1. Sarah Silkey, Black Woman Reformer: Ida B. Wells, Lynching, and Transatlantic Activism (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2014).
2. Kathleen Endres, “In Their Own Voices: Women Redefine and Frame Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964,” American Journalism 26, no. 1 (2009): 55–80; Adrienne E. Christiansen and Jeremy J. Hanson, “Comedy As Cure for Tragedy: ACT UP and the Rhetoric of AIDS,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 82, no. 2 (1996): 157–170.
3. Micha Sifry, “From TXTMob to Twitter: How an Activist Tool Took Over the Conventions,” TechPresident, August 25, 2012, http://techpresident.com/news/22775/txtmob-twitter-how-activist-tool-took-over-conventions.
4. Axel Bruns and Jean E. Burgess, “The Use of Twitter Hashtags in the Formation of Ad Hoc Publics,” in Proceedings of the 6th European Consortium for Political Research (ECPR General Conference 2011), Reykjavik, August 25–27, 2011.
5. danah boyd, Scott Golder, and Gilad Lotan, “Tweet, Tweet, Retweet: Conversational Aspects of Retweeting on Twitter,” in Conference Proceedings: 2010 43rd Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS), January 5–8, 2010 (Washington, DC: IEEE) 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1109/HICSS.2010.412; Zizi Papacharissi and Maria de Fatima Oliveira, “Affective News and Networked Publics: The Rhythms of News Storytelling on #Egypt,” Journal of Communication 62, no. 2 (April 1, 2012): 266–282, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460–2466.2012.01630.x.
6. Zeynep Tufekci, “The Medium and the Movement: Digital Tools, Social Movement Politics, and the End of the Free Rider Problem,” Policy & Internet 6, no. 2 (June 1, 2014): 202–208, https://doi.org/10.1002/1944–2866.POI362.
7. Zeynep Tufekci and Christopher Wilson, “Social Media and the Decision to Participate in Political Protest: Observations from Tahrir Square,” Journal of Communication 62, no. 2 (April 1, 2012): 363–379, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460–2466.2012.01629.x; Alfred Hermida, Seth C. Lewis, and Rodrigo Zamith, “Sourcing the Arab Spring: A Case Study of Andy Carvin’s Sources on Twitter during the Tunisian and Egyptian Revolutions,” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 19, no. 3 (April 1, 2014): 479–499, https://doi.org/10.1111/jcc4.12074.
8. Merlyna Lim, “Clicks, Cabs, and Coffee Houses: Social Media and Oppositional Movements in Egypt, 2004–2011,” Journal of Communication 62, no. 2 (April 1, 2012): 231–248, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460–2466.2012.01628.x; Christopher Wilson and Alexandra Dunn, “Digital Media in the Egyptian Revolution: Descriptive Analysis from the Tahrir Data Set,” in “The Arab Spring,” special issue, International Journal of Communication 5 (September 2, 2011): 25, https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/1180.
9. Anthony C. Alessandrini, “Their Fight Is Our Fight: Occupy Wall Street, the Arab Spring, and New Modes of Solidarity Today,” in Periscope: Is This What Democracy Looks Like?, ed. Social Text Collective, 2013; Eve Ng and Sophie Toupin, “Feminist and Queer Practices in the Online and Offline Activism of Occupy Wall Street,” Networking Knowledge: Journal of the MeCCSA Postgraduate Network 6, no. 3 (November 29, 2013), http://ojs.meccsa.org.uk/index.php/netknow/article/view/307.
10. Mike Orcutt, “How Occupy Wall Street Occupied Twitter, Too,” Global Panel (blog), MIT Technology Review, November 9, 2011, https://www.technologyreview.com/s/426079/how-occupy-wall-street-occupied-twitter-too.
11. Sasha Costanza-Chock, “Mic Check! Media Cultures and the Occupy Movement,” Social Movement Studies 11, nos. 3–4 (August 1, 2012): 375–385, https://doi.org/10.1080/14742837.2012.710746.
12. Matt Petronzio, “How Young Native Americans Built and Sustained the #NoDAPL Movement,” Mashable, December 4, 2016, https://mashable.com/2016/12/07/standing-rock-nodapl-youth; Je Seung Lee, “Cyntoia Brown to Be Freed after Being Jailed for Murder As a Teen,” Telegraph, January 8, 2019, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/01/08/cyntoia-brown-freed-jailed-murder-teen; Eric Augenbraun, “Occupy Wall Street and the Limits of Spontaneous Street Protest,” Guardian, September 29, 2011, http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cifamerica/2011/sep/29/occupy-wall-street-protest.
13. Laura Seay, “Does Slacktivism Work?,” Washington Post, March 12, 2014, https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/monkey-cage/wp/2014/03/12/does-slacktivism-work; Bridget Christie, “We’re a Nation of Armchair Activists—What’s Wrong with That?,” Guardian, April 11, 2015, Life and Style, https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/apr/11/bridget-christie-armchair-activist.
14. Robert Asen and Daniel C. Brouwer, eds., Counterpublics and the State (Albany: SUNY Press, 2001).
15. Clemencia Rodriguez, Dorothy Kidd, and Laura Stein, eds., Making Our Media: Global Initiatives toward a Democratic Public Sphere; Creating New Communication Spaces (Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, 2009).
16. Zizi Papacharissi and Maria de Fatima Oliveira, “Affective News and Networked Publics: The Rhythms of News Storytelling on #Egypt,” Journal of Communication 62, no. 2 (April 1, 2012): 266–282, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460–2466.2012.01630.x.
17. Stephen Ramsay, Reading Machines: Toward an Algorithmic Criticism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2011).
18. Moya Bailey, “#transform(ing) DH Writing and Research: An Autoethnography of Digital Humanities and Feminist Ethics,” Digital Humanities 9, no. 2 (2015), http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/9/2/000209/000209.html.
1. Lisa M. Cuklanz, Rape on Prime Time: Television, Masculinity, and Sexual Violence (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000), http://site.ebrary.com/id/10491963; Jenny Kitzinger, Framing Abuse: Media Influence and Public Understanding of Sexual Violence Against Children (London: Pluto Press, 2004); Gary Lafree, Rape and Criminal Justice: The Social Construction of Sexual Assault (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1989); Marian Meyers, News Coverage of Violence against Women: Engendering Blame (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1996); Sujata Moorti, Color of Rape: Gender and Race in Television»s Public Spheres (Albany: SUNY Press, 2001).
2. Ana Clarissa Rojas Durazo, “Medical Violence against People of Color and the Medicalization of Domestic Violence,” in Color of Violence, ed. INCITE! Women of Color Against Violence (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2016), 179–188, https://doi.org/10.1215/9780822373445–022.
3. Andrea Ritchie, Invisible No More: Police Violence against Black Women and Women of Color, reprint ed., with a foreword by Angela Davis (Boston: Beacon Press, 2017).
4. Bailey Poland, Haters: Harassment, Abuse, and Violence Online (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2016); Kate Manne, Down Girl: The Logic of Misogyny (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017).
5. Deen Freelon, Lori Lopez, Meredith D. Clark, and Sarah J. Jackson, “How Black Twitter and Other Social Media Communities Interact with Mainstream News,” Open Science Framework, August 5, 2018, https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/nhsd9.
6. Hollaback!, “History and Values,” Hollaback! Together We Have the Power to End Harassment, accessed June 6, 2018, https://www.ihollaback.org/about/history-and-values.
7. Emily Gould, “Race, ‘Catcalling’ and #notallmen: Making Sense of the Viral Street Harassment Video,” Salon, October 29, 2014, https://www.salon.com/2014/10/29/race_catcalling_and_notallmen_making_sense_of_the_viral_street_harassment_video.
8. “Weekend Read: For Incels, It’s Not about Sex. It’s about Women,” Southern Poverty Law Center, May 4, 2018, https://www.splcenter.org/news/2018/05/04/weekend-read-incels-its-not-about-sex-its-about-women.
9. Joan Walsh, “Elliot Rodger’s Half-White Male Privilege,” Salon, May 29, 2014, https://www.salon.com/2014/05/29/elliot_rodgers_half_white_male_privilege; Amanda Hess, “‘If I Can’t Have Them, No One Will’: How Misogyny Kills Men,” Slate, May 29, 2014, https://slate.com/human-interest/2014/05/elliot-rodger-hated-men-because-he-hated-women.html.
10. Emanuella Grinberg CNN, “Why #YesAllWomen Took Off on Twitter,” CNN, May 27, 2014, http://www.cnn.com/2014/05/27/living/california-killer-hashtag-yesallwomen/index.html.
11. There was a surge in tweets linking #YesAllWomen on April 6, 2015, when two automated accounts with large followings (@WeNeedFeminlsm and @SincerelyTumblr) retweeted old #YesAllWomen tweets, which were in turn retweeted by several of their followers. The decision to retweet on April 6 appears to have been idiosyncratic, unattached to activity elsewhere on Twitter or to any external events or anniversaries that may have prompted the resurgence.
12. Michelle Rodino-Colocino, “#YesAllWomen: Intersectional Mobilization against Sexual Assault Is Radical (Again),” Feminist Media Studies 14, no. 6 (November 2, 2014): 1113–1115, https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2014.975475; Samantha C. Thrift, “#YesAllWomen as Feminist Meme Event,” Feminist Media Studies 14, no. 6 (November 2, 2014): 1090–1092, https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2014.975421.
13. Agatha Beins, “Sisterly Solidarity: Politics and Rhetoric of the Direct Address in US Feminism in the 1970s,” Women: A Cultural Review 21, no. 3 (December 1, 2010): 292–308, https://doi.org/10.1080/09574042.2010.513492.
14. Louis Althusser, “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses,” in Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays, with an introduction by Fredric Jameson (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1972); Judith Butler, Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex (Abingdon: Routledge, 2011).
15. Sarah J. Jackson and Sonia Banaszczyk, “Digital Standpoints: Debating Gendered Violence and Racial Exclusions in the Feminist Counterpublic,” Journal of Communication Inquiry 40, no. 4 (October 1, 2016): 391–407, https://doi.org/10.1177/0196859916667731.
16. George F. Will, “Colleges Become the Victims of Progressivism,” editorial, Washington Post, June 6, 2014, https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/george-will-college-become-the-victims-of-progressivism/2014/06/06/e90e73b4-eb50-11e3-9f5c-9075d5508f0a_story.html?utm_term=.b8035a5dd0b3.
17. “Sexual Assault on College Campuses Is Common,” WomensHealth.gov, October 10, 2017, https://www.womenshealth.gov/relationships-and-safety/sexual-assault-and-rape/college-sexual-assault.
18. Ryan Parker, “Fox News Show Hammered by Critics for Ray Rice Lesson: ‘Take the Stairs,’” Los Angeles Times, September 8, 2014, Entertainment, http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/tv/showtracker/la-et-st-fox-news-ray-rice-stairs-20140908-htmlstory.html.
19. Beverly Gooden, “Why I Created the Why I Stayed (#WhyIStayed) Movement.,” BeverlyGooden.com, accessed October 30, 2018, http://www.beverlygooden.com/hear/whyistayed.
20. #WhyIStayed was the first among those we examined to include a large number of pornographic images propagated by bots or automated accounts. Although we cannot be sure why pornographic bots appeared here, the fact that they first appeared in a hashtag associated with violence perpetrated against a Black woman is evocative of Safiya Noble’s intersectional critique of algorithmic bias against women of color. See Safiya Umoja Noble, Algorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism (New York: New York University Press, 2018). For purposes of our analysis, we removed confirmed bots from this network and all of the networks we examine.
21. Throughout this book we use screenshots of tweets to illustrate important findings. Although the twitter data used in our analysis were collected from the Twitter API, these screenshots were collected at various times throughout 2015–2018 as we completed our analysis. The text content of tweets retrieved through the API and appearing in the screenshots is identical, but occasionally the visual features of the tweets, including the avatar image used by each user and the layout of the tweet, may be different from how they originally appeared.
22. Ella Ceron and Lainna Fader, “35 Women and #TheEmptyChair,” The Cut, July 28, 2015, https://www.thecut.com/2015/07/35-women-and-theemptychair.html.
23. Anna Silman, “Hannibal Buress Called Bill Cosby a Rapist,” Vulture, October 20, 2014, http://www.vulture.com/2014/10/hannibal-buress-called-bill-cosby-a-rapist.html.
24. Cara Buckley, “Stars Will Take Activists to the Golden Globes Red Carpet,” New York Times, January 20, 2018, Movies, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/07/movies/golden-globes-2018-activists-metoo-red-carpet.html.
25. Brent Lang, “Harvey Weinstein Forced Out of His Own Company,” Variety, October 8, 2017, https://variety.com/2017/biz/news/harvey-weinstein-out-weinstein-company-1202583568.
26. Leta Hong Fincher, Betraying Big Brother: The Feminist Awakening in China (London: Verso, 2018).
27. Colleen Flaherty, “Michael Kimmel’s Former Student Is Putting a Name and Details to Those Harassment ‘Rumors,’” InsideHigherEd.com, August 10, 2018, https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2018/08/10/michael-kimmels-former-student-putting-name-and-details-those-harassment-rumors.
28. Sarah Cascone, “Meet the Artist Whose ‘KAVANOPE’ Poster Has Gone Totally Viral,” Artnet News, September 28, 2018, https://news.artnet.com/art-world/heres-story-behind-viral-kavanope-graphic-1359625.
1. Susana Loza, “Hashtag Feminism, #SolidarityIsForWhiteWomen, and the Other #FemFuture,” Ada: A Journal of Gender, New Media, and Technology 5 (July 7, 2014), http://adanewmedia.org/2014/07/issue5-loza.
2. Sarah J. Jackson and Sonia Banaszczyk, “Digital Standpoints: Debating Gendered Violence and Racial Exclusions in the Feminist Counterpublic,” Journal of Communication Inquiry 40, no. 4 (October 1, 2016): 391–407, https://doi.org/10.1177/0196859916667731.
3. Pew Research Center, “Demographics of Social Media Users and Adoption in the United States,” PewInternet.org, February 5, 2018, http://www.pewinternet.org/fact-sheet/social-media.
4. Anna Julia Cooper, A Voice from the South, with an introduction by Janet Neary (New York: Dover Publications, 2016), 62.
5. Frances Beale, “Double Jeopardy: To Be Black and Female,” in Words of Fire: An Anthology of African-American Feminist Thought, ed. Beverly Guy-Sheftall (New York: The New Press, 1995), 146–155.
6. Keeanga-Yamahtta Taylor, ed., How We Get Free: Black Feminism and the Combahee River Collective (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2017).
7. Kimberle Crenshaw, “Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color,” Stanford Law Review 43, no. 6 (1991): 1241–1299.
8. Moya Bailey, “They Aren’t Talking about Me …,” Crunk Feminist Collective, March 14, 2010, http://www.crunkfeministcollective.com/2010/03/14/they-arent-talking-about-me.
9. Mikki Kendall and Jamie Nesbitt Golden, “Hoodfeminism,” hoodfeminism, 2013, https://hoodfeminism.com.
10. Elsewhere, Moya Bailey has written about the way that this misogynoirstic thinking led to Kelly’s acquittal on child pornography charges in 2008. See “Misogynoir in Medical Media: On Caster Semenya and R. Kelly,” Catalyst, September 2016.
11. Trendinalia USA, “@Karnythia the 1st Mention of the #FastTailedGirls Hashtag Appears on Your TL. Now Is Trending Topic in United States! #trndnl,” Tweet, @trendinaliaUS, November 30, 2013, https://twitter.com/trendinaliaUS/status/406895177677041665.
12. Of note, the most commonly co-occurring hashtags suggest that the rapid proliferation of #FastTailedGirls was exploited by bots seeking to boost follower accounts through the use of trending hashtags. In our original data set, #FastTailedGirls appeared alongside references to college football bowl games (e.g. #BAMAvsAUB and #OSUvsMICH) that were played on the same day Kendall’s tweets appeared. Subsequent analyses used a reduced data set, referred to as the “core network,” that eliminated tweets that did not get at least one retweet.
13. Mikki Kendall, “*Mikki Kendall* on Twitter: ‘One of the Reasons #fasttailedgirls Was so Specific in Focus Is Because While We All Experience #rapeculture We Don’t All Do It the Same,’” March 3, 2014, accessed October 30, 2018, https://twitter.com/karnythia/status/440611017404325890.
14. Mikki Kendall, “#SolidarityIsForWhiteWomen: Women of Color’s Issue with Digital Feminism,” Guardian, August 14, 2013, Opinion, http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/aug/14/solidarityisforwhitewomen-hashtag-feminism.
15. @FeministaJones, “3. ‘Turn off’ the Accusations of Being #FastTailedGirls and the Street Harassment Many Begin Experiencing at Age 11,” Tweet, @FeministaJones, December 12, 2013, https://twitter.com/FeministaJones/status/411210162121498624.
16. Jamilah Lemieux, “Black Women Warned Us about R Kelly’s Behavior for Years. Was Nobody Listening?,” Mic.com, July 19, 2017, https://mic.com/articles/182471/the-latest-r-kelly-allegations-are-more-evidence-that-Black-womens-words-are-never-enough.
17. Demetria Irwin, “#YouOkSis: Online Movement Launches to Combat Street Harassment,” TheGrio, August 2, 2014, https://thegrio.com/2014/08/02/youoksis-online-movement-launches-to-combat-street-harassment.
18. André Brock, “From the Blackhand Side: Twitter as a Cultural Conversation,” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 56, no. 4 (October 1, 2012): 529–549, https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2012.732147; Tara L. Conley, “Decoding Black Feminist Hashtags as Becoming,” The Black Scholar 47, no. 3 (August 1, 2017): 22–32, http://doi.org/10.1080/00064246.2017.1330107.
19. Threading, or the practice of replying to your own tweets (usually repeatedly, in rapid succession), is now a formal feature on Twitter. However, it was originally invented by Black Twitter users as a hack to string together a longer narrative than would otherwise be allowed in 140 or 280 characters.
20. Terrell Jermaine Starr, “Tarana Burke: Black Community Needs to Have Uncomfortable Conversations about Sexual Violence,” The Root, accessed July 2, 2018, https://www.theroot.com/tarana-burke-Black-community-needs-to-have-uncomfortab-1825887443; Stereo Williams, “The Life and Death of XXXTentacion: Abuse, Homophobia and Hip-Hop,” Daily Beast, June 19, 2018, Entertainment, https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-life-and-death-of-xxxtentacion-abuse-homophobia-and-hip-hop.
21. Sarah J. Jackson, “(Re)Imagining Intersectional Democracy from Black Feminism to Hashtag Activism,” Women’s Studies in Communication 39, no. 4 (October 1, 2016): 375–379, https://doi.org/10.1080/07491409.2016.1226654; Danielle L. McGuire, At the Dark End of the Street: Black Women, Rape, and Resistance—A New History of the Civil Rights Movement from Rosa Parks to the Rise of Black Power, reprint ed. (New York: Vintage, 2011); Beth E. Richie, Arrested Justice: Black Women, Violence, and America’s Prison Nation (New York: New York University Press, 2012); Andrea Ritchie, Invisible No More: Police Violence against Black Women and Women of Color, reprint ed., with a foreword by Angela Davis (Boston: Beacon Press, 2017).
22. Erin C. J. Robertson, “Study: Eviction Rates for Black Women on Par with Incarcerations for Black Men,” The Root, accessed July 18, 2018, https://www.theroot.com/study-eviction-rates-for-Black-women-on-par-with-incar-1790876083.Notes to Chapter 2
23. African American Policy Forum, “#SayHerName,” AAPF.org, March 30, 2015, http://www.aapf.org/sayhernamewebinar.
24. Kimberlé Crenshaw, Andrea J. Ritchie, Rachel Anspach, Rachel Gilmer, and Luke Harris, Say Her Name: Resisting Police Brutality against Black Women (New York: African American Policy Forum, Center for Intersectionality and Social Policy Studies, 2016).
25. Brenna Cammeron, “Questions after Woman Dies in US Jail,” Trending (blog), BBC News, July 16, 2015, https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-33560980.
26. Lauren Barbato, “The 13 Most Powerful #IfIDieInPoliceCustody Tweets,” Bustle, July 20, 2015, https://www.bustle.com/articles/98466-the-powerful-if-i-die-in-police-custody-hashtag-was-inspired-by-the-deaths-of-sandra.
27. Catherine R. Squires, “Making Visible Victimhood, Bringing Intersectionality to a Mass Shooting: #SAYHERNAME, Black Women, and Charleston,” chap. 6 in Dangerous Discourses Feminism, Gun Violence, and Civic Life, ed. Catherine R. Squires, chap. 6 (New York: Peter Lang, 2016), https://www.peterlang.com/view/9781433135897/chapter06.xhtml.
28. Eugene Daniels, “#BlackLivesMatter Interrupts A Bernie Sanders Speech. Again,” RTV6, August 9, 2015, https://www.theindychannel.com/newsy/Blacklivesmatter-interrupts-a-bernie-sanders-speech-again.
29. Michael Walsh, “Bernie Sanders Keeps Promise Made in Private to Sandra Bland’s Mother,” Yahoo.com, October 16, 2015, http://news.yahoo.com/sanders-keeps-promise-made-in-private-to-145437157.html.
30. Janelle Monáe, Janelle Monáe and Wondaland Records (Ft. Jidenna, Roman GianArthur & St. Beauty)—Hell You Talmbout, [song lyrics] 2015, https://genius.com/Janelle-monae-and-wondaland-records-hell-you-talmbout-lyrics.
31. Ruha Benjamin, “Black AfterLives Matter,” Text, Boston Review, July 11, 2018, https://bostonreview.net/race/ruha-benjamin-Black-afterlives-matter.
32. Kevin Munger, “This Researcher Programmed Bots to Fight Racism on Twitter. It Worked,” Washington Post, November 17, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/11/17/this-researcher-programmed-bots-to-fight-racism-on-twitter-it-worked.
33. Deen Freelon, Lori Lopez, Meredith D. Clark, and Sarah J. Jackson, “How Black Twitter and Other Social Media Communities Interact with Mainstream News,” Open Science Framework, August 5, 2018, https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/nhsd9.
1. Catherine R. Squires, “Rethinking the Black Public Sphere: An Alternative Vocabulary for Multiple Public Spheres,” Communication Theory 12, no. 4 (November 1, 2002): 446–468, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468–2885.2002.tb00278.x.
2. Leland G. Spencer, “Introduction: Centering Transgender Studies and Gender Identity in Communication Scholarship,” in Transgender Communication Studies: Histories, Trends, and Trajectories, ed. Jamie C. Capuzza and Leland G. Spencer (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2015), ix–xxii.
3. Dawn Ennis, “Booing Jennicet Was Wrong, but Was What She Did Worse?,” Advocate, July 1, 2015, http://www.advocate.com/commentary/2015/07/01/booing-jennicet-was-wrong-was-what-she-did-worse.
4. In fact, Sylvia Rivera, founding member of some of the first gay and trans liberation organizations in America, was once similarly booed and chastised for speaking to the concerns of trans women of color at a pride rally in 1973, only a few short years after her pivotal role in starting the LGBTQ movement.
5. Kristen Schilt and Laurel Westbrook, “Doing Gender, Doing Heteronormativity: ‘Gender Normals,’ Transgender People, and the Social Maintenance of Heterosexuality,” Gender & Society 23, no. 4 (2009): 440–464; Julia Serano, Whipping Girl: A Transsexual Woman on Sexism and the Scapegoating of Femininity (Berkeley, CA: Seal Press, 2016).
6. Joshua Gamson, Freaks Talk Back: Tabloid Talk Shows and Sexual Nonconformity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998).
7. Cynthia Lee and Peter Kar Yu Kwan, “The Trans Panic Defense: Heteronormativity, and the Murder of Transgender Women,” Hastings Law Journal 77 (2014): 66.
8. Elias Vituli, “A Defining Moment in Civil Rights History? The Employment Non-discrimination Act, Trans-inclusion, and Homonormativity,” Sexuality Research and Social Policy 7, no. 3 (2010): 155–167.
9. Zavé Martohardjono and Rye Young, “Toward Transfeminism: Moving beyond Inclusion,” Nonprofit Quarterly, March 2, 2016.
10. Caitlyn Jenner’s tweet introducing herself to the world was the tenth most-retweeted post on Twitter in 2015 (“Most Retweeted Posts 2015 | Statistic”).
11. Jamie C. Capuzza, “What’s in a Name? Transgender Identity, Metareporting, and the Misgendering of Chelsea Manning,” in Capuzza and Spencer, Transgender Communication Studies, 93–110.
12. National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs, Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer, and HIV-Affected Intimate Partner Violence in 2014 (New York: National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs, 2015).
13. “Under Siege: Trans People, Muslim Americans and Hate,” Southern Poverty Law Center, June 10, 2015, https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2015/under-siege-trans-people-muslim-americans-and-hate.
14. Human Rights Campaign, “Violence against the Transgender Community in 2018,” Human Rights Campaign, 2018, http://www.hrc.org/resources/violence-against-the-transgender-community-in-2018.
15. Jen Christensen, “Killings of Transgender People in the U.S. Saw Another High Year,” CNN, January 17, 2019, https://www.cnn.com/2019/01/16/health/transgender-deaths-2018.
16. Daniel Reynolds, “Is ‘Transface’ a Problem in Hollywood?,” Advocate, February 25, 2015, http://www.advocate.com/arts-entertainment/2015/02/25/transface-problem-hollywood.
17. Scott Mendelson, “Why Roland Emmerich’s ‘Stonewall’ Was a Box Office Disaster,” Forbes, September 29, 2015, http://www.forbes.com/sites/scottmendelson/2015/09/29/why-roland-emmerichs-stonewall-was-a-box-office-disaster.
18. Eric Shorey, “Backlash against ‘Stonewall’ Prompts Donations to ‘Happy Birthday, Marsha!,’” LOGO News, August 6, 2015, http://www.newnownext.com/backlash-against-stonewall-prompts-donations-to-happy-birthday-marsha/08/2015.
19. Reina Gossett, Eric A. Stanley, and Johanna Burton, eds., Trap Door: Trans Cultural Production and the Politics of Visibility (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2017).
20. Capuzza, “What’s in a Name?”
21. K. J. Rawson, “Transgender Worldmaking in Cyberspace: Historical Activism on the Internet,” QED: A Journal in GLBTQ Worldmaking 1, no. 2 (2014): 38–60.
22. Joshua Trey Barnett, “Fleshy Metamorphosis: Temporal Pedagogies of Transsexual Counterpublics,” in Capuzzo and Spencer, Transgender Communication Studies, 155–172.
23. E. Tristan Booth, “Television: The Provisional Acknowledgment of Identity Claims in Televised Documentary,” in Capuzzo and Spencer, Transgender Communication Studies, 111–126. Booth writes that in television documentaries, voiceover narration often misgenders trans people, while scripts create visual spectacles by focusing overwhelmingly on physical and medical aspects of transition. These trends are indicative of how traditional media “consider the comfort level of the dominant public above that of the transgender public, even though transgender lives are being represented” (p. 115).
24. The #GirlsLikeUs hashtag predates Janet Mock’s deployment. It was initially a little-used hashtag promoting the film Girls Like Us, a short-lived, now squelched Joni Mitchell biopic set to star Taylor Swift. The studio attempted to make the hashtag popular by repeatedly tweeting the tag and getting Swift fans to reblog it. However, no one created original tweets with the hashtag, and when the project was shelved, there was little trace of the tag when Mock generated it herself. This demonstrates the ephemeral nature of hashtag use if the particular initiating use of a tag does not resonate widely.
25. Janet Mock, Twitter post, January 13, 2014, 11:39 a.m., http://twitter.com/janetmock.
26. Michael Warner, “Publics and counterpublics,” Public Culture 14, no. 1 (2002): 49–90.
27. Marc A. Smith, Lee Rainie, Ben Shneiderman, and Itai Himelboim, Mapping Twitter Topic Networks: From Polarized Crowds to Community Clusters (Washington, DC: Pew Research Center, February 20, 2014).
28. As in other groups, class status and race have an impact on the lives of different trans women and shape their political perspectives differently. @xoAMILLAxo’s conservative ideology is likely in part informed by her class and race privilege. Similarly, Caitlyn Jenner’s conservatism has prompted confusion, including during a 2015 interview with Ellen Degeneres after Jenner mentioned her own reticience around the issue of gay marriage, prompting Degeneres to say she expected Jenner to have a more left-leaning political stance on transitioning. Degeneres conflated Jenner’s transition not only with a liberal political perspective but also with her views on sexuality.
29. Angelica Ross, Twitter post, August 31, 2013, 11:39 a.m., http://twitter.com/angelicaross.
30. Janet Mock, Twitter post, September 22, 2013, 10:40 p.m., http://twitter.com/janetmock.
31. “Mission,” San Francisco Trans March, accessed July 26, 2016, http://transmarch.org/mission.
32. Laverne Cox, Twitter post, August 4, 2013, 8:01 p.m., http://twitter.com/lavernecox.
33. Sarah Florini, “Recontextualizing the Racial Present: Intertextuality and the Politics of Online Remembering,” Critical Studies in Media Communication 31, no. 4 (2014): 314–326.
34. Marc Lamont Hill, “Why Aren’t We Fighting for CeCe McDonald?,” Ebony, June 11, 2012.
35. Russell Goldman, “Transgender Activist CeCe McDonald Released from Prison,” ABC News, January 14, 2014, http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/headlines/2014/01/transgender-activist-cece-mcdonald-released-early-from-prison.
36. Janet Mock, Twitter post, January 13, 2014, 11:33am, http://www.twitter.com/janetmock.
37. Mia Fischer, “#Free_CeCe: The Material Convergence of Social Media Activism,” Feminist Media Studies 16, no. 5 (September 2, 2016): 755–771, https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2016.1140668.
38. Janet Mock, “I AM #REDEFININGREALNESS,” I AM #RedefiningRealness, accessed October 30, 2018, http://redefiningrealness.tumblr.com/post/67300819301/i-am-redefining-realness-janet-mock.
39. Leah Chernikoff, “Laverne Cox’s Explanation of Why #TransIsBeautiful Will Make You Cheer and Cry,” Elle.com, September 11, 2015, http://www.elle.com/culture/celebrities/news/a30388/laverne-cox-trans-is-beautiful.
40. matthew heinz, “Interpersonal Communication: Trans Interpersonal Support Needs,” in Capuzza and Spencer, Transgender Communication Studies), 33–50, http://site.ebrary.com/lib/northeastern/docDetail.action?docID=11025328.
41. Heather L. Hundley and J. Scott Rodriguez, “Transactivism and Postmodernity: An Agonistic Analysis of Transliterature,” Communication Quarterly 57, no. 1 (2009): 35–50, https://doi.org/10.1080/01463370802662473.
42. Alice E. Marwick, “I Tweet Honestly, I Tweet Passionately: Twitter Users, Context Collapse, and the Imagined Audience,” New Media & Society 13, no. 1 (2011): 114–133.
43. Matt Pearce, “What It’s Like to Live under North Carolina’s Bathroom Law If You’re Transgender,” Los Angeles Times, June 12, 2016.
44. David Crary, “Massachusetts Backs Transgender Rights; Michigan OKs Pot Use,” Channel 6 News, November 7, 2018, https://www.wowt.com/content/news/Massachusetts-backs-transgender-rights-Michigan-OKs-pot-use-499937621.html?ref=621.
45. Erica L. Green, Katie Benner, and Robert Pear, “‘Transgender’ Could Be Defined Out of Existence under Trump Administration,” New York Times, December 10, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/21/us/politics/transgender-trump-administration-sex-definition.html.
46. Alicia Garza, “A Herstory of the #BlackLivesMatter Movement,” Feminist Wire, October 7, 2014, https://thefeministwire.com/2014/10/Blacklivesmatter-2.
47. African American Policy Forum, “#SayHerName” (New York: AAPF, March 30, 2015), http://www.aapf.org/sayhernamewebinar.
1. Mary Grace Antony and Ryan J. Thomas, “‘This Is Citizen Journalism at Its Finest’: YouTube and the Public Sphere in the Oscar Grant Shooting Incident,” New Media & Society 12, no. 8 (2010): 1280–1296.
2. Erik Ortiz, “George Holliday, Who Taped Rodney King Beating, Urges Others to Share Videos,” NBC News, June 9, 2015, http://www.nbcnews.com/nightly-news/george-holliday-who-taped-rodney-king-beating-urges-others-share-n372551.
3. Ronald N. Jacobs, Race, Media, and the Crisis of Civil Society: From Watts to Rodney King (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
4. Terry Collins and Terence Chea, “Fatal Police Shooting Sparks Violent Protests,” San Diego Union Tribune, January 8, 2009, http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-train-station-shooting-010809–2009jan08-story.html.
5. Paolo Gerbaudo, Tweets and the Streets: Social Media and Contemporary Activism (London: Pluto Press, 2012).
6. Erhardt Graeff, Matt Stempeck, and Ethan Zuckerman, “The Battle for ‘Trayvon Martin’: Mapping a Media Controversy Online and Off-Line,” First Monday 19, no. 2 (January 28, 2014), http://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/4947.
7. Susan Jacobson, “Sanford Killing: One Dead, One in Custody in Sanford Killing, Police Say,” Orlando Sentinel, February 29, 2012, http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/2012-02-29/news/os-fatal-shooting-sanford-townhomes-20120226_1_gated-community-death-sunday-night-shot.
8. “Prosecute the Killer of Our Son, 17-Year-Old Trayvon Martin,” Change.org, accessed June 13, 2017, https://www.change.org/p/prosecute-the-killer-of-our-son-17-year-old-trayvon-martin.
9. In addition to the celebrities sharing the Change.org petition, others took it upon themselves to engage in their own Twitter activism, with not always useful effects. Notably, filmmaker Spike Lee tweeted what he mistakenly believed to be the home address of George Zimmerman. Lee later apologized to the elderly couple whose home he had targeted and settled out of court for undisclosed damages after they received death threats and were forced to flee.
10. Rivera claimed that “the hoodie is as much responsible for Trayvon Martin’s death as George Zimmerman.”
11. Graeff, Stempeck, and Zuckerman, “The Battle for ‘Trayvon Martin.’”
12. Natalie Jackson is a Martin family attorney and John Guy was one of the state prosecutors on the case.
13. Gabriella Coleman, Hacker, Hoaxer, Whistleblower, Spy: The Story of Anonymous (New York: Verso Books, 2014).
14. Lisa Nakamura and Peter Chow-White, eds., Race after the Internet (New York: Routledge, 2011).
1. CNN, Eyewitness: Michael Brown Had His Hands in the Air, YouTube video, accessed July 23, 2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G2nWxMUX05k. Later, Mitchell’s account was disputed by other eyewitnesses during grand jury testimony, who corroborated Wilson’s story that Brown charged at him, creating an unclear picture that aided Wilson’s version of events. See Erik Eckholm, “Witnesses Told Grand Jury That Michael Brown Charged at Darren Wilson, Prosecutor Says,” New York Times, January 19, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/25/us/witnesses-told-grand-jury-that-michael-brown-charged-at-darren-wilson-prosecutor-says.html.
2. Chris Taylor, “Twitter Now Fills Your Feed With Photos,” Mashable, October 29, 2013, https://mashable.com/2013/10/29/twitter-photos-videos.
3. Deen Freelon, Charlton D. McIlwain, and Meredith Clark, “Beyond the Hashtags: #Ferguson, #Blacklivesmatter, and the Online Struggle for Offline Justice” (Washington, DC: American University School of Communication, Center for Media and Social Impact, February 29, 2016), http://cmsimpact.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/beyond_the_hashtags_2016.pdf.
4. U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division, “Investigation of the Ferguson Police Department,” March 4, 2015, https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/opa/press-releases/attachments/2015/03/04/ferguson_police_department_report.pdf.
5. José Andrés Araiza, Heloisa Aruth Sturm, Pinar Istek, and Mary Angela Bock, “Hands Up, Don’t Shoot, Whose Side Are You On? Journalists Tweeting the Ferguson Protests,” Cultural Studies ↔ Critical Methodologies 16, no. 3 (June 1, 2016): 305–312, https://doi.org/10.1177/1532708616634834.
6. Barbara Starr, “Pentagon Drawn into Police Militarization Debate,” CNN, August 19, 2014, https://www.cnn.com/2014/08/19/us/pentagon-police-militarization/index.html.
7. Freelon, McIlwain, and Clark, “Beyond the Hashtags,” 9.
8. Jelani Ince, Fabio Rojas, and Clayton A. Davis, “The Social Media Response to Black Lives Matter: How Twitter Users Interact with Black Lives Matter through Hashtag Use,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 40, no. 11 (September 2, 2017): 1814–1830, https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2017.1334931.
9. Yarimar Bonilla and Jonathan Rosa, “#Ferguson: Digital Protest, Hashtag Ethnography, and the Racial Politics of Social Media in the United States,” American Ethnologist 42, no. 1 (February 1, 2015): 4–17, https://doi.org/10.1111/amet.12112.
10. Sarah J. Jackson and Brooke Foucault Welles, “#Ferguson Is Everywhere: Initiators in Emerging Counterpublic Networks,” Information, Communication & Society 19, no. 3 (2016): 397–418.
11. Mark Molloy and Molloy, “Palestinians Tweet Tear Gas Advice to Protesters in Ferguson,” Telegraph, August 15, 2014, World, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/11036190/Palestinians-tweet-tear-gas-advice-to-protesters-in-Ferguson.html.
12. Freelon, McIlwain, and Clark, “Beyond the Hashtags,” 31.
13. “Zendaya on Instagram: ‘#EricGarner #SandraBland #OscarGrant #AltonSterling #WalterScott #PhilandoCastile to Think … That’s Not Even the Beginning of It, These Are …,’” Instagram, accessed October 30, 2018, https://www.instagram.com/p/BHjIDxqAkTa.
14. Laura Westbrook, “Tamir Rice Shot ‘within Two Seconds,’” BBC News, November 27, 2014, https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-us-canada-30220700/tamir-rice-shot-within-two-seconds-of-police-arrival.
15. The City of Cleveland infamously billed Rice’s family for his ambulance ride to the hospital where he died following the shooting and only withdrew the claim after public outrage. See Yanan Wang and Sarah Larimer, “Cleveland Mayor Apologizes after Ambulance-Bill Claim against Tamir Rice’s Estate,” Washington Post, February 11, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/02/11/cleveland-files-claim-against-tamir-rices-estate-for-500-ambulance-fees.
16. Christina Sterbenz, “A ‘Big Question’ Surrounds the Arrest of Freddie Gray, Which Sparked Riots across Baltimore,” Business Insider, April 30, 2015, https://www.businessinsider.com/did-police-have-a-right-to-stop-freddie-gray-2015–4.
17. This is not to say that those opposing the claims and demands of the Black Lives Matter networks on Twitter did not share and spread their ideas, simply that they were largely unsuccessful in doing so vis-à-vis the hashtags created by and and within the networks by activists and everyday people we’ve examined up to this point. Instead, those working to justify police use of force generally created and interacted on their own hashtags, such as #AllLivesMatter, #BlueLivesMatter, and the nonsubtly racist #PantsUpDontShoot.
18. Ronald N. Jacobs, Race, Media, and the Crisis of Civil Society: From Watts to Rodney King (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Daniel Trottier and Christian Fuchs, eds., Social Media, Politics and the State: Protests, Revolutions, Riots, Crime and Policing in the Age of Facebook, Twitter and YouTube (New York: Routledge, 2014).
19. B. Foucault Welles and S. Jackson, “The Battle for #Baltimore: Networked Counterpublics and the Contested Framing of Urban Unrest,” International Journal of Communication 13, no. 21 (2019).
20. For more on the racist history of the NRA, see Maxine Burkett, “Much Ado about … Something Else: D.C. v. Heller, the Racialized Mythology of the Second Amendment, and Gun Policy Reform No School Left Behind: Providing Equal Educational Opportunities,” Journal of Gender, Race & Justice 12, no. 1 (Fall 2008): 57–106.
21. A Facebook Live recording of Newsome’s speech garnered 50 million views, and, though his comments were seen by many white Americans as clear and agreeable, some Black Lives Matter organizers felt his words were too conciliatory and that he legitimized white supremacists by engaging with them at all. See Wilbert L. Cooper and Chauncey Alcorn, “Speaking at a Trump Rally Made This BLM Activist an Outcast,” Vice,, October 19, 2017, https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/wjx9m4/speaking-at-a-trump-rally-made-this-blm-activist-an-outcast.
22. Barbara Ransby, “Ella Taught Me: Shattering the Myth of the Leaderless Movement,” Colorlines.com, June 12, 2015, https://www.colorlines.com/articles/ella-taught-me-shattering-myth-leaderless-movement.
23. Simone Browne, Dark Matters: On the Surveillance of Blackness (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2015); Associated Press, “Report: Boston Police Social Media Monitoring Targeted Muslims, Black Lives Matter Posts,” February 7, 2018, https://www.wcvb.com/article/boston-police-Black-lives-matter-racial-inequality-muslim-lives-matter-social-media/16751692.
24. Olivier Laurent, “See TIME’s Baltimore Cover Shot by an Aspiring Photographer,” Time, April 30, 2015, http://time.com/3841077/baltimore-protests-riot-freddie-gray-devin-allen.
25. Bob Bryan, “‘Find Something Else to Do!’: Trump Continues His War of Words against NFL Players in Tweetstorm,” Business Insider, September 23, 2017, https://www.businessinsider.com/trump-tweets-on-nfl-players-national-anthem-protest-2017–9.
26. Nick Eilerson, “WNBA Withdraws Penalties for Players’ ‘Black Lives Matter’ Protests,” Washington Post, July 23, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/early-lead/wp/2016/07/23/wnba-withdraws-penalties-for-players-Black-lives-matter-protests.
27. Carma Hassan, Gregory Krieg, and Melonyce McAfee, “Police Union Calls for a Boycott of Beyoncé World Tour,” CNN, February 20, 2016, https://www.cnn.com/2016/02/19/us/beyonce-police-boycott/index.html.
28. Kashif Jerome Powell, “Making #BlackLivesMatter: Michael Brown, Eric Garner, and the Specters of Black Life—Toward a Hauntology of Blackness,” Cultural Studies ↔ Critical Methodologies 16, no. 3 (June 1, 2016): 253–260, https://doi.org/10.1177/1532708616634770.
1. Susan Schweik, “Lomax’s Matrix: Disability, Solidarity, and the Black Power of 504,” Disability Studies Quarterly 31, no. 1 (January 24, 2011), http://dsq-sds.org/article/view/1371.
2. Combahee River Collective, The Combahee River Collective Statement: Black Feminist Organizing in the Seventies and Eighties (Latham, NY: Kitchen Table, 1986).
3. Mia McKenzie, “How to Tell the Difference between Real Solidarity and ‘Ally Theater,’” BGD Blog, November 4, 2015, https://www.bgdblog.org/2015/11/the-difference-between-real-solidarity-and-ally-theatre.
4. Patrick Stewart, “#Safetypinpic.twitter.com/MGFcjx68BP,” tweet, @SirPatStew, November 11, 2016, https://twitter.com/SirPatStew/status/797143600341585920.
5. Stephanie Buck, “During Nazi Occupation, Office Supplies Became Symbols of Resistance,” Timeline, November 11, 2016, https://timeline.com/safety-pin-brexit-trump-dutch-12ce84093550; Sarfraz Manzoor, “1978, the Year Rock Found the Power to Unite,” Observer, April 20, 2008, Music, https://www.theguardian.com/music/2008/apr/20/popandrock.race.
6. Valeriya Safronova, “Safety Pins Show Support for the Vulnerable,” New York Times, January 20, 2018, Fashion & Style, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/14/fashion/safety-pin-ally-activism.html.
7. Tora’s Spooky Shae, “‘Come Peasant, Look upon My Diamond Encrusted Safety Pin and Know That You Are Safe’ pic.Twitter.Com/Ntnn3ggIJk,” tweet, @BlackMajiik, November 16, 2016, https://twitter.com/BlackMajiik/status/799133203676139521?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw&ref_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bustle.com%2Farticles%2F195850-how-to-wear-a-safety-pin-responsibly-as-an-ally.
8. In an attempt at intervening in this solely performative trend of allyship, Marissa Janae Johnson and Leslie Mac, two Black women, created the subscription-based Safety Pin Box as a more meaningful intervention that sends hopeful-allies readings and suggestions for targeted action they can take to dismantle white supremacy.
9. Qamar, “You Cannot Designate Yourself an Ally by Wearing a Safety Pin,” Brown Girl Magazine (blog), Huffington Post, November 21, 2016, https://www.huffingtonpost.com/brown-girl-magazine/you-cannot-designate-your_b_13098646.html.
10. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy, Volume 1 (New Brunswick, NJ: Routledge, 1995); Cynthia Stokes Brown, William Ayers, and Therese Quinn, Refusing Racism: White Allies and the Struggle for Civil Rights (New York: Teachers College Press, 2002); Daniel Tatum Beverly, “Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria?” and Other Conversations about Race (New York: Basic Books, 1997).
11. David Lazer, “The Rise of the Social Algorithm,” Science 348, no. 6239 (2015): 1090–1091; Pablo Barberá, John T. Jost, Jonathan Nagler, Joshua A. Tucker, and Richard Bonneau, “Tweeting from Left to Right: Is Online Political Communication More Than an Echo Chamber?,” Psychological Science 26, no. 10 (October 1, 2015): 1531–1542, https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797615594620.
12. Ana Valens, “Men Tweet #HowIWillChange after #MeToo—but It Isn’t Helping,” Daily Dot, October 17, 2017, https://www.dailydot.com/irl/metoo-men-sexual-assault.
13. We recognize that #CrimingWhileWhite and #AllMenCan are not the only hashtags created in recent years with the intention of calling allies to action. However, these hashtags were the most used ally hashtags during the period of our data collection. While we hoped to focus on organic allyship, for this chapter, only #CrimingWhileWhite ultimately met this expectation. Unlike #CrimingWhileWhite and the other hashtags examined in this book and chapter, which were created spontaneously by members of the networks we analyze, the most circulated examples of digital allyship by men on behalf of women, including #AllMenCan, were started by organizations or women hoping to encourage men to play a more active role in digital feminism.
14. Elizabeth Plank, “35 Men Show Us What Real Men’s Activists Look Like,” PolicyMic, May 29, 2014, https://mic.com/articles/90079/35-men-show-us-what-real-men-s-activists-look-like.
15. Phillip Atiba Goff, Tracey Lloyd, Amanda Geller, Steven Raphael, and Jack Glaser, “The Science of Justice: Race, Arrests, and Police Use of Force,” Center for Policing Equity, PolicingEquity.org, July 8, 2016, http://policingequity.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/CPE_SoJ_Race-Arrests-UoF_2016-07-08-1130.pdf; Beverly Daniel Tatum, “Teaching White Students about Racism: The Search for White Allies and the Restoration of Hope,” Teachers College Record 95, no. 4 (1994): 462–476.
16. Marc A. Smith et al., “Mapping Twitter Topic Networks: From Polarized Crowds to Community Clusters,” Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech (blog), February 20, 2014, http://www.pewinternet.org/2014/02/20/mapping-twitter-topic-networks-from-polarized-crowds-to-community-clusters.
17. Sharad Goel, Duncan J. Watts, and Daniel G. Goldstein, “The Structure of Online Diffusion Networks,” in Proceedings of the 13th ACM Conference on Electronic Commerce, Valencia, June 4–8, 2012 (New York: ACM, 2012), 623–638, https://doi.org/10.1145/2229012.2229058.
18. Sharad Goel, Ashton Anderson, Jake Hofman, and Duncan J. Watts, “The Structural Virality of Online Diffusion,” Management Science 62, no. 1 (July 22, 2015): 180–196, https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2015.2158.
19. Clayton A. Davis, Giovanni Luca Ciampaglia, Luca Maria Aiello, Keychul Chung, Michael D. Conover, Emilio Ferrara, Alessandro Flammini, et al., “OSoMe: The IUNI Observatory on Social Media,” PeerJ Computer Science 2 (October 3, 2016): e87, https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.87.
20. Gail C. Christopher, “Meta-Analysis of Recent Polling Data on the Impact of Racism on American Society Today,” W. K. Kellogg Foundation, 2016, https://www.wkkf.org:443/resource-directory/resource/2016/01/meta-analysis-of-recent-polling-data-on-the-impact-of-racism-on-american-society-today.
21. Brown, Ayers, and Quinn, Refusing Racism; Drick Boyd, White Allies in the Struggle for Racial Justice, with a foreword by C. T. Vivian (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2015).
22. Jessica Dickerson, “#CrimingWhileWhite Explodes on Twitter Following Eric Garner Decision,” Huffington Post, December 4, 2014, Black Voices, https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/12/03/criming-while-white-hashtag_n_6265480.html; Wilfred Chan, “#CrimingWhileWhite, #ICantBreathe Dominate Twitter Talk in Eric Garner Case,” CNN, December 4, 2014, http://www.cnn.com/2014/12/04/us/criming-while-white-hashtag/index.html; Zachary Goldfarb, “#Crimingwhilewhite: White People Are Confessing on Twitter to Crimes They Got Away With,” Washington Post, December 4, 2014, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2014/12/04/crimingwhilewhite-white-people-are-confessing-on-twitter-to-crimes-they-got-away-with; Durando, “#Crimingwhilewhite Puts Focus on Police and Race,” USA Today, December 3, 2014, https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation-now/2014/12/03/criming-while-white-twitter-/19866725.
1. Sasha Costanza-Chock, Out of the Shadows, Into the Streets! Transmedia Organizing and the Immigrant Rights Movement (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2014).
2. Stephen Harrington, Tim Highfield, and Axel Bruns, “More Than a Backchannel: Twitter and Television,” Audience Interactivity and Participation 10, no. 1 (2012): 13–17.
3. Audrey Carlsen, Maya Salam, Claire Cain Miller, Denise Lu, Ash Ngu, Jugal K. Patel, and Zach Wichter, “#MeToo Brought Down 201 Powerful Men. Nearly Half of Their Replacements Are Women.,” New York Times, October 23, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/10/23/us/metoo-replacements.html.
4. Aisha Harris, “She Founded Me Too. Now She Wants to Move Past the Trauma,” New York Times, October 15, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/15/arts/tarana-burke-metoo-anniversary.html.
5. Jem Aswad Halperin Shirley, Jem Aswad, and Shirley Halperin, “R. Kelly Dropped by Sony Music,” Variety, January 18, 2019, https://variety.com/2019/biz/news/r-kelly-dropped-sony-music-1203106180.
6. Steve Greene, “WGA Awards 2019: Nominees Are Haunting of Hill House, Atlanta, Barry,” IndieWire, December 6, 2018, https://www.indiewire.com/2018/12/wga-awards-2019-tv-nominees-haunting-of-hill-house-atlanta-barry-1202026046.
7. Kendall Fisher, “How Jessica Chastain Fought to Get Octavia Spencer Equal Pay,” E! Online, January 25, 2018, https://www.eonline.com/news/909035/how-jessica-chastain-fought-to-get-octavia-spencer-equal-pay; Maiysha Kai, “This Is How You Use Your Privilege: How Jessica Chastain Helped Octavia Spencer Earn Her Worth,” Glow Up, January 25, 2018, https://theglowup.theroot.com/this-is-how-you-use-your-privilege-how-jessica-chastai-1822407114.
8. Tarleton Gillespie, Custodians of the Internet: Platforms, Content Moderation, and the Hidden Decisions That Shape Social Media (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2018).
9. Joy Buolamwini and Timnit Gebru, “Gender Shades: Intersectional Accuracy Disparities in Commercial Gender Classification,” in “Proceedings of the First Conference on Fairness, Accountability and Transparency,” special issue, Proceedings of Machine Learning Research 21 (2018): 77–91, http://proceedings.mlr.press/v81/buolamwini18a.html.
10. Ashley Feinberg, “Jack Dorsey Has No Clue What He Wants,” Huffington Post, January 17, 2019, Tech, https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/jack-dorsey-twitter-interview_us_5c3e2601e4b01c93e00e2a00.
11. Tarleton Gillespie, “Can an Algorithm Be Wrong? Twitter Trends, the Specter of Censorship, and Our Faith in the Algorithms around Us,” Social Media Collective, October 9, 2011, https://socialmediacollective.org/2011/10/19/can-an-algorithm-be-wrong.
12. Biz Stone, “Down Time Rescheduled,” Twitter (blog), June 15, 2009, https://blog.twitter.com/en_us/a/2009/down-time-rescheduled.html.
13. Alice E. Marwick and Rebecca Lewis, “Media Manipulation and Disinformation Online,” Data and Society Institute, accessed November 15, 2018, https://datasociety.net/output/media-manipulation-and-disinfo-online.
14. Jessie Daniels, “Twitter and White Supremacy, A Love Story,” Dame Magazine, October 19, 2017, https://www.damemagazine.com/2017/10/19/twitter-and-white-supremacy-love-story.
15. Zoe Quinn, Crash Override: How Gamergate (Nearly) Destroyed My Life, and How We Can Win the Fight Against Online Hate (New York: PublicAffairs, 2017).
16. Ariadna Matamoros-Fernández, “Platformed Racism: The Mediation and Circulation of an Australian Race-Based Controversy on Twitter, Facebook and YouTube,” Information, Communication & Society 20, no. 6 (June 3, 2017): 930–946, https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2017.1293130.
17. Jessica Guynn, “Twitter Users Are Diverse but Not Its Staff,” USA Today, January 19, 2017, https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/news/2017/01/19/twitter-diversity-2016/96749454.
18. Emily Dreyfuss, “Twitter Is Indeed Toxic for Women, Amnesty Report Says,” Wired, December 18, 2018, https://www.wired.com/story/amnesty-report-twitter-abuse-women.
19. Amanda Hess, “On Twitter, a Battle among Political Bots,” New York Times, December 14, 2016, Arts, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/14/arts/on-twitter-a-battle-among-political-bots.html.
20. Anthony Cutherbertson, “Seth Rogen Spoke with the Boss of Twitter about Nazis—and It Didn’t Go Well,” Independent, July 4, 2018, https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/news/seth-rogen-twitter-jack-dorsey-white-supremacists-nazis-online-abuse-a8430586.html.
21. Todd Haselton, “Twitter’s CEO Admitted the Platform Is Broken and Is Asking for Help,” CNBC, March 1, 2018, https://www.cnbc.com/2018/03/01/twitters-ceo-admitted-the-platform-is-broken-and-is-asking-for-help.html.
22. “Data For Black Lives,” accessed January 18, 2019, https://d4bl.typeform.com/to/wg6agF.
23. Julie Uldam, “Corporate Management of Visibility and the Fantasy of the Post-Political: Social Media and Surveillance,” New Media & Society 18, no. 2 (February 1, 2016): 201–219, https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444814541526.
24. Jeffrey S. Juris, “The New Digital Media and Activist Networking within Anti–Corporate Globalization Movements,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 597, no. 1 (January 1, 2005): 189–208, https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716204270338.
25. Simone Browne, Dark Matters: On the Surveillance of Blackness (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2015).
26. Clint Confehr, “Metro Police Monitoring Social Media,” Tennessee Tribune, January 3, 2019, https://tntribune.com/community/local/nashville/metro-police-monitoring-social-media.
27. Stephen Davis, “Police Monitored Black Lives Matter Toronto Protesters in 2016, Documents Show,” CBC News, May 3, 2018, https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/police-monitored-Black-lives-matter-toronto-protesters-in-2016-documents-show-1.4645628; Sarah Betancourt, “Massachusetts Police Tweet Lets Slip Scale of Leftwing Surveillance,” The Guardian, September 15, 2018, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2018/sep/15/massachusetts-police-tweet-leftwing-surveillance-boston.
28. Merrit Kennedy, “More Than 1 Million ‘Check In’ On Facebook to Support the Standing Rock Sioux,” NPR.Org, November 1, 2016, https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/11/01/500268879/more-than-a-million-check-in-on-facebook-to-support-the-standing-rock-sioux.
29. Julia Angwin, “Facebook’s Secret Censorship Rules Protect White Men from Hate Speech but Not Black Children,” ProPublica, June 28, 2017, https://www.propublica.org/article/facebook-hate-speech-censorship-internal-documents-algorithms.
30. Twitter, “To Trend or Not to Trend …,” Twitter (blog), December 8, 2010, https://blog.twitter.com/en_us/a/2010/to-trend-or-not-to-trend.html.
1. “FCC Chairman Ramps Up Defense of Net Neutrality Repeal,” Reuters, September 21, 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-internet/fcc-chairman-ramps-up-defense-of-net-neutrality-repeal-idUSKCN1M12OO.
2. “Digital Stewards Training,” Allied Media Projects, March 13, 2015, https://www.alliedmedia.org/dctp/digitalstewards.
3. David M. J. Lazer, Matthew A. Baum, Yochai Benkler, Adam J. Berinsky, Kelly M. Greenhill, Filippo Menczer, Miriam J. Metzger, et al., “The Science of Fake News,” Science 359, no. 6380 (March 9, 2018): 1094–1096, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aao2998.
4. Ahmer Arif, Leo Graiden Stewart, and Kate Starbird, “Acting the Part: Examining Information Operations within #BlackLivesMatter Discourse,” in Proceedings of ACM on Human-Computer Interactions, vol. 2—CSCW, article 20 (November 2018): 1–20, 27, https://doi.org/10.1145/3274289; Leo Graiden Stewart, Ahmer Arif, and Kate Starbird, “Examining Trolls and Polarization with a Retweet Network,” Conference Paper at MIS2: Misinformation and Misbehavior Mining on the Web, 2018.
5. Alice E. Marwick and Rebecca Lewis, “Media Manipulation and Disinformation Online,” Data and Society Institute, accessed November 15, 2018, https://datasociety.net/output/media-manipulation-and-disinfo-online.
6. Casey Fiesler and Nicholas Proferes, “‘Participant’ Perceptions of Twitter Research Ethics,” Social Media + Society 4, no. 1 (2018), https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305118763366.
7. Gary King and Nathaniel Persily, “A New Model for Industry-Academic Partnerships,” working paper, Harvard University, 2018 (last update February 4, 2019), https://gking.harvard.edu/partnerships.