution and Civil War’, ch. 9.
42 W. G. Rosenberg, Liberals in the Russian Revolution, p. 340.
43 E. Mawdsley, The Russian Civil War, pp. 63, 182–4.
44 S. White, Britain and the Bolshevik Revolution, ch. 1.
45 Service, The Bolshevik Party, pp. 147–8.
46 S. M. Klyatskin, Na zashite Oktyabrya, pp. 396, 463.
47 V. P. Danilov, ‘Dinamika naseleniya SSSR’, p. 246.
48 J. Aves, Workers Against Lenin, ch. 4.
49 Leggett, The Cheka, p. 329.
50 O. Figes, Peasant Russia, p. 195, 304.
51 Document quoted in Izvestiya, 27 April 1992, p. 3.
52 SX, pp. 349–50.
53 PSS, vol. 42, pp. 134, 156–9.
54 PSS, vol. 42, p. 179; RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 2, d. 49, item 1.
1 A. Nove, An Economic History, p. 94.
2 R. Service, Lenin, vol. 3, p. 169.
3 RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 131, item 1.
4 This can be gauged from the written questions passed up to Lenin at the Congress: RTsKhIDNI, f. 5, op. 2, d. 7, pp. 1–88.
5 See ibid., f. 46, op. 1, d. 2.
6 N. Valentinov, Novaya ekonomicheskaya politika i krizis partii, pp. 30–31.
7 RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 155, item 11.
8 Krest’yanskoe vosstanie v Tambovskoi, doc. 266.
9 PSS, vol. 45, pp. 189–90.
10 Stalin referred to it contemptuously as national ‘liberalism’: ITsKKPSS, no. 9 (1989), p. 199.
11 Service, Lenin, vol. 3, pp. 190–95.
12 Originally Lenin wanted to call it the Union of Soviet Republics of Europe and Asia: PSS, vol. 45, pp. 211–12; but, after much haggling with Stalin, there was agreement on the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
13 RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 291, item 2; I. K. Gamburg et al., M. V. Frunze. Zhizn’ i deyatel’nost’, pp. 292, 294.
14 SX, pp. 213–14.
15 Ibid.
16 See for example GARF, f. 1318, op. 1, ed. khr. 1 (Narkomnats collegium, 8 March 1919).
17 The Muslim rebels in central Asia, the basmachi, were never completely suppressed in the 1920s; but their ability to disrupt the Soviet administrative order was small.
18 G. Hewitt, ‘Aspects of Language in Georgia (Georgian and Abkhaz)’, p. 132.
19 Izvestiya, 1 January 1923.
20 S. Kharmandaryan, Lenin i stanovlenie zakavkazskoi federatsii, chs 2–3.
21 G. A. Galoyan and K. S. Khudaverdyan (eds), Nagornyi Karabakh, pp. 24, 32–3.
22 Report in Nezavisimaya gazeta, 12 May 1991.
23 ITsKKPSS, no. 9 (1990), p. 212.
24 V. Kozlov, The Peoples of the Soviet Union.
25 ITsKKPSS, no. 4 (1990), p. 194 (Politburo minute).
26 Ibid., pp. 194, 197.
27 A. Luukanen, The Party of Unbelief, p. 183.
28 Smolensk Party Archives, WKP6, 9 January 1920.
29 RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 187, item 2.
30 A. Blyum, Za kulisami ‘Ministerstva Pravdy’, p. 79.
31 PSS, vol. 45, p. 13.
32 Vserossiiskaya konferentsiya RKP (bol’shevikov), bulletin 3, pp. 80, 82.
33 Bolshevik-edited satirical magazines were allowed to mock only those phenomena which incurred the party’s disapproval.
34 T. H. Rigby, Communist Party Membership, p. 52.
35 E. H. Carr and R. W. Davies, Foundations of a Planned Economy, vol. 1, p. 545.
36 R. Service, The Bolshevik Party , pp. 168–9.
37 L. Gordon and E. Klopov, Chto eto bylo?, pp. 92–3.
38 R. Stites, Revolutionary Dreams, chs 3, 4.
39 Nevertheless it should be noted that fifty-eight per cent of newspaper copies were sold in Moscow and Leningrad in 1925: R. Stites, Russian Popular Culture, p. 42.
40 S. Fitzpatrick, ‘Sex and Revolution: an Examination of Literacy and Statistical Data on the Mores of Soviet Students in the 1920s’, p. 121.
41 M. Dewar, Labour Policy in the USSR, p. 144.
42 Carr and Davies, Foundations of a Planned Economy, vol. 1, pp. 460, 605.
43 P. Juviler, Revolutionary Law and Order, ch. 2.
44 A. M. Ball, Russia’s Last Capitalists, pp. 39–40.
45 PSS, vol. 44, p. 397.
46 C. Ward, Russia’s Cotton Workers, pp. 113–16.
47 W. Chase, Workers, Society and the Soviet State, pp. 220–24.
48 D. Thorniley, The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Rural Communist Party, p. 17.
49 R. Taylor, The Politics of the Soviet Cinema, p. 65.
50 E. A. Rees, State Control in Soviet Russia, pp. 87–92.
51 T. H. Rigby, ‘The Origins of the Nomenklatura System’, pp. 84–5.
52 T. H. Rigby, ‘Early provincial cliques and the rise of Stalin’.
1 R. Service, Lenin, vol. 3, pp. 291–4.
2 A. Mikoyan, Vospominaniya i mysli o Lenine, p. 195.
3 Service, Lenin, vol. 3, p. 257.
4 ITsKKPSS, no. 4 (1991), pp. 187–8.
5 PSS, vol. 54, p. 327.
6 PSS, vol. 45, pp. 344–5.
7 Service, Lenin, vol. 3, p. 297.
8 PSS, vol. 45, pp. 329–30.
9 This distinction was pointed out to me by Geoffrey Hosking.
10 The series of the Leninskii sbornik continued through to the years of Gorbachëv.
11 J. D. Biggart, ‘Bukharin’s Theory of Cultural Revolution’, pp. 146–58.
12 A. Nove, An Economic History, p. 194.
13 R. Service, The Bolshevik Party, p. 198.
14 I. V. Stalin, Sochineniya, vol. 6, pp. 69–188.
15 R. Medvedev, Let History Judge, pp. 509–10.
16 J. Erickson, The Soviet High Command. A Military-Political History, ch. 9.
17 A. C. Sutton, Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, p. 11.
18 M. J. Dohan’s calculation in R. W. Davies, From Tsarism to the NEP, p. 331.
19 R. B. Day, Leon Trotsky and the Politics of Economic Isolation, ch. 3.
20 E. H. Carr and R. W. Davies, Socialism in One Country, vol. 1, pp. 508–9.
21 On the difficulties of the available statistics see R. W. Davies, ‘Changing Economic Systems: An Overview’, p. 9.
22 S. G. Wheatcroft, R. W. Davies and J. Cooper, ‘Soviet Industrialisation Reconsidered’, Economic History Review, no. 2 (1986), p. 270.
23 R. W. Davies, The Socialist Offensive, p. 8.
24 E. H. Carr and R. W. Davies, Foundations of a Planned Economy, vol. 1, part 1, pp. 287, 298.
25 Davies, The Socialist Offensive, p. 36.
1 J. Hughes, Stalin, Siberia and the Crisis of the New Economic Policy, p. 139.
2 E. H. Carr and R. W. Davies, Foundations of a Planned Economy, vol. 2, p. 75.
3 A. Larina, This I Cannot Forget, p. 251.
4 Y. Taniuchi, ‘Decision-making on the Urals-Siberian Method’, pp. 79–85.
5 K. Bailes, Technology and Society under Lenin and Stalin; N. Lampert, The Technical Intelligentsia and the Soviet State.
6 R. W. Davies, The Soviet Economy in Turmoil, pp. 68, 126, 180.
7 C. Merridale, Moscow Politics and the Rise of Stalin, p. 53.
8 Quoted in D. A. Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumf i tragediya, vol. 1, part 2, p. 52.
9 Pravda, 5 February 1931.
10 R. Lewis, ‘Foreign Economic Relations’, p. 208.
11 A. C. Sutton, Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, pp. 362–73.
12 Carr and Davies, Foundations of a Planned Economy, vol. 3, part 1, p. 233.
13 O. V. Khlevnyuk, ‘Prinuditel’nyi trud v ekonomike SSSR’, p. 75.
14 V. P. Danilov, Pravda, 16 September 1988.
15 A. Romano, ‘Peasant-Bolshevik Conflicts Inside the Red Army’, pp. 114–15.
16 M. Lewin, Russian Peasants and Soviet Power, p. 391.
17 S. G. Wheatcroft, ‘More Light on the Scale of Repression’, p. 366.
18 Stalinskoe Politbyuro v 30-e gody., pp. 114–15.
19 R. W. Davies in The Economic Transformation, table 19.
20 R. Munting, The Economic Development of the USSR, p. 93.
21 R. W. Davies in The Economic Transformation, table 22.
22 Ibid., p. 152.
23 Ibid., p. 36 and table 31.
24 Istoriya SSSR, no. 3 (1989), p. 44.
25 S. Fitzpatrick, Stalin’s Peasants, p. 65.
26 Yu. A. Moshkov, Zernovaya problema, p. 136; J. Barber and R. W. Davies, ‘Employment and Industrial Labour’, p. 103.
27 S. Fitzpatrick, ‘Stalin and the Making of a New Elite’.
28 T. H. Rigby, Communist Party Membership, pp. 52–3.
29 A. K. Sokolov, Lektsii po Sovetskoi istorii, p. 130.
30 R. W. Davies, ‘Industry’, p. 145.
31 R. MacNeal, Stalin: Man and Ruler, p. 218.
32 RTsKhIDNI, f. 44, op. 1, d. 5, pp. 20–21; PSS, vol. 41, p. 458.
33 A. di Biagio, Le origini dell’isolazionismo, pp. 33–48.
34 O. V. Khlevnyuk, Stalin i Ordzhonikidze, pp. 22–9.
35 P. Broué, ‘Trotsky et le bloc des oppositions de 1932’.
36 Cited in O. V. Khlevnyuk, ‘The Objectives of the Great Terror’, p. 159.
1 L. Gordon and E. Klopov, Chto eto bylo?, p. 92.
2 Narodnoe khozyaistvo za 70 let, p. 528.
3 Gordon and Klopov, Chto eto bylo?, p. 87.
4 Ibid., p. 89.
5 Narodnoe khozyaistvo za 70 let, p. 569.
6 S. Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain: Stalinism as Civilisation.
7 I. V. Stalin, Sochineniya, vol. 14, p. 89.
8 E. A. Osokina, Ierarkhiya potrebleniya, p. 116.
9 A. Nove, An Economic History, pp. 224–5; R. W. Davies in The Economic Transformation, p. 17.
10 O. V. Khlevnyuk, Stalin i Ordzhonikidze, pp. 35–7.
11 Nove, Economic History, pp. 178, 180.
12 O. V. Khlevnyuk, 1937-y: Stalin, NKVD i sovetskoe obshchestvo, p. 27.
13 Stalin, Sochineniya, vol. 13, p. 211.
14 Khlevnyuk, 1937-y, pp. 28–9.
15 E. Radzinsky, Stalin, pp. 279–86.
16 R. Medvedev, Sem’ya tirana, p. 4.
17 R. Medvedev, Let History Judge, p. 224.
18 D. A. Volkogonov, Moskovskie novosti, no. 38 (18 September 1988), p. 16.
19 B. Souvarine, Stalin, p. 485.
20 P. N. Pospelov, ‘Pyatdesyat let KPSS’, pp. 21–2.
21 B. A. Starkov, Dela i lyudi stalinskogo vremeni, p. 89.
22 Even after the late 1960s, moreover, there was a recurrence of widespread popular enthusiasm, especially under Gorbachëv in the second half of the 1980s.
23 R. Stites, Russian Popular Culture, p. 97.
24 Ibid., p. 82.
25 S. Fitzpatrick, Stalin’s Peasants, p. 218.
26 B. Nahaylo and V. Svoboda, Soviet Disunion, p. 66.
27 Akademicheskoe delo 1929–1931, p. xlviii.
28 Starkov, Dela i lyudi, p. 36.
29 K. Simonov, Glazami, p. 37.
30 M. Ellman, ‘On Sources: A Note’, p. 914.
31 R. Conquest, Harvest of Sorrow, pp. 323–8.
32 R. Kaiser, The Geography of Nationalism, p. 116.
33 D. Pospielovsky, The Russian Church under the Soviet Regime, vol. 1, p. 175.
34 Ibid., pp. 173–4.
35 I. Antinova and I. Merkert, Moskva-Berlin, 1900–1950, p. 514.
36 S. Bruk and V. Kabuzan, ‘Dinamika chislennosti’, pp. 3–21.
37 The contributions of S. Crisp (p. 38), S. Akiner (p. 107) and G. Hewitt (p. 143) in M. Kirkwood, Language Planning in the Soviet Union.
38 M. Friedberg, Russian Classics in Soviet Jackets, pp. 32–56.
1 E. Bacon, The Gulag at War, p. 10.
2 This argument is put by Bacon in The Gulag at War.
3 This argument is put by O. V. Khlevnyuk, ‘The Objectives of the Great Terror’, p. 173: the author draws especially on V. M. Molotov’s statement in F. Chuev, Sto sorok besed s Molotovym, pp. 390–91, 416.
4 F. Benvenuti, ‘A Stalinist Victim of Stalinism’, pp. 141–2.
5 See Kaganovich’s speech on 17 January 1934: IV Moskovskaya oblastnaya, pp. 49–50.
6 SXVII, p. 537.
7 T. H. Rigby, Communist Party Membership, p. 204.
8 SXVII, pp. 34, 36.
9 SXVII, pp. 353, 566.
10 SXVII, p. 46 (Eikhe); p. 600 (Shiryatov).
11 SXVII, pp. 380–413, 439–41. At the time Mikoyan was only a candidate member of the Politburo.
12 SXVII, pp. 64, 91, 147.
13 SXVII, p. 354.
14 SXVII, pp. 435, 649.
15 SXVII, p. 259.
16 O. V. Khlevnyuk, 1937-y, p. 36.
17 R. Conquest, The Great Terror: A Reassessment, p. 33.
18 SXVII, p. 245.
19 O. V. Khlevnyuk, Politbyuro. Mekhanizmy politicheskoi vlasti, pp. 112–13.
20 F. Benvenuti, ‘Kirov nella politica sovietica’.
21 O. V. Khlevnyuk, 1937-y, p. 42.
22 Ibid., p. 49; D. Shearer, ‘Social Disorder, Mass Repression, and the NKVD during the 1930s’.
23 G. T. Rittersporn, Simplifications staliniennes, p. 27.
24 F. Benvenuti and S. Pons, Il Sistema di Potere dello Stalinismo, p. 105.
25 ITsKKPSS, no. 9 (1989), p. 39.
26 E. A. Rees, ‘Stalin, the Politburo and Rail Transport Policy’, p. 124.
27 F. Benvenuti, Fuoco sui Sabotatori!, ch. 2; and D. Filtzer, Soviet Workers and Stalinist Industrialisation, ch. 4; E. A. Rees, Stalinism and Soviet Rail Transport, pp. 123–7.
28 E. Zaleski, Stalinist Planning for Economic Growth, pp. 243–8.
29 P. Broué, Trotsky, pp. 709–12.
30 ITsKKPSS, no. 8 (1989), p. 100.
31 S. G. Wheatcroft and R. W. Davies, ‘Agriculture’, table 19.
32 Khlevnyuk, 1937-y, pp. 132–6.
33 Rees, ‘Stalin, the Politburo and Rail Transport Policy’, p. 106.
34 Khlevnyuk, 1937-y, p. 77.
35 Ibid., p. 114.
36 Ibid.
37 Rittersporn, Simplifications staliniennes, p. 144.
38 Document quoted by O. V. Khlevnyuk, ‘The Objectives of the Great Terror’, p. 166.
39 J. Erickson, The Soviet High Command, pp. 296–8, 402–3; S. Pons, Stalin e la Guerra Inevitabile, pp. 152–3.
40 Rodina, no. 3 (1994), pp. 74–5.
41 Moskovskie novosti, no. 15, 10 April 1989.
42 Quoted in B. A. Starkov, Dela i lyudi, pp. 127–8.
43 Trud, 4 June 1992.
44 Izvestiya, 10 June 1992.
45 See note 43.
46 Pravda, 19 January 1938.
47 Moskovskie novosti, 21 June 1992, p. 19.
48 See note 46.
49 Otechestvennye arkhivy, no. 2 (1992), pp. 28–9.
50 S. G. Wheatcroft and R. W. Davies, ‘Population’, p. 77.
51 Such was the case with the deposition made by Red Army Commander-in-Chief Mikhail Tukhachevski before he was dragged off to the firing-squad.
52 K. Simonov, Glazami, p. 299.
53 Conquest, The Great Terror: A Reassessment, p. 334.
54 R. W. Davies, ‘Forced Labour Under Stalin’, p. 67.
55 G. Gill, The Origins of the Stalinist Political System, p. 279.
56 Tak eto bylo. Natsional’ny repressii v SSSR, vol. 1, p. 44, 50, 86, 96.
57 Stalin’s marginal notes as cited by O. Volobuev and S. Kuleshov, Ochishchenie, p. 146.
58 Moskovskie novosti, no. 32, 7 August 1988.
59 R. C. Tucker, Stalin in Power. The Revolution from Above, pp. 482–3.
60 B. A. Viktorov, ‘Geroi iz 37-go’, Komsomol’skaya pravda, 21 August 1988.
61 Trud, 4 June 1992.
62 Ibid.
63 Simonov, Glazami, p. 315.
64 V. F. Nekrasov (ed.), Beria: konets kar’ery, p. 317.
65 Khlevnyuk, 1937-y, pp. 221–2.
66 R. W. Davies, ‘Industry’, table 31.
67 N. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, p. 273.
68 Simonov, Glazami, p. 58.
69 Rees, ‘Stalin, the Politburo and Rail Transport Policy’, pp. 107, 111.
70 SVIII, pp. 143–4, 229.
1 O. V. Khlevnyuk, 1937-y: Stalin, NKVD i sovetskoe obshchestvo, pp. 232–33.
2 Computed from data in G. Gill, The Origins of the Stalinist Political System, p. 416.
3 N. S. Timasheff, The Great Retreat, pp. 223, 309.
4 F. Benvenuti and S. Pons, Il Sistema, p. 187.
5 See Istoriya Vsesoyuznoi Kommunisticheskoi Partii, ch. 12.
6 I. V. Stalin, Sochineniya, vol. 14, pp. 142, 152.
7 Ibid., p. 144.
8 Ibid., p. 179.
9 Ibid., pp. 164–5.
10 Neizvestnaya Rossiya, no. 2, pp. 279–81.
11 S. and B. Webb, Soviet Communism: A New Civilisation?, pp. 432–46.
12 Ibid., p. 152.
13 SXVIII, p. 36.
14 SXVIII, p. 26.
15 T. H. Rigby, ‘Was Stalin a Disloyal Patron?’, p. 132.
16 N. S. Khrushchev, The Glasnost Tapes, p. 38.
17 K. Simonov, Glazami, pp. 378–9.
18 P. Juviler, Revolutionary Law and Order, ch. 3.
19 Rodina, no. 3 (1994), p. 79.
20 D. Filtzer, Soviet Workers and Stalinist Industrialisation, ch. 8.
21 N. Jasny, The Socialized Agriculture of the Soviet Union, pp. 341–2.
22 R. Conquest, Industrial Workers in the USSR, pp. 103–5.
23 Jasny, The Socialized Agriculture, p. 342.
24 See note 20.
25 I owe this metaphor to Katherine Braithwaite’s intervention in a lecture I was giving.
26 D. Hoffmann, Peasant Metropolis.
27 Timasheff, The Great Retreat, pp. 197, 200–202.
28 F. Chuev (ed.), Tak govoril Kaganovich, p. 59.
29 Pravda, no. 179, 1 July 1937 and following copies: no doubt Stalin also wanted to avoid being held personally responsible for the Great Terror if it went wrong and he was brought to account for it.
30 R. O. G. Urch, The Rabbit King of Siberia , chs 13, 19.
31 M. Gor’kii, L. Averbakh and S. Firin (eds), Belomorsko–Baltiiskii Kanal imeni Stalina.
32 R. Stites, Russian Popular Culture, pp. 72–6.
33 A. Bergson, The Real National Income of Soviet Russia since 1928, p. 251.
34 A. S. Shinkarchuk, Obshchestvennoe mnenie, p. 37.
35 Ibid., pp. 46–7.
36 Stalin, Sochineniya, vol. 14, p. 238.
37 S. Fitzpatrick, Stalin’s Peasants, pp. 289–96.
38 Yu. A. Polyakov, V. B. Zhiromskaya and I. N. Kiselëv, ‘Polveka molchaniya’, p. 69.
39 J. D. Barber and R. W. Davies, ‘Employment and Industrial Labour’, p. 103.
40 M. Harrison, ‘National Income’ in The Economic Transformation, p. 53.
41 Neizvestnaya Rossiya, no. 2, pp. 272–9. On the complexities of social attitudes in the 1930s see S. Davies, Public Opinion in Stalin’s Russia.
42 A. Inkeles and R. M. Bauer, The Soviet Citizen. Daily Life in a Total-itarian Society, pp. 234–6.
43 Quoted in Khlevnyuk, 1937-y, p. 88–9; and D. A. Volkogonov, Stalin, vol. 1, part 2, p. 58.
1 A. di Biagio, Le Origini dell’isolazionismo Sovietico, ch. 1.
2 J. Haslam, The Soviet Union and the Struggle for Collective Security, pp. 121, 125, 156–7; R. C. Nation, Black Earth, Red Star, pp. 101–2; S. Pons, Stalin e la Guerra Inevitabile, pp. 122–3.
3 I am grateful to Silvio Pons for clarifying issues of Soviet foreign policy in the late 1930s.
4 J. Barber and M. Harrison, The Soviet Home Front, p. 17.
5 J. Erickson, The Soviet High Command, pp. 576, 582.
6 Haslam, The Soviet Union and the Struggle, p. 225.
7 Pons, Stalin e la Guerra Inevitabile, pp. 273–5.
8 R. MacNeal, Stalin, p. 221.
9 N. S. Khrushchev, The Glasnost Tapes, p. 46.
10 V. N. Zemtsov, ‘Prinuditel’nye migratsii iz Pribaltiki’, p. 4; K. Sword, Deportation and Exile. Poles in the Soviet Union, pp. 6–7, 13–14.
11 L. Rotundo, ‘Stalin and the Outbreak of War in 1941’, p. 291.
12 Khrushchev, The Glasnost Tapes, p. 50.
13 J. Erickson, The Road to Stalingrad, pp. 576, 582.
14 K. Simonov, Glazami, pp. 258–9.
15 See the materials in G. A. Bordyugov (ed.), Gotovil li Stalin nastupatel’-nuyu voinu protiv Gitlera?; V. N. Kiselev, ‘Upryamye fakty nachala voiny’, p. 78; V. D. Danilov, ‘Gotovil li general’nyi shtab Krasno’ Armii uprezhdayushchii udar po Germanii?’, p. 88
16 IA, no. 2 (1995), p. 30.
17 Znamya, no. 6 (1990), p. 165.
18 Erickson, The Road to Stalingrad, ch. 3.
19 Yu. A. Gor’kov, Kreml’. Stavka. Genshtab, pp. 79–80.
20 D. A. Volkogonov, Stalin, vol. 2, part 2, p. 191.
21 V. Kumanëv, ‘Iz vospominaniyakh o voennykh godakh’, pp. 68–75.
22 J. Barber and M. Harrison, The Soviet Home Front, p. 41.
23 Ibid., p. 50.
24 Gor’kov, Kreml’. Stavka. Genshtab, p. 155.
25 I. V. Stalin, Sochineniya, vol. 15, p. 1.
26 See K. Simonov’s record of an interview with Konev, Glazami, p. 360.
27 G. Rittersporn, Simplifications staliniennes, p. 248.
28 Neizvestnaya Rossiya, vol. 2, pp. 63–5.
29 Simonov, Glazami, p. 389.
30 Khrushchev, The Glasnost Tapes, p. 65.
31 M. Harrison, ‘The Second World War’, pp. 250–52.
32 J. Erickson, The Road to Berlin, p. 533.
1 H. Hunter and J. M. Szyrmer, Faulty Foundations. Soviet Economic Policies.
2 W. Moskoff, The Bread of Affliction, p. 146.
3 S. G. Wheatcroft and R. W. Davies, ‘Agriculture’, p. 126.
4 N. F. Bugai, L. P. Beriya – I. Stalinu: ‘Soglasno Vashemu ukazaniyu’, p. 56 ff.
5 A. Avtorkhanov, ‘The Chechens and the Ingush during the Soviet Period’, p. 47.
6 I. Fleischhauer, ‘The Ethnic Germans under Nazi Rule’, p. 96.
7 C. Andreyev, Vlasov and the Russian Liberation Movement, pp. 199–200.
8 E. Bacon, The Gulag at War, pp. 78, 148.
9 N. S. Patolichev, Ispytanie na zrelost’, pp. 79, 88, 137, 282.
10 Skrytaya pravda voiny: 1941 god, p. 260.
11 Moskoff, The Bread of Affliction, p. 180.
12 Skrytaya pravda voiny, p. 342.
13 Ibid., p. 364.
14 Bacon, The Gulag, p. 24.
15 V. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, pp. 405–6.
16 Soprotivlenie v Gulage. Vospominaniya. Pis’ma. Dokumenty, p. 132.
17 J. Rossi, Spravochnik po GULagu, vol. 1, p. 40.
18 F. Benvenuti and S. Pons, Il Sistema, pp. 252–3.
19 Krasnaya zvezda, 21 June 1989.
20 P. J. S. Duncan, ‘Orthodoxy and Russian Nationalism in the USSR’, p. 315.
21 P. J. S. Duncan, ‘Russian Messianism: a Historical and Political Analysis’, p. 316–17.
22 Pravda, 21 April 1942.
23 It must be added that the RSFSR did not escape German occupation: about thirty million Soviet citizens had lived in parts of the RSFSR that fell into the hands of the Wehrmacht by the end of 1941: see N. I. Kondakova and V. N. Main, Intelligentsiya Rossii, p. 91.
24 Ye. S. Senyavskaya, 1941–1945: Frontovoe Pokolenie, p. 105.
25 Ibid., pp. 83, 104.
26 Ibid., pp. 108–9.
27 Ibid., pp. 108–9, 170.
28 J. D. Barber and M. Harrison, The Soviet Home Front, p. 148.
29 M. Harrison, ‘Soviet Production and Employment in World War Two’, p. 22.
30 Yu. V. Arutunyan, Sovetskoe krest’yanstvo, pp. 360–66.
31 OA, Cherkess Autonomous Region file: location unrecorded, p. 117.
32 S. G. Wheatcroft and R. W. Davies, ‘Population’, p. 78.
33 In fact Stalin’s scorched-earth policy for the retreating Red Army in 1941 limited the benefit for the German economy.
34 S. Kudryashëv, ‘Collaboration on the Eastern Front’, pp. 15, 17.
35 A. Dallin, German Rule in Russia, p. 477.
36 File on Gulyai-Pole in OA, unrecorded file number, p. 266.
37 Skrytaya pravda voiny, pp. 266–8.
38 Kudryashëv, ‘Collaboration’, p. 44.
39 Dallin, German Rule in Russia, p. 209.
40 Senyavskaya, 1941–1945, p. 141.
41 R. MacNeal, Stalin, pp. 248–50.
42 G. Bordyugov and A. Afanas’ev, ‘Ukradënnaya Pobeda’; S. Fitzpatrick, Stalin’s Peasants, pp. 293–4.
43 Senyavskaya, 1941–1945, p. 79.
1 S. G. Wheatcroft and R. W. Davies, ‘Population’, p. 78.
2 M. V. Filimoshin, ‘Poteri grazhdanskogo naseleniya’, p. 124.
3 R. Kaiser, The Geography of Nationalism, p. 118.
4 This was so sensitive a topic that Nikita Khrushchëv revealed it to the Central Committee many years later, in July 1953, only in the strictest confidence: see R. Service, ‘The Road to the Twentieth Party Congress’, p. 237.
5 OA, Cherkessian Autonomous Province file, p. 117.
6 P. Levi, The Truce.
7 This had been true also at the end of the First Five-Year Plan: another ‘triumph’ marred for him by the attendant menace to his regime.
8 E. Yu. Zubkova, Obshchestvo i reformy, p. 72.
9 An exception was Andrei Sakharov; but even he, after graduating in 1942, became an armaments factory engineer for the rest of the war.
10 Zubkova, Obshchestvo i reformy, pp. 39–40.
11 V. P. Popov, Krest’yanstvo i gosudarstvo, pp. 261–80.
12 Zubkova, Obshchestvo i reformy, p. 41.
13 See the account of A. S. Belyakov’s recollections of A. A. Zhdanov’s description of a meeting of central political leaders: G. Arbatov, Svidetel’stvo sovremennika, p. 377.
14 Zubkova, Obshchestvo i reformy, p. 52.
15 Ibid., p. 43.
16 Pravda, 25 May 1945.
17 V. N. Zemskov, ‘Prinuditel’nye migratsii iz Pribaltiki’, pp. 13–14.
18 Ibid., p. 5.
19 J. Rossi, Spravochnik po GULagu, vol. 1, p. 53.
20 E. Bacon, The Gulag, pp. 93–4.
21 Calculated from ibid., p. 24.
22 D. Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, p. 193.
23 W. Hahn, Postwar Soviet Politics, pp. 98–101.
24 F. Benvenuti and S. Pons, Il Sistema, pp. 282–8.
25 T. Dunmore, Soviet Politics, 1945–1953, chs 3, 4.
26 A. Nove, An Economic History, p. 290.
27 T. Dunmore, The Stalinist Command Economy, ch. 5.
28 Nove, Economic History, p. 293.
29 A. Nove, ‘Industry’, p. 62.
30 Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, p. 216.
31 Nove, Economic History, p. 293.
32 Ibid., p. 305.
33 A. McAuley, Economic Welfare in the Soviet Union, pp. 33–4; and A. McAuley, ‘Social Policy’ in Khrushchev and Khrushchevism, p. 141.
34 McAuley, Economic Welfare, pp. 33–4; M. B. Smith, ‘Individual Forms of Ownership in the Urban Housing Fund of the USSR, 1944–64’, pp. 304–5.
35 M. Djilas, Conversations with Stalin, p. 133.
36 A. Agosti, Togliatti, p. 275.
37 A. Polonsky (ed.), The Great Powers and the Polish Question, p. 246.
38 The Cominform. Minutes of the Three Conferences, 1947/1948/1949, pp. 50, 178, 428, 450.
39 Ibid., p. 390.
40 F. Fejtö, Histoire des démocraties populaires, pp. 279–80.
41 S. Goncharov, J. W. Lewis and X. Litai, Stalin, Mao and the Korean War, ch. 4 ff.
1 K. Simonov, Glazami, p. 357.
2 Kommunist, no. 7 (1989), p. 68.
3 R. Richardson, The Long Shadow. Inside Stalin’s Family, p. 44.
4 N. S. Khrushchev, The Glasnost Tapes, p. 66.
5 I. V. Stalin. Kratkaya biografiya, p. 5.
6 I. V. Stalin, Sochineniya, vol. 15, p. 204.
7 R. Stites, Russian Popular Culture, p. 119.
8 Khrushchev, The Glasnost Tapes, p. 92.
9 A. Adzhubei, Te desyat’ let, p. 62.
10 D. Deletant, ‘Language Policy and Linguistic Trends in Soviet Moldavia’, pp. 196–7.
11 It must be added that the titular nationalities of some Soviet republics also behaved imperialistically towards their own national minorities. For example, Abkhaz and Ossetian were eliminated from the schools in Georgia.
12 In the 1930s, Shamil had stopped being treated as a positive anti-colonial rebel, but still not yet as a thoroughly reactionary figure.
13 D. Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, pp. 207–8.
14 Ibid., p. 211.
15 Marksizm i voprosy yazykoznaniya in Stalin, Sochineniya, vol. 16, p. 159.
16 Moskovskie novosti, no. 32, 7 August 1988.
17 Kniga o vkusnoi i zdorovoi pishche, frontispiece.
18 V. Dunham, In Stalin’s Time. Middleclass Values in Soviet Fiction.
19 B. Kerblay, Modern Soviet Society, p. 207.
20 I. V. Stalin, Ekonomicheskie problemy sotsializma v SSSR, p. 100.
21 Stalin, Sochineniya, vol. 16, pp. 115–19.
22 L. Opënkin, ‘I. V. Stalin: poslednii prognoz budushchego’, p. 113.
23 Stalin, Ekonomicheskie problemy, pp. 1–3.
24 Ibid., pp. 35–40.
25 The statue was completed and unveiled only in 1954.
26 Simonov, Glazami, p. 214.
27 Ibid., p. 210.
28 Ibid., p. 211.
29 E. Radzinsky, Stalin, pp. 549–58.
30 R. W. Davies, ‘Forced Labour Under Stalin: The Archive Revelations’, p. 67.
31 Soprotivlenie v Gulage, p. 209.
1 See R. Service, ‘The Road to the Twentieth Party Congress’, pp. 234–8.
2 K. Simonov, Glazami, p. 242.
3 ITsKKPSS, no. 1 (1990), pp. 188–9.
4 Soprotivlenie v Gulage, p. 209.
5 F. Burlatskii, Vozhdi i sovetniki, p. 28. The word used by Khrushchëv was opora.
6 D. Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, p. 317.
7 A. Nove, An Economic History, p. 334.
8 N. Barsukov, ‘Kak sozdavalsya “zakrytyi doklad” Khrushchëva’, p. 11.
9 Vlad. Naumov, ‘Utverdit’ dokladchikom tovarishcha Khrushchëva’, p. 34.
10 See note 8.
11 ITsKKPSS, no. 3 (1989), p. 153; N. Khrushchev, The Glasnost Tapes, p. 44.
12 See W. J. Tompson, Khrushchev: A Political Life, pp. 57–61.
13 This translation is more accurate than the more usual one, ‘cult of personality’, since it was Stalin’s entire role as an individual and not simply his personality that was the object of the cult.
14 N. Bethell, Gomulka. His Poland and his Communism, p. 210.
15 W. Lomax, Hungary, 1956.
16 IA, no. 2 (1994), pp. 60–61 (Molotov’s self-criticism).
17 SXXII, vol. 2, p. 588.
18 R. Medvedev, Khrushchev: The Years in Power, p. 74.
19 IA, no. 3 (1993), p. 9.
20 T. H. Rigby, Communist Party Membership, p. 52.
21 S. Pons, ‘La politica organizzativa nell’apparato del PCUS’, pp. 200–204.
22 G. Breslauer, Khrushchev and Brezhnev as Leaders, p. 66.
23 Ibid., p. 86.
24 Ibid., p. 95.
25 Burlatskii, Vozhdi i sovetniki, p. 64.
26 A. Adzhubei, Te desyat’ let, p. 150.
27 Ustav Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soyuza, section three, clause 25.
28 Nove, Economic History, p. 336.
29 Narodnoe khozyaistvo SSSR v 1960 godu, pp. 441, 465, 467.
30 N. Yegorychev, ‘Posle XX s’’ezda’, VIKPSS, no. 5 (1991), pp. 98–9.
31 R. Service, Lenin, vol. 3, p. 200.
32 A. di Biagio, ‘La teoria dell’inevitabilità della guerra’, p. 73.
33 M. Beschloss, Kennedy vs. Khrushchev, pp. 328–31.
1 R. Stites, Russian Popular Culture, p. 146.
2 A. Nove, An Economic History, p. 353.
3 D. Filtzer, ‘Labour’, p. 133.
4 D. Filtzer, Soviet Workers and De-Stalinization, p. 103.
5 A. McAuley, ‘Social Policy’, p. 146.
6 P. H. Solomon, Soviet Criminologists and Criminal Policy, chs 3, 4.
7 I am grateful to Jovan Howe for pointing out to me the importance of the amalgamation policy on rural traditions and conditions.
8 Filtzer, ‘Labour’, p. 122.
9 N. Barsukov (ed.), ‘N. S. Khrushchëv o proekte tret’ei programmy KPSS’, pp. 1–8.
10 F. Burlatskii, Vozhdi i sovetniki, p. 124.
11 SXXII, vol. 3, p. 119.
12 The Soviet Constitution of 1936 defined the USSR as ‘a state of the workers and peasants’.
13 SXXII, vol. 3, p. 303.
14 Ibid., p. 335.
15 V. E. Yesipov, ‘Povsednevnost’ ekonomiki Rossii’, p. 112.
16 IA, no. 3 (1993), pp. 117, 130–34.
17 Burlatskii, Vozhdi i sovetniki, p. 143.
18 V. Kozlov, The Peoples of the Soviet Union, pp. 37, 94–5.
19 IA, no. 1 (1992), pp. 48–9.
20 Kozlov, The Peoples of the Soviet Union, pp. 37, 94–5.
21 Ibid., p. 194.
22 J. Anderson, Religion, State and Politics in the Soviet Union and Successor States, p. 55.
23 B. Kerblay, Modern Soviet Society, p. 282.
24 Anderson, Religion, State and Politics, pp. 61–2.
25 Burlatskii, Vozhdi i sovetniki, p. 122.
26 R. Garthoff, Soviet Strategy in the Nuclear Age, p. 57.
27 N. S. Khrushchev, The Glasnost Tapes, p. 63.
28 N. S. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, p. 419.
29 Khrushchev, The Glasnost Tapes, p. 177.
30 Nove, Economic History, p. 363.
1 S. N. Khrushchev, Khrushchev on Khrushchev, ch. 2.
2 Neizvestnaya Rossiya, no. 1, p. 287 for the notes taken by A. N. Shelepin.
3 IA, no. 1 (1993), pp. 6–7.
4 Ibid., pp. 7–15.
5 F. Burlatskii, Vozhdi i sovetniki, p. 213; G. Arbatov, Svidetel’stvo sovremennika, p. 118; Neizvestnaya Rossiya, vol. 1, p. 286.
6 Burlatskii, Vozhdi i sovetniki, p. 220.
7 L. Alekseeva, Inakomyslie v SSSR, pp. 201–6.
8 See R. Medvedev, Lichnost i epokha. Politicheskii portret L. I. Brezhneva, p. 279.
9 Burlatskii, Vozhdi i sovetniki, p. 285.
10 VIKPSS, no. 4 (1991), p. 100.
11 Burlatskii, Vozhdi i sovetniki, p. 299.
12 See Arbatov, Svidetel’stvosovremennika, p. 120 for some hearsay evidence.
13 D. B. Diamond, L. W. Bettis and R. E. Ramsson, ‘Agricultural Production’, p. 145.
14 M. Weitzman, ‘Industrial Production’, p. 180.
15 R. Pikhoya, ‘Chekhoslovakia, 1968’, pp. 11, 14, 17.
16 Alekseeva, Inakomyslie, pp. 213–14.
17 P. J. S. Duncan, The Soviet Union and India, ch. 2.
18 B. Nahaylo and V. Swoboda, The Soviet Disunion, pp. 150–51.
19 Ibid., pp. 188–9.
20 Medvedev, Lichnost’ i epokha, p. 140.
1 Moskovskie novosti, no. 10 (1990).
2 A. Nove, ‘Agriculture’, p. 171.
3 Ibid., p. 170.
4 M. S. Gorbachëv, Zhizn’ i reformy, vol. 1, pp. 195–7.
5 K. Wädekin, ‘Agriculture’, p. 119.
6 Vladimir Medvedev, Chelovek za spinoi, pp. 144, 149.
7 Ye. Chazov, Zdorov’e i vlast’, pp. 120–22.
8 R. Hill and P. Frank, The Soviet Communist Party, p. 150.
9 R. Medvedev, Lichnost’ i epokha, pp. 182–4.
10 A. B. Evans, Soviet Marxism-Leninism, pp. 105–6.
11 SXXIV, vol. 1, p. 55.
12 Konstitutsiya SSSR, p. 1.
13 S. Whitefield, Industrial Power and the Soviet State, ch. 3.
14 A. Nove, An Economic History, p. 377.
15 M. Matthews, Class and Society in Soviet Russia, p. 89.
16 Narodnoe khozyaistvo v 1980 g., p. 406.
17 S. Hedlund, Crisis in Soviet Agriculture, p. 173.
18 N. Grant, Soviet Education, p. 116.
19 J. Miller, ‘The Communist Party: Trends and Problems’, p. 6.
20 M. Galeotti, Afghanistan. The Soviet Union’s Last War, pp. 10–12.
1 Z. Medvedev, A Question of Madness.
2 A. D. Sakharov, Progress, Co-Existence and Intellectual Freedom.
3 R. Medvedev, On Socialist Democracy.
4 A. I. Solzhenitsyn, Letter to the Soviet Leaders.
5 G. Hosking, Beyond Socialist Realism. Soviet Fiction since Ivan Denisovich, ch. 3.
6 M. Friedberg, Russian Classics in Soviet Jackets, pp. 170–76.
7 I witnessed this in 1974 in the Leningrad Library of the Academy of Sciences.
8 See R. Hill and P. Frank, The Soviet Communist Party, p. 36.
9 Narodnoe khozyaistvo v 1990 g., p. 188.
10 M. Matthews, Class and Society in Soviet Russia, pp. 81–9.
11 S. White, Political Culture and Soviet Politics, p. 133.
12 I have yet to see a copy of this decree, but was informed about it in the Moscow bookshop (now a private video-shop: o tempora, o mores!) on Bogdan Khmelnitsii Street in 1989.
13 D. Lane, The End of Inequality?, pp. 104–6.
14 Calculated from V. Kozlov, The Peoples of the Soviet Union, pp. 94, 206.
15 I am grateful to Archie Brown for elucidating the Yakovlev affair.
16 Moskovskie novosti, nos. 8–9 (1990).
17 Hill and Frank, The Soviet Communist Party, p. 63.
18 W. E. Butler, ‘Techniques of Law Reform in the Soviet Union’, p. 210.
19 See D. Volkogonov, Lenin: politicheskii portret, vol. 2, pp. 399–401.
20 R. Medvedev, Lichnost’ i epokha, pp. 298, 300.
1 M. S. Gorbachëv, Zhizn’ i reformy, vol. 1, p. 148.
2 R. Medvedev, Gensek s Lubyanki, p. 13.
3 F. Burlatskii, Vozhdi i sovetniki, p. 35.
4 G. Arbatov, Svidetel’stvo sovremennika, p. 139.
5 Gorbachëv, Zhizn’ i reformy, vol. 1, p. 189.
6 R. Medvedev, Gensek, p. 132.
7 I. S. Klemashev, Andropov’s doctor, records this in Fenomen Andropova, p. 20.
8 Yu. V. Andropov, ‘Uchenie Karla Marksa i nekotorye voprosy sotsialisticheskogo stroitel’stva’, Kommunist, no. 3 (1983).
9 Pravda, 1 February 1983.
10 N. Ryzhkov, Perestroika: istoriya predatel’stv, pp. 37, 41. For a general account see A. Brown, The Gorbachev Factor, pp. 64–5.
11 Ryzhkov, Perestroika, p. 61. Gorbachëv says that Politburo candidate member V. I. Dolgikh, too, was involved in the leadership of the research team: Zhizn’ i reformy, vol. 1, p. 233.
12 Ryzhkov, Perestroika, p. 47.
13 See R. Medvedev’s account in Gensek, pp. 93.
14 T. Zaslavskaya, ‘The Novosibirsk Report’, p. 88–108.
15 Arbatov, Svidetel’stvo sovremennika, p. 322.
16 See M. Walker, The Cold War, p. 276.
17 A. Vol’skii, Literaturnaya gazeta, 4 July 1990. The episode is still rather obscure: Gorbachëv claims not to have known about it until after Chernenko’s selection as General Secretary, Zhizn’ i reformy, vol. 1, p. 245. See also Brown, The Gorbachev Factor, pp. 67–9.
18 R. Medvedev, Gensek, pp. 219–22.
19 See R. Sakwa, Gorbachev and his Reforms, p. 11.
20 Narodnoe khozyaistvo v 1983 g., p. 129; Narodnoe khozyaistvo v 1984 g., p. 229.
21 A. S. Chernyaev, Shest’ let s Gorbachëvym, pp. 12–13.
22 Ryzhkov, Perestroika, pp. 37, 61.
23 Istochnik, no. 0 [sic] (1993), pp. 68–72.
24 It was widely reported that Gromyko said that Gorbachëv had a ‘handsome smile but an iron bite’: see A. Roxburgh, The Second Russian Revolution, p. 207. But Gromyko’s quip does not appear in any text of his speech so far published.
25 Brown, The Gorbachev Factor, pp. 121–6.
26 Gorbachëv, Zhizn’ i reformy, vol. 1, p. 38.
27 Ibid., p. 74.
28 G. Shakhnazarov, Tsena svobody, p. 339.
29 L’Unità, 9 April 1985.
30 M. Gorbačov and Z. Mlynář, Reformátoři NebývajíŠtˇastni, p. 39. I am grateful to Kieran Williams for alerting me to the existence of this book and for helping me with the Czech language.
31 Gorbachëv, Zhizn’ i reformy, vol. 1, p. 210.
32 Gorbačov and Mlynář, Reformátoři, p. 39.
33 Gorbachëv, Zhizn’ i reformy , vol. 1, pp. 165, 169.
34 Ibid., p. 236.
35 Ibid., p. 265: ‘Tak dal’she zhit’ nel’zya’.
36 I am grateful to Archie Brown for pointing out the significance of the location of the conversation.
37 Istochnik, no. 0 [sic] (1993), p. 74.
38 E. Shevardnadze, Moi vybor, p. 79.
39 Please note that these figures relate to full members of the Politburo.
40 Brown, The Gorbachev Factor, p. 77.
41 Gorbachëv, Zhizn’ i reformy, vol. 1, p. 210.
42 Ryzhkov, Perestroika, p. 92.
43 Gorbachëv, Izbrannye rechi i stat’i, vol. 2, p. 212.
44 Party Programme: SXXVII, vol. 1, p. 555.
45 T. Colton, The Dilemma of Reform in the Soviet Union, p. 91.
46 Gorbačov and Mlynář, Reformátoři, p. 69.
47 Walker, The Cold War, p. 273.
48 See note 46.
49 Chernyaev, Shest’ let s Gorbachëvym, p. 57.
50 Ibid., p. 121.
51 SXXVII, vol. 2, p. 32.
52 Z. Medvedev, Nuclear Disaster in the Urals.
53 Gorbachëv, Zhizn’ i reformy, vol. 1, p. 304.
1 J. Graffy, ‘The Literary Press’, pp. 107–36.
2 A. D. Sakharov, Memoirs, p. 615.
3 In Russian, therefore, razvivayushchiisya sotsializm replaced razvitoi sotsializm: R. Service, ‘Gorbachev’s Reforms: The Future in the Past’, p. 279.
4 Ibid., p. 278.
5 Ibid., pp. 277–8, 283–4.
6 A. Smith, Russia and the World Economy, pp. 104–6.
7 Materialy plenuma Tsentral’nogo Komiteta KPSS.
8 Pravda, 26 June 1987.
9 Gorbachëv has suggested that the illness may have been the result of Yeltsin deliberately harming himself with a pair of scissors: Zhizn’ i reformy, vol. 1, p. 374.
10 M. S. Gorbachev, Perestroika. New Thinking for Our Country and the World, pp. 38–41.
11 Ibid., p. 161.
12 Wisely he agreed to drop the long-winded slogan, ‘socialism in the process of self-development’, which he had introduced at the January 1987 Central Committee plenum: see Vadim Medvedev, V komande Gorbachëva, p. 67.
13 A. Brown, The Gorbachev Factor, pp. 33–4.
14 SXXVII, vol. 1, p. 590.
15 G. Shakhnazarov, Tsena svobody, p. 339; R. Gorbachëva, Ya nadeyus’, p. 23.
16 R. Kaiser, The Geography of Nationalism, p. 176.
17 M. S. Gorbachëv, Gody trudnykh reshenii, 1985–1992, p. 106.
18 A. S. Chernyaev, Shest’ let, p. 183.
19 Shakhnazarov, Tsena svobody, p. 341.
20 Devyatnadsataya vsesoyuznaya konferentsiya KPSS, vol. 1, p. 58.
21 Ibid., vol. 2, pp. 82–8.
22 Ibid., p. 186.
23 M. Gorbačov and Z. Mlynář, Reformátoři NebývajíŠtˇastni, p. 69.
24 E. Pryce-Jones, The War That Never Was, p. 307.
25 Gorbachëv, Izbrannye stat’i i rechi, vol. 4, p. 278.
26 Ibid., vol. 7, pp. 150–75.
1 M. S. Gorbachëv, Zhizn’ i reformy, vol. 1, p. 334.
2 A. Smith, ‘Foreign Trade’, p. 138.
3 P. Hanson, ‘The Economy’, p. 99.
4 G. Schröder, ‘Soviet consumption in the 1980s’, p. 97.
5 G. Shakhnazarov, Tsena svobody, p. 216.
6 Schröder, ‘Soviet consumption in the 1980s’, p. 93.
7 S. White, After Gorbachev, p. 127.
8 E. C. Cook, ‘Agriculture’s role in the Soviet economic crisis’, p. 197.
9 A. Brown, The Gorbachev Factor, p. 144.
10 J. Channon, ‘The privatisation of Russian Agriculture’.
11 D. Filtzer, Soviet Workers and the Collapse of Perestroika, pp. 94–101.
12 N. Ryzhkov, Perestroika, p. 297.
13 Ibid., p. 301.
14 White, After Gorbachev, p. 52.
15 Ibid., pp. 52–3.
16 Pravda, 28 May 1989.
17 Brown, The Gorbachev Factor, pp. 264–7.
18 G. A. Hosking, P. J. S. Duncan and J. Aves, The Road to Post-Communism, pp. 19–20, 76–7.
19 Brown, The Gorbachev Factor, p. 6.
20 V. A. Tishkov, ‘Assembleya natsii ili soyuznyi parlament?’, pp. 3–18; M. Buttino, ‘La fine dell’Unione Sovietica’, pp. 11–13.
21 Ryzhkov, Perestroika, pp. 90–92.
22 See the note by Brown, The Gorbachev Factor, p. 321.
23 A. S. Chernyaev, Shest’ let, p. 251.
1 A. S. Chernyaev, Shest’ let, p. 319.
2 Ibid., p. 356.
3 I owe this point to Peter Duncan.
4 Pravda, 5 February 1990.
5 ITsKKPSS, no. 4 (1990), p. 61.
6 Chernyaev, Shest’ let, p. 278.
7 L. Sukhanov, Tri Goda s Yeltsinym, pp. 119–20.
8 Narodnoe khozyaistvo v 1990 g., p. 348.
9 Pravda, 14 December 1989.
10 See G. A. Hosking, P. J. S. Duncan and J. Aves, The Road to Post-Communism, pp. 45– 6.
11 Chernyaev, Shest’ let, p. 442; Vadim Medvedev, V komande Gorbachëva, p. 185.
12 Soyuz mozhno bylo sokhranit’, p. 111.
13 A. Smith, Russia and the World Economy, pp. 118–19.
14 V. Stepankov and Ye. Lisov, Kremlëvskii zagovor, p. 79.
15 Sovetskaya Rossiya, 23 July 1991.
16 There was a masculine undertone to the appeal, which was addressed specifically to ‘Brothers’: see ibid. Even Stalin had made his appeal to ‘Brothers and Sisters’ in 1941.
17 Significantly, Judaism went unmentioned.
18 Stepankov and Lisov, Kremlëvskii zagovor, p. 14; M. S. Gorbachev, The August Coup, p. 23.
19 Smert’ zagovora. Belaya kniga, pp. 5– 7.
20 B. Yeltsin, The View from the Kremlin, p. 58.
21 Stepankov and Lisov, Kremlëvskii zagovor, p. 152.
22 Ibid., p. 165.
23 Ibid., pp. 180, 184.
24 Ibid., p. 209.
25 Ibid.
26 Izvestiya, 6 September 1991.
27 B. Yeltsin, Against the Grain. An Autobiography, p. 15.
28 Ibid., p. 22.
29 Ibid., pp. 96– 7.
30 Ibid., pp. 55– 6.
31 Yeltsin, The View from the Kremlin, p. 192.
32 G. Shakhnazarov, Tsena svobody, p. 297.
33 Izvestiya, 19 October 1991.
34 Pravda, 27 November 1991.
35 Yeltsin, The View from the Kremlin, p. 116.
36 M. S. Gorbachëv, Dekabr’-91. Moya pozitsiya, pp. 119–20.
1 A. Aslund, How Russia Became a Market Economy, p. 188.
2 R. Service, ‘Boris Yeltsin: Politics and Rhetoric’.
3 Ibid.
4 Ibid.
5 V. Bakatin, Izbavlenie ot KGB, p. 199.
6 Reported by J. Lloyd, Financial Times, 19 December 1991.
7 Interview with E. A. Ryazanov, Moscow Channel One TV: 16 November 1994. I am grateful to Lindsey Hughes for bringing this to my notice.
8 R. Service, ‘Boris El’cin: continuità e mutamento di un rivoluzionario democratico’, pp. 41–54.
9 V. A. Mau, Ekonomika i vlast’, p. 92.
10 Ibid., pp. 47–8.
11 Aslund, How Russia Became a Market Economy, pp. 235–6, 251, 256.
12 R. Sakwa, Russian Politics and Society, p. 57.
13 Aslund, How Russia Became a Market Economy, p. 141.
14 Ye. Gaidar, Gosudarstvo i evolyutsiya, p. 164.
15 Aslund, How Russia Became a Market Economy, p. 278.
16 J. Channon, Agrarian Reforms in Russia, 1992–1995, p. 4.
17 Aslund, How Russia Became a Market Economy, p. 278.
18 Ibid., p. 184.
19 R. Kaiser, The Geography of Nationalism, p. 161.
20 J. Lester, Modern Tsars and Princes. The Struggle for Hegemony in Russia, pp. 65–7.
21 Rossiiskaya gazeta, 3 April 1992, pp. 1–2.
22 B. Yeltsin, The View from the Kremlin, p. 236.
23 Programma partii Liberal’no-demokraticheskoi partii, p. 1.
24 Rossiiskaya gazeta, 6 May 1993.
25 Yeltsin, The View from the Kremlin, p. 244.
26 B. Clarke, An Empire’s New Clothes, pp. 234, 240.
27 Aslund, How Russia Became a Market Economy, p. 198.
28 This is admitted by Yeltsin in The View from the Kremlin, p. 255.
29 Ibid., p. 278.
30 Aslund, How Russia Became a Market Economy, p. 284.
31 Ibid., p. 273.
32 Ibid., p. 278.
1 R. Service, Russia: Experiment with a People, pp. 113–14.
2 NG-Stsenarii, January 2000.
3 A. Korzhakov, Boris Yel’tsin: ot rassveta do zakata, pp. 210–12.
4 R. Service, Russia: Experiment with a People, pp. 183–5.
5 B. Yeltsin, Midnight Diaries, p. 25.
6 A. Lieven, Chechnya. Tombstone of Russian Power, p. 176.
7 P. Chaisty, Legislative Politics and Economic Power, p. 101.
8 Ibid., p. 120.
9 Lieven, Chechnya, pp. 58–60.
10 Sotsial’noe polozhenie i uroven’ zhizni naseleniya Rossii, pp. 138–9 and 305. See also J. Eatwell et al., Transformation and Integration: Shaping the Future of Central and Eastern Europe, pp. 73 and 76.
11 C. Freeland, Sale of the Century, pp. 166–8.
12 G. Zyuganov, Rossiya i sovremennyi mir, pp. 17–18.
13 O. Kryshtanovskaya and S. White, ‘From Soviet Nomenklatura to Russian Elite’.
14 L. M. Drobizheva, Asimmetrichnaya federatsiya, p. 17.
15 R. Service, Russia: Experiment with a People, p. 85.
16 B. Granville and P. Oppenheimer, Russia’s Post-Communist Economy, p. 19.
17 R. Service, Russia: Experiment with a People, p. 317.
18 J. Channon, Agrarian Reforms in Russia, 1992–1995, pp. 1–5.
19 R. Service, Russia: Experiment with a People, chapter 16.
20 ‘8200’: song from Kostroma, Mon Amour.
21 R. Marsh, Literature, History and Identity in Post-Soviet Russia, 1991– 2006, pp. 548–9.
22 R. Service, Russia: Experiment with a People, pp. 283–5.
23 B. Yeltsin, Midnight Diaries, 386–7.
1 See the details in N. Gevorkyan, N. Timakova and A. Kolesnikov, Ot pervogo litsa. Peregovory s Vladimirom Putinym.
2 Moskovskie novosti, 2 June 2000.
3 R. Service, Russia: Experiment with a People, pp. 211–12.
4 S. Whitefield, ‘Culture, Experience and State Identity: A Survey-Based Analysis of Russians, 1995–2003’, p. 132.
5 T. Phillips, Beslan: The Tragedy of School No. 1, pp. 3–8.
6 P. Gustafson, ‘Putin and the Judiciary’, RESC advanced research seminar, St Antony’s College, 12 November 2007.
7 P. Chaisty, Legislative Politics and Economic Power in Russia, p. 125.
8 R. Service, Russia: Experiment with a People, pp. 273–4.
9 E. Chebankova, ‘Putin’s Struggle for Federalism: Structures, Operation and the Commitment Problem’, pp. 295–7.
10 P. Chaisty, Legislative Politics and Economic Power in Russia, p. 69.
11 RIA-Novosti 1 May 2008.
12 A. Campbell, The Blair Years. Extracts from the Alistair Campbell Diaries, p. 694.
13 P. Chaisty, Government and Opposition, no. 3, pp. 446 and 449.
14 V. Jauvert, ‘Histoire secrète d’un revirement: Sarko le Russe’, Nouvel Observateur, 13 November 2008.
15 RIA-Novosti, 16 November 2008.
16 Kommersant, 15 May 2008.
17 May 2008: www.visionofhumanity.org/gpi/results/rankings.php.