Notes

Prologue

1. Brenda Gayle Plummer, In Search of Power: African Americans in the Era of Decolonization, 1956–1974 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013).

2. C. Tinson, “Voice of the Black Protest Movement: Notes on the Liberator Magazine and Black Radicalism in the Early 1960s” The Black Scholar 37, no. 4 (Winter 2008): 1–15.

3. Though some scholars correctly assert that not all black international politics emanate from or are related to the African continent, for Liberator writers and readers, Africa remained central to black political outlooks and a source of cultural identity, as I discuss in chapter 2. For an example of scholarship on black internationalisms that are not centered on Africa, see Brent Hayes Edwards, The Practice of Diaspora: Literature, Translation and the Rise of Black Internationalism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003).

4. John Bracey, August Meier, and Elliot Rudwick, eds., Black Nationalism in America (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1970).

5. Harvard Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality, 1954–1992, rev. ed. (New York: Hill & Wang, 1993); Editors of Black Issues in Higher Education, eds., The Unfinished Agenda of Brown v. Board of Education (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2004); Thomas Wagstaff, Black Power: The Radical Response to White America (Beverly Hills, CA: Glencoe Press, 1969); James A. Geschwender, ed., The Black Revolt (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1971); Robert H. Brisbane, Black Activism: Racial Revolution in the United States, 1954–1970 (Valley Forge, PA: Judson Press, 1974).

6. A significant and well-known article dealing with the failures of liberals and liberalism is Loren Miller, “Farewell to Liberals: A Negro View,” in Black Protest Thought in the Twentieth Century, 2nd ed., ed. August Meier, Elliott Rudwick, and Francis L. Broderick (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1971), 373–80. Originally published in 1962 in The Nation, “Farewell” spells out the sense of disillusionment and burgeoning dissatisfaction many African Americans began to have toward liberals. It is important that this article also explains the ascent of African American militancy and defiance in determining the very definition of freedom and the means by which freedom would be attained.

7. Robin D. G. Kelley, Freedom Dreams: The Black Radical Imagination (Boston: Beacon Press, 2002), 109.

8. This term was first employed by Harold Cruse in a 1962 essay first published in Studies on the Left 2, no. 3, entitled, “Revolutionary Nationalism and the Afro-American,” and reprinted in Rebellion or Revolution (New York: William Morrow and Co., 1968), 74–96. It was subsequently embraced and further theorized by the Revolutionary Action Movement (RAM). See Ernie Allen (Mkalimoto), “Revolutionary Nationalism and the Class Struggle” (Detroit: n.p., July 1970); see also Bracey, Meier, and Rudwick, Black Nationalism in America.

9. Allen, “Revolutionary Nationalism and the Class Struggle.” See also, Robert L. Allen, Black Awakening in Capitalist America, an Analytic History (New York: Doubleday, 1970).

10. My use of this term draws upon Ula Taylor’s formulation of “community feminism” (The Veiled Garvey [Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2002]) to describe the relationship between black women and Black Nationalism. Though she employs this term in her study of Amy Jacques Garvey, I posit that it can be extended to late twentieth-century female activists such as Fran Beal, Toni Cade Bambara, Assata Shakur, Sonia Sanchez, and Elaine Brown, among others who made attempts to place their commitments to feminist ideals within the context of Black Nationalism. These are black women who at one time or another believed that Black Nationalism (race pride, black consciousness and identity, community control, pride in heritage) was a necessary strategy to assert political agency toward achieving equity in the United States and elsewhere in the African diaspora. Though they voiced their criticism of the sexism, masculinity, misogyny, and patriarchy inherent in nationalist organizations and movements, they maintained a commitment to black community struggle. See for example, Ula Taylor, “The Historical Evolution of Black Feminist Theory and Praxis,” Journal of Black Studies 29, no. 2 (Nov. 1998): 234–53. See also Jean Smith, “I Learned to Feel Black,” in Black Power Revolt, ed. Floyd B. Barbour (Boston: Porter, Sargeant, 1968), 207–18; Steven Ward sees Fran Beal as an exemplar of the expression of feminist consciousness as part of, not apart from, Black Power. See his “The Third World Women’s Alliance: Black Feminism and Black Power Politics,” in The Black Power Movement: Rethinking the Civil Rights–Black Power Era, ed. Peniel E. Joseph (New York: Routledge, 2006), 119–44.

11. These are terms that have been utilized by activists and writers of the period and after and are employed in an attempt to describe various identities, strategies, and perspectives in black liberation political thought. I use these terms to describe the diversity of political expression that was demonstrated throughout the decade of the 1960s.

12. See, for example, Edwards, The Practice of Diaspora; and Cynthia Young, Soul Power: Culture, Radicalism and the Making of a U.S. Third World Left (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006).

13. For the most thorough historical treatment of Negro Digest/Black World, see Jonathan Fenderson, “ ‘Journey toward a Black Aesthetic’: Hoyt Fuller, the Black Arts Movement and the Black Intellectual Community,” Ph.D. Dissertation, W. E. B. Du Bois Department of Afro-American Studies, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, 2011.

14. James Smethurst, The Black Arts Movement (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 92. See also Lisa Gail Collins and Margo Natalie Crawford, eds., New Thoughts on the Black Arts Movement (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2006).

15. Kimberly Springer, Living for the Revolution: Black Feminist Organizations, 1968–1980 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005); Rhonda Y. Williams, “Black Women, Urban Politics, and Engendering Black Power,” in The Black Power Movement: Rethinking the Civil Rights–Black Power Era, ed. Peniel E. Joseph (New York: Routledge, 2006), 79–104.

16. Benita Roth, Separate Roads to Feminism: Black, Chicana, and White Feminist Movements in America’s Second Wave (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 17.

17. Ibid., 25.

18. Lauren Kessler, The Dissident Press: Alternative Journalism in American History (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1984).

19. An essay that places Liberator among a number of institutions at the center of radical activity in New York City in this period is James Smethurst, “Poetry and Sympathy: New York, the Left, and the Rise of Black Arts,” Left of the Color Line: Race, Radicalism and Twentieth Century Literature of the United States (Chapel Hill: University of Carolina Press, 2003), 259–78.

20. See Robin D. G. Kelley, Freedom Dreams: The Black Radical Imagination (Boston: Beacon Press, 2002).

21. Beverly Guy-Sheftall, Words of Fire: An Anthology of African American Feminist Thought (New York: The New Press, 1995), 145–55.

22. Robert L. Allen, Black Awakening in Capitalist America: An Analytical History (New York: Doubleday, 1968), 246–73.

23. Jack Nelson, Kenneth Carlson and Thomas Linton, eds., Radical Ideas and the Schools (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972), 3.

24. Ibid., 3.

25. Ibid., 5–6.

26. See Cornel West, ed., The Radical King (Boston: Beacon Press, 2015).

27. Anthony Bogues, Black Heretics, Black Prophets: Radical Political Intellectuals (New York: Routledge, 2003), 7, 21. Cedric Robinson, Black Marxism (1983; reprint, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000); Most recently at least one scholar has interpreted the evolution of black radicalism as foundational to a distinctive black radical worldview. See Reiland Rabaka, Africana Critical Theory: Reconstructing the Black Radical Tradition, from W. E. B. Du Bois and C. L. R. James to Frantz Fanon and Amilcar Cabral (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2009).

28. For example, Ernie Allen’s pamphlet, “Revolutionary Nationalism and the Class Struggle” (Detroit: n.p., July 1970) identifies the difference between “bourgeois nationalism,” which aims to protect “material [and political] interests of the Black petit-bourgeoisie,” and “revolutionary nationalism,” which viewed African Americans as an internal colony and called for a “world-wide revolution” against imperialism. See also Jeffrey O. G. Ogbar, Black Power: Radical Politics and African American Identity (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 2005).

29. James Boggs and Grace Lee Boggs, Revolution and Evolution in the Twentieth Century (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974).

Chapter One

1. Mike Wallace, “Black Power/White Backlash,” CBS News Special, 1966; American Archive of Public Broadcasting, WGBH and the Library of Congress, Boston, MA, and Washington, DC.

2. Harold R. Isaacs, “The American Negro and Africa: Some Notes,” Phylon 20 (Fall 1959): 219–33. See also his book, The New World of Negro Americans (New York: Viking, 1963).

3. Walter L. Williams, “Black Journalism’s Opinions about Africa during the Late 19th Century,” Phylon 34 (September 1973): 224–35; C. A. Chick Sr., “The American Negroes’ Changing Attitude Toward Africa,” Journal of Negro Education 31 (Autumn 1962): 531–35; Adelaide Cromwell Hill, “What Is Africa to Us?,” in The Black Power Revolt: A Collection of Essays, ed. Floyd B. Barbour (Boston: Porter Sargent, 1968), 127–35; James Reston, “Copper Sun, Scarlet Sea, What Is Africa to Me?,” New York Times, March 12, 1961; John Henrik Clarke, “The New Afro-American Nationalism,” Freedomways 1 (Fall 1961): 285–95; Richard B. Moore, “Africa Conscious Harlem [1963],” in Harlem: A Community in Transition, 3rd ed., ed. John Henrik Clarke (New York: Citadel Press, 1964), 77–96; Ernest J. Allen Jr., “Religious Heterodoxy and Nationalist Tradition: The Continuing Evolution of the Nation of Islam,” Black Scholar 26, nos. 3–4 (Fall–Winter 1996): 2–34; George Shepperson, “Notes on Negro American Influences on the Emergence of African Nationalism,” Journal of African History 1 (1960): 299–312; Shepperson, “Pan-Africanism and ‘pan-Africanism’: Some Historical Notes,” Phylon 23 (Winter 1962): 346–58; Colin Legum, Pan-Africanism: A Short Political Guide (New York: Praeger, 1962); Pan-Africanism Reconsidered, ed. American Society of African Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962); John Bracey, August Meier, and Elliott Rudwick, eds., Black Nationalism in America (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1970).

4. James Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans: Black Americans and Africa, 1935–1961 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002).

5. J. Isawa Elaigwu and Ali A. Mazrui, “Nation-building and Changing Political Structures,” in General History of Africa, VIII: Africa Since 1935, ed. Ali A. Mazrui (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 435–67; Joseph Ki-Zerbo, Ali Mazrui, and Christophe Wondji, with A. Adu Boahen, “Nation-building and Changing Political Values,” in General History of Africa, VIII: Africa since 1935, 468–98.

6. Kwame Nkrumah, Africa Must Unite (London: Heinemann, 1963); Forward Ever: The Life of Kwame Nkrumah (London: Panaf Books, 1977). For a comprehensive look into the expatriate experience, see Kevin Gaines, American Africans in Ghana: Black Expatriates in the Civil Rights Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006).

7. For a view of the post–World War II political contexts African Americans faced, see Martha Biondi, To Stand and Fight: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Postwar New York City (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003).

8. Liberation Committee for Africa, “Statement of Aims,” circa 1960.

9. Ibid.

10. Liberator (December 1961): 2.

11. Advertisement, “What Africa Means to Americans,” The Nation, May 13, 1961.

12. “Riot in Gallery Halts U.N. Debate,” New York Times, February 16, 1961, p.1. See also Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans, pp. 233–40.

13. Author correspondence with Richard Gibson, April 13, 2006.

14. Author interview with Calvin Hicks, June 13, 2007.

15. U.S. Blames Reds for Negroes Act, Chicago Daily Defender, February 16, 1961, 1.

16. Adlai E. Stevenson, “The New Africa: A Guide and a Proposal,” Harper’s Magazine, May 1960; Schomburg Clippings File, Amherst College.

17. Max K. Gilstrap, “Mr. Stevenson and Africa,” Christian Science Monitor, July 7, 1955; Schomburg Clippings File, Amherst College.

18. Arthur Massolo, “Negro Leaders Deny Harlem Mad at Adlai,” New York Post, September 9, 1956; “Stevenson Tells Negroes to ‘Proceed Gradually’ toward Desegregation,” Greensboro Daily News, February 8, 1956; Schomburg Clippings File, Amherst College.

19. “Copy of Telegram Sent to Mrs. Patrice Lumumba, Leopoldville, Congo,” dated January 21, 1961; Author’s collection.

20. Ludo De Witte, The Assassination of Lumumba, trans. Ann Wright and Renee Fenby (London: Verso, 2001).

21. Liberation Committee for Africa, press release, dated February 13, 1961. Lumumba’s murder proved to be one stage in a larger effort to protect Belgian interests in the Congo. Several months after Lumumba’s killing, Hammarskjöld was killed in a curious plane crash on September 17, 1961. Scholars have discovered that competing economic, if not outright imperialist, interests were factors contributing to that death as well. For the best explanation, see David N. Gibbs, “Hammarskjöld, the United Nations, and the Congo Crisis, 1960–1, A Reinterpretation,” Journal of Modern African Studies, 31, no. 1 (1993): 163–74. Even Liberator was urged to give the issue greater nuance than it had earlier, writing, “We mourn [Hammarskjöld’s] death because he, like Patrice Lumumba, the man he betrayed, was a victim of colonialist greed in Africa”; Liberator (September 1961): 1; see also Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans, 208–40.

22. Liberation Committee for Africa, press release, February 13, 1961.

23. Lorraine Hansberry, “Congolese Patriot,” New York Times, March 26, 1961, SM4. See also Lawrence P. Jackson, Indignant Generation: A Narrative History of African American Writers and Critics, 1934–1960 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011), 507.

24. Liberation Committee for Africa, “Against Nuclear Testing: An Open Letter to President John F. Kennedy,” New York Times, April 26, 1962, 16.

25. Gibson found himself at the center of several controversies in the late 1950s and early 1960s, the most significant perhaps being accused of serving as an agent provocateur by some in the liberation movement. In at least two publications from the period, Gibson’s credibility is questioned, though no facts are provided in either account. See Revolution Africaine Fall 1964, n.p., and Soulbook 1, no. 4 (Winter 1965–1966): 233; and Soulbook 2, no. 1 (Summer 1966): 1. When I asked Gibson about this issue he responded by saying that the statement accusing him “appeared in the last issue of the Revolution Africaine when [publisher] Jacques Verges sought to insinuate that the financial ruin of his publication, no longer in Algeria and Switzerland, had been due to some sinister imperial plot. You will note that he did not mention the CIA because I would have sued him for libel. Eventually, I did that years later in London, and won my case and a substantial settlement”; author correspondence with R. Gibson, September 12, 2007.

Gibson is listed as a member of the editorial board of the Liberator beginning in March 1966, though he acknowledges that he merely sent articles to Watts for publication and had no hand in the actual production of the magazine. He had published only one article in the Liberator prior to that point: “The Algerian Story: A Million Lives for Freedom,” Liberator 3, no. 4 (April 1963): 4. His name remained on the magazine’s editorial staff list from 1966 until 1971, when the magazine ceased publication. He closed the correspondence quoted previously by referencing the long essay he had published, entitled “Richard Wright’s ‘Island of Hallucination’ and the ‘Gibson Affair,’ ” in Modern Fiction Studies 51, no. 4 (Winter 2005): 896–920. For an extended account of Gibson’s time with the FPCC in New York, see Van Gosse, Where the Boys Are: Cuba, the Cold War, and the Making of a New American Left (New York: Verso, 1993), 137–74. And see also Besenia Rodriguez, “ ‘De la Esclavitud Yanqui a la Libertad Cubana’: U.S. Black Radicals, the Cuban Revolution and the Formation of a Tricontinental Ideology,” Radical History Review 92 (Spring 2005): 62–87. (Thanks go to Anthony Ratcliff for providing me with the Soulbook documentation.)

26. John Henrik Clarke Papers. Box 2, Folder 46. Schomburg Center. New York Public Library.

27. Lawrence Jackson, Indignant Generation, 470–74; Peniel Joseph, Waiting til the Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power America (New York: Henry Holt: 2006), 42.

28. Jackson, Indignant Generation, 501.

29. Author correspondence with Richard Gibson, April 13, 2006.

30. Author correspondence with Gibson, December 10, 2007.

31. Author correspondence with Gibson, December 11, 2007.

32. Liberator (December 1961).

33. “Miss Evelyn Battle Engaged to Marry,” New York Times, March 25, 1962, 101.

34. Author interview, April 8, 2006.

35. It is interesting that when I spoke to Beveridge, he mentioned that he never met Gibson, though they had been in the same room on occasion. He explained that Watts was a person who kept his contacts separate. Marilyn Lieberman Watts, Watts’s first wife, confirmed this, indicating that she rarely knew fully all of the projects Watts had going or people that he knew.

36. Ibid.

37. Lowell P. Beveridge Jr., Domestic Diversity and Other Subversive Activities (Minneapolis, MN: Mill City Press, 2009), 277–78.

38. Hunter College, 149th Commencement Program, June 3, 1981, lists Hortense Sie Beveridge among the Class of 1981.

39. FBI File 100-90851. Outline of file contents concerning Hortense Sie in author’s possession.

40. Beveridge, Domestic Diversity, 252.

41. Pete Beveridge, “Hortense Sie Beveridge, October 3, 1923–December 8, 1993”; unpublished biographical sketch.

42. See, Africa-U.N. Bulletin, American Committee on Africa (ACOA), 18 (January 13, 1960); African Activist Archive Project (online) Archive, Michigan State University.

43. New York Age, January 16, 1960, p. 10. This article lists Hortense “Tee” Beveridge as the president of the Brooklyn chapter of ASNLH.

44. Author correspondence with Pete Beveridge, April 12, 2006.

45. The use of the term “long-distance runner” to describe black women’s activism is inspired by Dayo Gore, Jeanne Theoharis, and Komozi Woodard, eds., Want to Start a Revolution? Radical Women in the Black Freedom Struggle (New York: NYU Press, 2009), 13–14.

46. “Hortense Beveridge,” International Movie Database, accessed on January 21, 2016, at http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0079708/.

47. African Activist Archive Project (online), Michigan State University, http://africanactivist.msu.edu/index.php.

48. Ibid.

49. Penny M. Von Eschen, Race against Empire: Black Americans and Anticolonialism, 1937–1957 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997), 143–44.

50. “Africa and the United States, Annual Report of the American Committee on Africa,” June 1, 1960–May 31, 1961; African Activist Archive Project.

51. Ibid.

52. Ibid.

53. Von Eschen, Race against Empire; Wayne Urban, Black Scholar: Horace Mann Bond, 1904–1972 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992); Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans.

54. See Larry Jackson, Indignant Generation, 478–79; see also Charles Henry and Tunua Thrash, “U.S. Human Rights Petitions before the UN,” Black Scholar 26, nos. 3–4 (Fall–Winter, 1996): 60–73.

55. James Smethurst, The Black Arts Movement: Literary Nationalism in the 1960s and 1970s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 118–23. For the most complete coverage of the Harlem Writer’s Guild, see Keith Gilyard, John Oliver Killens: A Life of Black Literary Activism (Athens, GA: The University of Georgia Press, 2010); in reference to Killens’s travel to Africa, see 155–62.

56. See St. Clair Drake, “The American Negro’s Relation to Africa,” Africa Today 14, no. 6 (December 1967): 12–15.

57. P. Olisanwuche Esedebe, Pan-Africanism: The Idea and Movement, 1776–1991, 2nd ed. (Washington, DC: Howard University Press, 1994), 5.

58. Author correspondence with Gibson, April 13, 2006.

59. Although published works incorrectly mention that Dan Watts was the leader of On Guard for Freedom—see Komozi Woodard, A Nation within a Nation: Amiri Baraka and Black Power Politics (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), and Cynthia Young, Soul Power: Culture, Radicalism, and the Making of a U.S. Third World Left (Durham: NC, Duke University Press, 2006)—Calvin Hicks was the actual leader of this organization.

60. John Henrik Clarke, “New Afro-American Nationalism,” Freedomways 1, no. 3 (Fall 1961): 285–95; Robert L. Teague, “Negroes Say Conditions in U.S. Explain Nationalists’ Militancy: Negroes Explain Extremist Drives,” New York Times, March 2, 1961, 1.

61. James Smethurst, “Poetry and Sympathy: New York, the Left and the Rise of Black Arts,” in Left of the Color Line: Race, Radicalism, and Twentieth Century Literature of the United States, ed. Bill V. Mullen and James Smethurst (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 259–78.

62. See for example, Robert L. Allen, Black Awakening in Capitalist America: An Analytic History (New York: Doubleday, 1969), 246–73.

63. Author phone interview with Marilyn Watts Lieberman, October 9, 2006.

64. Author correspondence with Rose Finkenstaedt, May 2007.

65. Author interview with Pete Beveridge, April 8, 2006.

66. Liberator (June 1961): 2.

67. Letter dated September 20, 1961. Robert F. Williams Papers, Microfilm collection.

68. Ibid.

69. Gibson, Correspondence with the author, April 13, 2006.

70. Liberator (May 1961): 1; Vusumzi L. Make, “NATO Countries Aid Military Preparations of Verwoerd Government to ‘Shoot the Black Masses,’ ” Liberator 2, no. 4 (April 1962): 2.

71. “Freedom Riders Go beyond the New Frontier,” Liberator 1, no. 6 (June 1961): 1–3.

72. Clarke, “The New Afro-American Nationalism.”

73. Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans, 233–40; Komozi Woodard, A Nation within a Nation: Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones) and Black Power Politics (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999).

Chapter Two

1. Lawrence P. Jackson, Indignant Generation: A Narrative History of African American Writers and Critics, 1934–1960. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011), 484.

2. Edward Said, Representations of the Intellectual (New York: Randon House, 1996), 52–53, 62–63.

3. John Henrik Clarke, “The New Afro-American Nationalism,” Freedomways 1, no. 3 (Fall 1961): 285–95; James H. Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans: Black Americans and Africa, 1935–1961 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002).

4. St. Clair Drake, “Negro Americans and the Africa Interest,” The American Negro Reference Book, ed. John P. Davis (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1966), 662–705.

5. Brenda Gayle Plummer, In Search of Power: African Americans in the Era of Decolonization, 1956–1974 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 31.

6. Ibid., 343.

7. James K. Baker, “The American Society of African Culture,” Journal of Modern African American Society of African Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962).

8. Editorial, Liberator 2, no. 1 (January 1962). Studies 4, no. 3 (Nov. 1966): 367–69; Colin Legum, Pan-Africanism Reconsidered, ed. The American Society of African Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962).

9. “Yankee Go Home: Nigeria Speaks to the Ford Foundation,” Liberator 3, no. 4 (April 1963): 17.

10. Liberator 2, no. 2 (February 1962).

11. Liberator 2, no. 3 (March 1962).

12. Ibid.

13. W. E. B. Du Bois, The World and Africa: An Inquiry into the Part That Africa Has Played in World History (1946; reprint, New York: International, 1979).

14. Liberator 2, no. 3 (March 1962).

15. Liberator (September 1961), 4. As this was Liberator’s first full publication run, no volume numbers were provided for the year 1961. Beveridge indicated that the printer had mistakenly printed “October” on this issue of the newsletter.

16. Liberator (December 1961): 4.

17. Lowell Pierson Beveridge Jr., “The Theory and Practice of White Supremacy in South Africa, 1910–1913,” master’s thesis, Columbia University,1953.

18. Interview with the author, April 8, 2006. In 1958, Beveridge and his wife, Tee Beveridge, sponsored a Ghanaian student named Eddy Gyando for study in the United States.

19. “America in the Eyes of an African Student,” Liberator (December 1961): 3.

20. “The I.I.E. Report of African Students: An Exercise in Data Distortion,” Liberator 2, no. 1 (January 1962): 2. For more on the educational issues and opportunities for African students, see Julien Engel, “The African-American Institute,” African Studies Bulletin 6, no. 3 (October 1963): 13–18; Gordon D. Morgan, “Exploratory Study of Problems of Academic Adjustment of Nigerian Students in America,” Journal of Negro Education 32, no. 3 (Summer 1963): 208–17; Harold O. Lewis, “American Education and Civil Rights in an International Perspective,” Journal of Negro Education 34, no. 3 (Summer 1965): 239–48. Seminal writings that include the subject of African and African American education are St. Clair Drake, “Diaspora Studies and Pan-Africanism,” Global Dimensions of the African Diaspora, ed. Joseph E. Harris (Washington, DC: Howard University Press, 1983), 341–402; and Drake, “Negro Americans and the Africa Interest.”

21. Dan Watts, “Israel, Arab Refugees and Africa,” Liberator (December 1961): 1.

22. “Arab Student Comments on Arab Refugees,” Liberator 2, no. 2 (February 1962): 3.

23. Skeva Soko, “An African Student Warns about ‘Student Aid,’ ” Liberator 2, no. 2 (February 1962): 4. See also Julien Engel, “The African-American Institute,” African Studies Bulletin 6, no. 3 (October 1963): 13–18. Engel identifies the African support programs overseen by the African-American Institute. One of the programs he identified, the African Scholarship Program of American Universities, sponsored upward of 800 African students studying in the United States from 1953 to 1963.

24. Dan Watts, “The Long Trip Home: Failure of the African Student Program,” Liberator 2, no. 4 (April 1962): 1, 3. See also “Further Thoughts on African Student Programs,” Liberator 2, no. 6 (June 1962): 2.

25. Pete Beveridge, “Further Thoughts on African Student Programs,” Liberator 2, no. 6 (June 1962): 2.

26. “A Lesson in Cameroon History for President Kennedy,” Liberator 2, no. 3 (March 1962): 1; Elikia M’Bokolo “Equatorial West Africa,” UNESCO General History of Africa, Volume 3: Africa since 1935, ed. Ali A Mazrui (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 192–220.

27. Liberator 2, no. 4 (April 1962): 1; M’Bokolo, 218–20.

28. Elisio Figueiredo, “Angolan Resistance to Portuguese Atrocities,” Liberator 2, no. 4 (April 1962): 4. Though a student at the time of this speech, Figueiredo would eventually become the first ambassador to the United Nations from Angola, after the country gained independence in 1975.

29. Liberator 2, no. 5 (May 1962): 1.

30. “A Message from His Excellency Gamal Abdel Nasser President of the United Arab Republic,” Liberator 2, no. 5 (May 1962): 4–5.

31. W. Alphaeus Hunton, letter addressed to Dan Watts, Liberator 2, no. 5 (May 1962): 13. See also Hunton, Decision in Africa: Sources of Current Conflict (New York: International Publishers, 1957). In the preface to this book, W. E. B. Du Bois wrote: “In all this, Dr. Hunton is fair and objective. He seeks his facts with the unprecedented fairness of the scholar; he does not try to foretell the economic path to happiness and justice for particular groups or states. He does insist, however, that social welfare and not private profit must be the goal of all people, and that black Africans are people. This thesis his book supports with a wealth of material, and for this reason it is a notable contribution to African freedom,” 10.

32. Beveridge, interview with the author, April 8, 2006.

33. Selma Sparks, “A First Hand Report from the Accra Assembly: ‘The World Without the Bomb,’ ” Liberator 2, no. 7 (July 1962): 4–5. (Letter dated June 28, 1962.)

34. Kevin K. Gaines, American Africans in Ghana: Black Expatriates and the Civil; Rights Era (Chapel Hill, NC: Duke University Press, 2006).

35. “Bill Worthy Takes a Critical Look at the Treatment of Africa in the U.S. Press,” Liberator 2, no. 7 (July 1962): 6–7.

36. Ibid.

37. Peniel E. Joseph, Waiting til the Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power in America (New York: Henry Holt, 2006), 45–48. See also “Black Unity Forces Concession in Worthy Case,” Liberator 2, no. 8 (August 1962): 5.

38. “Encyclopedia Africana Outlines Proposed Plan of Work,” Liberator 2, no. 7 (July 1962): 10.

39. “Assassination: A Weapon of Neo-Colonialism,” Liberator 2, no. 8 (August 1962): 6.

40. “Zik Speaks Out on Anglo-Saxon Press Treatment of Africa,” Liberator 2, no. 8 (August 1962): 2–3.

41. See editorials, “Gizenga Must be Freed” and “Lest We Forget: The Tragic Background of the Congo Story,” Liberator 2, no. 9 (September 1962): 2–3, 8–9.

42. Ibid.

43. Pete Beveridge, “Nelson Mandela: Scourge of Apartheid,” Liberator 3, no. 1 (January 1963): 5–6.

44. David Chanaiwa, “Southern Africa since 1945,” UNESCO: General History of Africa: Volume 3, Africa since 1935, ed. Ali A. Mazrui (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 272–73.

45. “SWANU Secretary Calls for Action,” Liberator 3, no. 1 (January 1963): 16.

46. Sam Nujoma, Where Others Wavered: The Autobiography of Sam Nujoma (London: Panaf Books, 2001).

47. Daniel H. Watts, “View from the Top: American Leadership Conference on Africa,” Liberator 3, no. 1 (January 1963): 14.

48. Ibid. See also Panaf Books Editors, Panaf Great Lives: Eduardo Mondlane (London: Panaf Books, 1978).

49. Verwoerd, Salazar, and Welensky were architects and agents of white supremacy in coalition to extend European rule over South and Central Africa. See Rosalynde Ainslie, The Unholy Alliance: Salazar, Voerwerd, Welensky (London: Anti-Apartheid Movement, 1962); and Matthew Hughes, “Fighting for White Rule in Africa: The Central African Federation, Katanga and the Congo Crisis, 1958–1965,” International History Review 25, no. 3 (September 2003): 592–615.

50. Dan Watts, “The Reluctant Afro-Americans: American Negro Leadership Conference on Africa,” Liberator 3, no. 2 (February 1963): 3, 22.

51. This paper was later published in the Davis, ed., American Negro Reference Book, under the title, “Negro Americans and the Africa Interest.”

52. Watts, “Reluctant Afro-Americans,” 3.

53. Ibid.

54. “American Negro Leadership Conference on Africa: Resolutions,” Liberator 3, no. 2 (February 1963): 19–22.

55. “Three Years after Sharpeville: The Only Solution for South Africa,” Liberator 3, no. 3 (March 1963): 3.

56. Chanaiwa, “Southern Africa since 1945,” 249–81.

57. Charles P. Howard Sr. “The Assassination of Silvanus Olympio,” Liberator 3, no. 3 (March 1963): 6–7, 18.

58. Ibid.

59. Richard Gibson, “A Million Lives for Freedom: The Algerian Story,” Liberator 3, no. 4 (April 1963): 4–7, 20.

60. Carlos E. Russell, “All Night Vigil for Lumumba,” Liberator 3, no. 4 (April 1963): 15.

61. Ibid., 20.

62. Author correspondence with Gibson, December 11, 2007. For a full account of the Algerian Revolution, see Alistair Horne, A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962 (1977; reprint, New York: Penguin Books, 1987).

63. Author correspondence with Gibson, December 11, 2007.

64. “The Hour Has Come: Report from South Africa,” Liberator 3, no. 4 (April 1963): 12–13.

65. Carlos E. Russell and Ernest Kalibala, “Thank You, Massa Ellender for Your Contribution to African Unity,” Liberator 3, no. 2 (February 1963): 4–5.

66. “La. Senator makes Visit to Mali Republic,” Chicago Daily Defender, October 27, 1962, 3; “Dixie Senator Attacks African Nations,” Chicago Daily Defender, December 3, 1962, 1, 2; “Uganda Bars Ellender; Rips Segregation Views,” Chicago Daily Defender, December 4, 1962, 3.

67. Russell and Kalibala, “Thank You, Massa Ellender,” 4.

68. Jariretundu Kozonguizi, “African Leader and Racist Senator,” Liberator 3, no. 6 (June 1963): 11, 18.

69. Pete Beveridge (unsigned), “The Two Faces of America,” Liberator 3, no. 6 (June 1963): 4. On the table of contents for this issue, Carlos Russell is credited for this article, but Beveridge authored it.

70. W. Ofuatey-Kodjoe, “My Unwilling Brother,” Liberator 3, no. 6 (June 1963): 10, 19.

71. Ibid., 19. Emphasis in original.

72. “Dear African Brothers,” Liberator 3 (November 1963): 3.

73. Issacs lists Watts as one of the fifty-five people he interviewed for his book. See Introduction, The New World of Negro Americans (New York: Viking Press, 1963), xvii.

74. Harlem Anti-Colonial Committee event flyer, dated June 1, 1963; William Worthy file, Schomburg Clippings file, Amherst College.

75. “Harlem,” Liberator 3 (June 1963): 19.

76. “How U.S. Supports Apartheid,” Liberator 3, no. 9 (September 1963): 3–5.

77. William Worthy, “Anatomy of a Sit-In,” Liberator 3, no. 9 (September 1963): 6–7.

78. See Van Gosse, “More Than Just a Politician: Notes on the Life and Times of Harold Cruse,” in Harold Cruse’s The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual Reconsidered, ed. Jerry Watts (New York: Routledge, 2004), 17–40. Gosse argued that after 1964, Liberator abandoned coverage of Africa.

79. “Reporter Magazine Accused of Ignorance and Confusion,” Liberator 4, no. 5 (May 1964): 5.

80. Daniel H. Watts, “U.N. Report,” Liberator 4, no. 7 (Jul. 1964): 16.

81. Letters dated February 8, 1963, and February 15, 1963, between Jacques Verges, director, Révolution Africaine, and Osgood Caruthers, acting director, press, publications, and public services. In the author’s possession.

82. T. D. Baffoe, “U.S. Image in Ghana,” Liberator 4 (July 1964): 17.

83. “Quaison-Sackey Brings Afro-Asian Sanity to Security Council Debate,” Liberator 2, no. 2 (November–December, 1962): 3, 12. His book, Africa Unbound: Reflections of an African Statesman (New York: Prager, 1963), details his participation at the United Nations. At the time of its publication, Nkrumah’s government was still viewed as a shining example of African nationalism. Nkrumah wrote the Foreword for this book, praising Quaison-Sackey for his “force and clarity” in explaining “the political factors affecting the complicated process of evolution,” and “the forces at work in Africa” (vii).

84. Daniel H. Watts, “UN Report: Africa Speaks Out,” Liberator 5, no. 1 (January 1965): 16–19.

85. Richard Gibson, “Ghana and the Battle for Africa,” Liberator 6, no. 4 (April 1966): 4–6.

86. “African Women at the U.N.,” Liberator 5, no. 5 (May 1965): 18.

87. Ossie Sykes, “Playing the Game for the State Department in Africa,” Liberator 5, no. 6 (June 1965): 6.

88. Donald Jackson, “Black People and Vietnam,” Liberator 5, no. 12 (December 1965): 9–10.

89. Richard Gibson, “Race War Over Rhodesia?,” Liberator 5, no. 12 (December 1965): 4–5.

90. Shirley Graham Du Bois to John Henrik Clarke, March 27, 1966; John Henrik Clarke Papers, Box 30, Folder 6, Schomburg Center, New York Public Library.

91. Gibson to Clarke, dated April 16, 1966; John Henrik Clarke Papers. Box 5, Folder 46. Schomburg Center, New York Public Library.

92. Bob Fitch and Mary Oppenheimer, Ghana: End of an Illusion (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1966), 129.

93. “African Scorecard,” Liberator 6, no. 4 (April 1966): 7.

94. Charles P. Howard, “Africa vs. CIA,” Liberator 6, no. 5 (May 1966): 8–9.

95. Howard, “Ghana Coup No Benefit to Africans,” Afro-American, 8, 1966.

96. Some of Howard’s articles over this run include: Charles P. Howard, “Eyewitness Doubts Ghana Coup’s Appeal,” Afro-American, April 2, 1966; “Outside Imperialist Make ‘Greedy’ Class Oust Nkrumah,” Afro-American, April 5, 1966; “Says Nkrumah Overthrow Benefits Ex-Colonial Powers,” Afro-American, April 16, 1966; “Sees Dwindling of Free Africa,” Afro-American, n.d.; “Much Criticism Directed as Nkrumah Unfounded,” Afro-American, n.d.; “Foreign Squeeze on Cocoa Hurt Ghana,” Afro-American, n.d.; Kwame Nkrumah Papers, Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Box 154–42; See also Gaines, American Africans in Ghana, 242.

97. Richard Gibson, “East African Timebomb,” Liberator 6, no. 8 (August 1966): 10–11.

98. Soulbook 1, no. 4 (Winter 1965–66): 1.

99. Ibid. An additional statement on Gibson was included in Soulbook 1, no. 4 (Winter 1965–66); Soulbook 2, no. 1 (Summer 1966).

100. Charles P. Howard, “South Africa,” Liberator 6, no. 11 (November 1966): 8.

101. Liberator 6, no. 11 (November 1966): 16. “Radio—Today’s Leading Events,” New York Times, November 6, 1966. The listing reads: “WBAI—The Making of a Rebel, an Interview with Franz J. T. Lee, South African Exile Living in Europe.”

102. Richard Gibson, “Israeli Threat to Africa,” Liberator 8, no. 7 (July 1967): 6–7.

103. Chanaiwa, “Southern Africa since 1945,” 279.

104. Gibson, “Israeli Threat.”

105. Richard Gibson, “African Unity and Afro-Americans,” Liberator 8, no. 8 (August 1968): 16–18.

106. John Soaries, “Home IS Africa!” Liberator 8, no. 9 (September 1968): 15.

107. Vernon W. Boggs, “Slogans Are Not Enough!,” Liberator 8, no. 11 (November 1968): 10–11.

108. Selwyn R. Cudjoe, “Taking Whitey’s Word,” Liberator 9, no. 5 (May 1969): 10–11.

109. Tom Mboya, “Africa and Afro-America,” in Black Homeland, Black Diaspora: Cross-currents of the African Relationship, ed. Jacob Drachler (Port Washington, NY: National University Publications, 1975), 245–57.

110. Ibid., 246–47. Emphasis in original.

111. Ibid., 255.

112. Immanuel Wallerstein, “I Really Said”; Songha Wanyandey Songha, “Mr. Mboya in Harlem”; and Michael Knashie Searles, “It Ain’t Necessarily So”; all in Liberator 9, no. 7 (July 1969): 9–11.

113. Y. Sangare, “Zambia: Towards Economic Decolonization,” Liberator 8, no. 2 (February 1969): 14–17.

114. This is my term for the cinematic exploitation of African people. It’s the counterpart to “Blaxploitation” in the U.S. context.

115. Robeson Taj Frazier, “Thunder in the East: China, Exiled Crusaders, and the Unevenness of Black Internationalism,” American Quarterly 63, no. 4 (December, 2011): 929–53.

Chapter Three

1. Vicky Crawford, Jacqueline Anne Rouse, and Barbara Woods, eds., Women in the Civil Rights Movement: Trailblazers and Torchbearers, 1941–1965 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990); Dayo Gore, Jeanne Theoharis, and Komozi Woodard, eds., Want to Start a Revolution? Radical Women in the Black Freedom Struggle (New York: NYU Press, 2009), 1–24.

2. Benita Roth, Separate Roads to Feminism: Black, Chicana, and White Feminist Movements in America’s Second Wave (Cambridge University Press, 2004), 16. See also Kimberly Springer, Living for the Revolution: Black Feminist Organizations, 1968–1980 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press. 2005), 1–44.

3. Roth, Separate Roads to Feminism: Black, Chicana, and White Feminist Movements in America’s Second Wave (Cambridge University Press, 2004), 16.

4. Pete and Tee Beveridge counted both of these pioneering women among their friends.

5. For excellent historical treatment of black women’s activism that predates Liberator, see Dayo Gore, Radicalism at the Crossroads: African American Women Activists in the Cold War (New York: NYU Press, 2011), and Erik S. McDuffie, Sojourning for Freedom: Black Women, American Communism, and the Making of Black Left Feminism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2011).

6. Author correspondence with Rose Finkenstaedt, May 2006.

7. Liberation Committee for Africa, undated letter; Schomburg Clippings file, Amherst College.

8. Harold Cruse, The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual (2005 reprint; New York: New York Review of Books, 1967). Specifically, for the criticism of Hansberry, see the sections “Cultural Leadership and Cultural Democracy,” 96–114; and especially, “Lorraine Hansberry,” 267–84.

9. Liberation Committee for Africa, “Negro History Week Observance” invitation card, dated February 10, 1963; Schomburg Clippings file, Amherst College.

10. “Rock the Boat,” (editorial), Liberator 3, no. 3 (March 1963): 2. Bunche and Robinson, though responding to different sets of historical circumstances, were viewed by many in the African American left community as out of touch with their political desires and far too eager to express patriotism or hold important government posts that extended, rather than challenge, American imperial and militaristic designs.

11. Lorraine Hansberry, Letter to the Editor, Liberator 3, no. 7 (July 1963): 16.

12. Liberator 3, no. 4 (April 1963): 22.

13. New York Times, January 17, 1965, X12

14. Letter to the Editor, Liberator 3, no. 7 (July 1963): 16.

15. Selma Sparks, “Dubinsky’s Plantations” Liberator 3, no. 1 (January 1963): 3–4, 6.

16. Rose L. H. Finkenstaedt, “The Elections: No Choice for Black Americans,” Liberator 3, no. 1 (January 1963): 8.

17. “General Harriet Tubman: The Real Emancipator,” Liberator 3, no. 1 (January 1963): 10.

18. Rose L. H. Finkenstaedt, “Narcotics in the Ghetto: Neo-Colonialism at Home,” 12–14; “Lumumba’s Last Letter to His Wife,” 15; Selma V. Sparks, “Dubinsky’s Plantation, Part II,” Liberator 3, no. 2 (February 1963): 16–18.

19. Selma V. Sparks, “Flight from Reality: The American Peace Movement,” Liberator 3, no. 4 (April 1963): 8–9.

20. Liberator 3, no. 2 (February 1963): 22.

21. Rose L. H. Finkenstaedt, “Never on Christmas: A Black Muslim Story,” Liberator 3, no. 3 (March 1963): 16–17.

22. Rose L. H. Finkenstaedt, “Upper West Side Story: Community League of West 159th St.,” Liberator 3, no. 4 (April 1963): 10–11.

23. Rose L. H. Finkenstaedt, “Which Road to Freedom?,” Liberator 3, no. 5 (May 1963): 12–14; see also “Equality Is Not Enough,” Liberator 3, no. 8 (August 1963): 10–11.

24. Dan Watts, “Mrs. Richardson’s Revolt” (editorial), Liberator 3, no. 11 (November 1963): 2.

25. Joseph, Waiting, 84–92.

26. Edith Schomburg, “The Crux of Black Non-Violence,” Liberator 3, no. 12 (December 1963): 10.

27. Merle Stewart, Letter on Self-Defense, Liberator 4, no. 8 (August 1964): 11.

28. Buleah Richardson, “This Little Light of Mine,” Liberator 3, no. 7 (July 1963): 6–9. Liberator’s connection to the South was limited. According to Pete Beveridge, aside from articles such as Richardson’s, the magazine relied on figures such as civil rights attorney and SNCC associate Len Holt (who lived in the South and had participated in several demonstrations there) for their coverage.

29. Mildred Pitts Walker, “Nigger Go Home—Where?” Liberator 3, no. 7 (July 1963): 17–18.

30. Benita Roth, Separate Roads to Feminism: Black, Chicana, and White Feminist Movements in America’s Second Wave (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 76–128.

31. Eleanor Mason, “Hot Irons and Black Nationalism” Liberator 3, no. 5 (May 1963): 21–22.

32. John Bracey, August Meier, and Elliott Rudwick, eds., Black Nationalism in America (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1970), 235, 486.

33. Mary Ann Bryant, Letter to the Editor, Liberator 3, no. 7 (July 1963): 16.

34. These models were also pictured on album covers from the period. Jazz musicians such as Lou Donaldson embraced this appreciation of black women’s natural beauty. His albums, The Natural Soul (Blue Note BLP 4108), Good Gracious (Blue Note 45-1896), Say It Loud! (Blue Note BST 84299), and Everything I Play Is Funky (Blue Note BST 84337), all featured brown-skinned African American women in natural hairdos on the cover. For an expanded discussion of these strategies, see Tanisha C. Ford, Liberated Threads: Black Women, Style, and the Global Politics of Soul (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), 51–58.

35. Jeannette, “Thru Women’s Eyes,” Liberator 3, no. 10 (October 1963): 15. It should also be mentioned that the magazine also showed African-inspired clothing for men as well. See “New Afro Fashions for Men,” Liberator 7, no. 11 (November 1967): 12–13.

36. See for example, Robert Harris, Nyota Harris, and Grandassa Harris, eds., Carlos Cooks and Black Nationalism from Garvey to Malcolm (Dover, MA: Majority Press, 1991); Lorenzo Thomas, “The Shadow World: New York’s Umbra Workshop and Origins of the Black Arts Movement,” Callaloo 4 (October 1978): 53–72.

37. Max Roach and Abbey Lincoln, “Black Man in Japan,” Liberator 4, no. 1 (January 1964): 12–13, 19.

38. Scott Saul, Freedom Is, Freedom Ain’t: Jazz and the Making of the Sixties (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 93–96.

39. Roach and Lincoln, “Black Man in Japan,” 13.

40. The film Black Sun was released in 1964 and was directed by Koreyoshi Kurahara. The soundtrack, which features Roach and Lincoln, was directed by Toshiro Mayuzumi; Kuroi Taiyo (Black Sun) / Kyonetsu no Kisetsu (The Warped Ones): Original Soundtracks (Think! Records SPFJ-10/11), Japan. Recorded by Norio Numakura; mixed at Nikkatsu Studio, November 7, 1963. http://www.japanimprov.com/indies/think/Blacksun.html (accessed on February 19, 2009).

41. LaShonda Katrice Barnett, I Got Thunder: Black Women Songwriters on Their Craft (New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 2007), 15.

42. Eric Porter, What Is This Thing Called Jazz? African American Musicians as Artists, Critics and Activists (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 149–90; Wayne Enstice and Janis Stockhouse, Jazzwomen: Conversations with Twenty-One Musicians (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), 195–214.

43. Nat Hentoff, “How Wonderful to Be a Black Woman,” New York Times, January 14, 1968; Schomburg Clippings File, Amherst College.

44. Liberator, 2, no. 1 (January 1962): 1.

45. “Harlem Mothers Organize to Save Their Sons,” Liberator 4, no. 8 (August 1964): 10.

46. Clayton Riley, “Cement Roots Action in Harlem,” Liberator 4, no. 8 (August 1964): 10.

47. Kattie Cumbo, “Thru Women’s Eyes: Integration—Who Needs It?,” Liberator 4, no. 9 (September 1964): 20. Cumbo was also a poet, and her work was featured in Black Sister: Poetry by Black American Women, 1746–1980, ed. Erlene Stetson (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981), 134–37. Another writer, who went by the initials S.A.L., shared Cumbo’s questions about the value of integration. See S.A.L., “Thru Women’s Eyes: What I Want for Junnie,” Liberator 4, no. 10 (October 1964): 20–21.

48. Kattie Cumbo, “My People’s Children,” Liberator 4, no. 11 (November 1964): 9.

49. See, for example, C. E. Wilson, “Why Don’t Public Schools Teach Our Children?,” 4–6; and Larry Neal, “The Welfare Trap,” Liberator 5, no. 3 (March 1965): 28.

50. Lorraine Hansberry, A Raisin in the Sun: The Unfilmed Original Screenplay, ed. Robert Nemiroff (New York: Plume, 1992). See especially Margaret B. Wilkerson’s Introduction to this edition, xxix–xlvii.

51. Amiri Baraka, “A Critical Reevaluation: A Raisin in the Sun’s Enduring Passion,” in A Raisin in the Sun/The Sign in Sidney Brustein’s Window (New York: Vintage, 1995), 9–20. See also Lorraine Hansberry, The Collected Last Plays, ed. Robert Nemiroff (New York: Plume, 1983); and Len Holt, “Not Our Lorraine” (poem), Liberator 5, no. 2 (February 1965): 16.

52. Julian Mayfield, Letter to the editor, Liberator 5, no. 4 (April 1965): 28.

53. L. Pete Beveridge, “Lorraine Hansberry’s World,” Liberator 4, no. 12 (December 1964): 9.

54. Lawrence P. Neal, “The Sign in Sidney Brustein’s Window (Theater Review),” Liberator 4, no. 12 (December 1964): 25.

55. Errol G. Hill and James V. Hatch, A History of African American Theatre (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 375–429.

56. “Women of Africa” and “African Women at the U.N.,” Liberator 5, no. 5 (May 1965): 16–18.

57. Katy Gibson, “Letter to Black Men,” Liberator 5, no. 7 (July 1965): 29–30.

58. Curtis Hezehkiah Jackson, Letter to the Editor, Liberator 5, no. 8 (August 1965): 29.

59. Writer’s Conference Report: “The Role of the Black Woman in a White Society,” Liberator 5, no. 8 (August 1965): 4–5.

60. Ibid. See also Benita Roth, Separate Roads, 80–93.

61. For more on Johnson’s policies, see Bruce J. Schulman, Lyndon B. Johnson and American Liberalism: A Brief Biography with Documents, 2nd ed. (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007).

62. Beverly Van Cortland, “War on the Poor,” Liberator 5, no. 8 (August 1965): 18–19.

63. Bonnie Claudia Harrison, “Diasporadas: Black Women and the Fine Art of Activism,” Meridians 2, no. 2 (2002): 163–84.

64. “The World of Valerie Maynard,” Liberator 5, no. 10 (October 1965): 12–13.

65. Alabama, Letter to the Editor, Liberator 5, no. 12 (December 1965): 18–19. All caps and italics are from the original.

66. Louise Moore, “When Will the Real Black Man Stand Up?,” Liberator 6, no. 5 (May 1966): 4–6.

67. Betty Frank Lomax, “Afro-American Woman: Growth Deferred,” Liberator 6, no. 5 (May 1966): 18.

68. Louise Moore, “Black Men vs. Black Women,” Liberator 6, no. 8 (August 1966): 16–17; Frances Beal, “Double Jeopardy: To Be Black and Female,” in Words of Fire: An Anthology of African-American Feminist Thought, ed. Beverly Guy-Sheftall (New York: New Press, 1995), 146–55.

69. Evelyn Rodgers, “Is Ebony Killing Black Women?,” Liberator 6, no. 3 (March 1966): 12–13.

70. Ibid.

71. Ibid. Parenthesis in original.

72. “Is Ebony Killing Black Women?”; Letter to the editor, Liberator 6, no. 5 (May 1966): 19. Caps in the original.

73. Ebony 21, no. 8 (June 1966).

74. Ebony 21, no. 10 (August 1966).

75. Liberator 6, no. 5 (May 1966).

76. Ibid., 4.

77. Ibid., 10.

78. Ibid., 20.

79. Ibid.

80. Liberator 6, no. 5 (May 1966): 20; James Smethurst, The Black Arts Movement: Literary Nationalism in the 1960s and 1970s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 84–89.

81. Roth, Separate Roads to Feminism, 76–128.

82. Sonia Sanchez, “Ruminations/Reflections,” in Black Women Writers, 1950–1980: A Critical Evaluation, ed. Mari Evans (New York: Doubleday, 1984), 415–18.

83. See Ula Yvette Taylor, The Veiled Garvey: The Life and Times of Amy Jacques Garvey (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002).

84. Louise Moore, “Black Men vs. Black Women,” Liberator 6, no. 7 (July 1966): 16–17. Italics in the original.

85. Louise Moore, “So Long Uncle Tom,” Liberator 6, no. 11 (November 1966): 17–19.

86. Ibid., 18.

87. A number of African American writers have written about the impact of Christianity as a form of oppression. James Cone and Albert Cleague are most known for their analyses of Christianity. See Cone, “Failure of the Black Church,” Liberator 9, no. 5 (May 1969): 14–17, 22. For other examples, see Nathan Hare, “Brainwashing of Black Men’s Minds”; Marvin E. Jackmon (Marvin X), “That Old Time Religion”; Yusef Iman, “Show Me Lord Show Me” and “Love Your Enemy”; and Norman Jordan, “The Sinner” and “The Sacrifice”; all in Black Fire: An Anthology of African American Writing, ed. Amiri Baraka and Larry Neal (Baltimore: Black Classic Press, 1968). See also Gayraud S. Wilmore, Black Religion and Black Radicalism: An Examination of the Black Experience in Religion (Garden City, NY: Anchor Press, 1973), especially his chapters “The Dechristianization of Black Radicalism,” 228–61, and “Black Power, Black People and Theological Renewal,” 262–306. Also, for a discussion on the diasporic religious practices of African descendants, see Michael Gomez, ed., Diasporic Africa: A Reader (New York: NYU Press, 2006), 1–24.

88. Patricia Robinson, “School Integration: Westchester Style,” Liberator 6, no. 9 (September 1966): 8–10. See also Rhonda Y. Williams, Concrete Demands: The Search for Black Power in the 20th Century (New York: Routledge, 2015), 234–66.

89. Robinson, “School Integration,” 8–10.

90. Roth, 86–89. See also Kimberley Springer, ed., Still Lifting, Still Climbing: African American Women’s Contemporary Activism (New York: NYU Press, 1999).

91. Kimberley Springer, Living for the Revolution: Black Feminist Organizations, 1968–1980 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005).

92. King, “A Time to Break Silence,” in A Testament of Hope: The Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin Luther King Jr., ed. James M. Washington (New York: HarperCollins, 1991), 231–44. This speech was delivered on April 4, 1967, exactly one year before he was assassinated. It originally appeared in written form in Freedomways 7, no. 2 (Spring 1967).

93. Gwendolyn Patton, “Black People and War,” Liberator 7, no. 2 (February 1967): 11.

94. Ibid.

95. W. E. B. Du Bois, “The African Roots of War,” in Black Titan: W. E. B. Du Bois, An Anthology by the Editors of Freedomways, ed. John Henrik Clarke (Boston: Beacon Press, 1970), 274–85.

96. Mike Marqusee, Redemption Song: Muhammad Ali and the Spirit of the Sixties (London: Verso, 1999), 162–252.

97. John Cosby Jr., “Open Letter to Nancy Wilson,” Liberator 7, no. 10 (October 1967): 16.

98. Marqusee, Redemption Song.

99. Rashidah Ismaili-Abu Bakr, “Slightly Autobiographical: The 1960s on the Lower East Side,” African American Review 27, no. 4 (1993): 585–89.

100. Sanchez continued to publish in Liberator through 1968. Her “to blk/record/buyers” appeared in the July 1968 issue of the periodical. Liberator 8, no. 7 (July, 1968).

101. Don L. Lee (Haki Madhubuti), “A Poem for Black Women,” Liberator 8, no. 8 (August 1968): 15.

102. Theodore, “You Are the Black Woman,” Liberator 9, no. 3 (March 1969): 13.

103. Springer, Living for the Revolution, 7–10. This year marks the formal organizational phase of black feminism, as several core groups formed in 1968.

104. Irma W. Princeton, “The Uptown-Downtown Store,” Liberator 8, no. 4 (April 1968): 20.

105. Barbara Butler, “Gov. Rockefeller’s Plan for Harlem Removal,” Liberator 8, no. 5 (May 1968): 11–13.

106. Sydney H. Schanberg, “Legislature Meets Today,” New York Times, January 3, 1968, 1, 2.

107. Butler, “Gov. Rockefeller’s Plan,” 13.

108. Ibid.

109. Barbara Butler, “Columbia University: The Arrogant Giant,” Liberator 8, no. 6 (June 1968): 10–13. Butler appeared to have a particular interest in the intersection of class and race. In the September issue, Liberator 8, no. 9 (September 1968): 18–19, she reviewed Ferdinand Lundberg’s The Rich and the Super-Rich: Who Really Owns America?, which revealed “that practically everyone in this country is poor,” (18).

110. M. P. Johnson, “Columbia University,” Letter to the Editor, Liberator 8, no. 7 (July 1968): 22.

111. For extensive details and outcomes of this expansion effort, see Stephan M. Bradley, Harlem vs. Columbia University: Black Student Power in the Late ’60s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009).

112. Gail A. Stokes, “Black Woman to Black Man,” Liberator 8, no. 12 (December 1968): 17.

113. Roth, Separate Roads, 86.

114. Edith R. Hambrick, “Black Woman to Black Woman,” Liberator 9, no. 2 (February 1969): 8.

115. Author interview with Askia M. Touré (Roland Snellings), February 26, 2009.

116. Yanhe Sangare, “The African Woman,” Liberator 8, no. 7 (July 1968): 4–7. A website dedicated to Sangare, who died on November 8, 2004, states that she came to the United States with her father, Ambassador Charles T. O. King, II, in 1955, when he was assigned to represent Liberia at the United Nations in New York. The site states that Sangare attended high school at Riverdale Preparatory School, and college at Aldephi College, where she obtained her bachelor’s degree in journalism. The United Nations published its own obituary of Sangare, honoring her contribution to the United Nations Association of the National Capitol Area (UNA-NCA) in its newsletter, UN Vision, 52, no. 1 (Winter 2005): 19.

117. E. Fannie Granton, “Africa’s Famous Model: Mrs. Yahne Sangare,” Jet, June 22, 1967, 40–42.

118. Lee Rainwater and William L. Yancey, eds., The Moynihan Report and the Politics of Controversy (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1967).

119. Dan Watts, “The Negro Is Obsolete” (editorial), Liberator 5, no. 12 (December 1965): 3.

120. Author correspondence with Marilyn Watts Lieberman, October 9, 2006. See also, Daniel Geary, Beyond Civil Rights: The Moynihan Report and Its Legacy (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015), 122.

121. Mike Wallace, “Black Power/White Backlash,” CBS video, 1968.

122. Stephen Steinberg, Turning Back: The Retreat from Racial Justice in American Thought and Policy (Boston: Beacon, 1995), 107–36.

123. James Boggs, “The City Is the Black Man’s Land,” Racism and the Class Struggle: Further Pages from a Black Worker’s Notebook (New York: Monthly Review, 1970), 39–50.

124. Dan Watts, “Birth Control” (editorial), Liberator 9, no. 5 (May 1969): 3.

125. Jean C. Bond and Pat Peery, “Has the Black Man Been Castrated?,” Liberator 9, no. 5 (May 1969): 4–8; reprinted in Toni Cade Bambara, The Black Woman: An Anthology (New York: Washington Square Press, 2005), 141–48.

126. Ibid.

127. Ibid.

128. Sonia Sanchez, “A Poem for My Father,” Liberator 9, no. 8 (August 1969): 9.

129. Linda Janet Holmes and Cheryl A. Wall, eds., Introduction to Savoring the Salt: The Legacy of Toni Cade Bambara (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2008), 3–6.

130. Toni Cade (Bambara), review of “Defender of the Angels,” Liberator 10, no. 7 (July 1970): 20.

131. Tansey Thomas, “A Very Black Sister,” Third World News, May 27, 1971, 5; Bloom Collection, Amherst College Special Collections.

Chapter Four

1. New York Times, January 13, 1965.

2. Grant Farred, What’s My Name: Black Vernacular Intellectuals (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003).

3. Ibid., 1.

4. See Post-Colonial Studies: The Key Concepts, ed. Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin (London: Routledge, 2000).

5. Farred, What’s My Name?

6. James Baldwin, “Not 100 Years of Freedom,” Liberator 3, no. 1 (January 1963): 7, 16.

7. Lawrence Jackson, Indignant Generation: A Narrative History of African American Writers and Critics, 1934–1960 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011), 447–53.

8. Baldwin, “Not 100 Years of Freedom,” 7.

9. Lawrence Jackson, Indignant Generation, 447–53.

10. Herb Boyd, Baldwin’s Harlem: A Biography of James Baldwin (New York: Atria Books, 2008), 110–11.

11. Liberator 3, no. 3 (March 1963).

12. Baldwin was also referenced in a less kind light. W. Francis Lucas, for example, likened white writer William Styron’s reimagination of Nat Turner to Baldwin serving as “American’s conscience.” See W. Francis Lucas, “William Styron: The Negro James Baldwin,” Liberator 8, no. 6 (June 1968): 18–20.

13. See Thomas A. Johnson, “Black Panthers Picket a School,” New York Times, September 13, 1966, 38.

14. Rose Finkenstaedt, correspondence with the author, letter dated May 4, 2007.

15. Homer Bigart, “Baldwin Leaves Negro Monthly,” New York Times, February 28, 1967, 34.

16. Herb Boyd, Baldwin’s Harlem: A Biography of James Baldwin (New York: Atria, 2008).

17. Dan Watts interview, circa 1971; UNC Library Media Resource Center Archives, call no. 65-CA80.

18. Russell, “The Wide World of Ossie Davis,” Liberator 3, no. 12 (December 1963): 11, 22.

19. Ossie Davis, “Anti-Semitism and Black Power” (1967), in Freedomways Reader: Prophets in Their Own Country, ed. Esther Cooper Jackson (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2000), 207–9.

20. Ibid.

21. Ibid., 207.

22. Bigart, “Baldwin Leaves Negro Monthly.”

23. Muhammad Ahmad (Max Stanford Jr.), interview with the author, March 4, 2009.

24. Dan Watts, “Censorship, Liberal Style” (editorial), Liberator 9, (February 1969): 3.

25. Hughes continued to support younger writers throughout the end of his life. He was also one of the few luminaries who lived in Harlem throughout his lifetime. Liberator published several of Hughes’s poems throughout the decade, and staff writer Charlie Russell once wrote that Hughes was “in himself a literary tradition.” This issue also featured Hughes on its cover. For a quote about Hughes, see Charlie L. Russell, “Langston Hughes: Citizen of Harlem,” Liberator 5, no. 2 (February 1965): 15.

26. Ibid.

27. “Nuclear Arms for Racist Germany?,” Liberator 4, no. 4 (April 1964): 9.

28. Liberator 3, no. 7 (July 1963): 14–16.

29. Liberator 3, no. 8 (August 1963): 16.

30. Maurianne Adams and John Bracey, eds., Strangers and Neighbors: Relations between Blacks and Jews in the United States (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1999).

31. See The Black Scholar 19, no. 6 (November 1988); see also “Action at Massachusetts U. Raises Censorship Cry,” Special to the New York Times, May 29, 1988.

32. James Baldwin, ed., Black Anti-Semitism and Jewish Racism (New York: Shocken Books, 1970).

33. Liberator 6, no. 7 (July 1966): 22.

34. Ibid.

35. Liberator 7, no. 5, (May 1967): 22.

36. Harold Cruse, Crisis of the Negro Intellectual (New York: Morrow, 1967), 402–19; Van Gosse, “More Than Just a Politician: Notes on the Life and Times of Harold Cruse,” in Harold Cruse’s Crisis of the Negro Intellectual, Reconsidered, ed. Jerry Watts (New York: Routledge, 2004), 17–40.

37. Author interview with Carlos E. Russell, March 25, 2006.

38. Rolland Snellings, “Toward Repudiating Western Values,” Liberator, 4, no. 11 (November 1964): 11–12; James E. Smethurst, The Black Arts Movement: Literary Nationalism in the 1960s and 1970s (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 131–32.

39. Askia Touré, correspondence with author, May 15, 2006.

40. Rolland Snellings (Askia Touré), “Thunder from the South: A Report on the National Afroamerican Student Conference on Black Nationalism, May 1–3, 1964,” unpublished ms., Clarke Papers, Box 30, Folder 47.

41. Harold Cruse, Rebellion or Revolution? (New York: William Morrow, 1968).

42. Harold Cruse, The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual (New York: William Morrow, 1967), 404–19.

43. Peniel Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power in America (New York: Henry Holt, 2006), 201–2; Gosse, “More Than Just a Politician.”

44. Cruse, Crisis, 407.

45. Askia Touré, interview with the author, February 26, 2009.

46. Ibid.

47. Henry Vance Davis, “Harold Wright Cruse: The Early Years and the Jewish Factor,” in Black Scholar 35, no. 4 (Winter 2006): 17–31.

48. C. E. Wilson, interview with the author, April 15, 2006.

49. Lynn Wheeldin, “Review of Harold Cruse’s The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual,” Liberator 9, no. 3 (March 1969): 17.

50. Richard Iton, In Search of the Black Fantastic: Politics and Popular Culture in the Post–Civil Rights Era (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 83–88.

51. Liberator 3, no. 10 (October 1963): 14.

52. Donna Murch, Living for the City: Migration, Education, and the Rise of the Black Panther Party in Oakland, California (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2010).

53. Liberator 3, no. 3 (March 1963): 14–15.

54. Ibid., 15.

55. Ibid.

56. Ibid.

57. Peniel E. Joseph, “Black Studies, Student Activism, and the Black Power Movement,” in Joseph, ed., The Black Power Movement: Rethinking the Civil Rights–Black Power Era (New York: Routledge, 2006), 259; Murch, Living for the City.

58. Charlie L. Russell, “Letter to a White Friend,” Liberator 3, no. 5 (May 1963): 8.

59. Joseph, “Black Studies,” 256; Robert O. Self, American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003).

60. Russell, interview with the author, June 10, 2006.

61. Ibid.

62. Today he is simply known as Askia Touré.

63. Liberator 3, no. 5 (May 1963): 9–11.

64. John Henrik Clarke, “The New Afro-American Nationalism,” Freedomways 1, no. 3 (Fall 1961).

65. African American Review 27, no. 4 (1993): 585–96.

66. Snellings, “Thunder from the South,” 10.

67. Roland Snellings (Touré), “Afro-American Youth and the Bandung World,” Liberator 5, no. 2 (February 1965): 4–7.

68. Jeffrey O. G. Ogbar, “Rainbow Radicalism: The Rise of Ethnic Nationalism,” Black Power: Radical Politics and African American Identity (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004), 159–90; J. Smethurst, “Bandung World” in The Black Arts Movement, 247–318; Cynthia A. Young, Soul Power: Culture, Radicalism, and the Making of a U.S. Third World Left (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), 145–83; Fred Ho and Bill V. Mullen, eds. Afro Asia: Revolutionary Political and Cultural Connections between African Americans and Asian Americans (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008); Michael L. Clemons and Charles E. Jones, “Global Solidarity: The Black Panther Party in the International Arena,” in Liberation, Imagination and the Black Panther Party: A New Look at the Panthers and Their Legacy, ed. Kathleen Cleaver and George Katsiaficas (New York: Routledge, 2001), 20–39; Vijay Prashad, Everybody Was Kung Fu Fighting: Afro-Asian Connections and the Myth of Cultural Purity (Boston: Beacon Press, 2001), 126–49.

69. Snellings/Touré, “Afro-American Youth and the Bandung World,” 6.

70. Liberator 3, no. 12 (December 1963).

71. Liberator 3, no. 5 (May 1963): 14.

72. Liberator 3, no. 6 (June 1963): 7, 18.

73. Ibid., 18.

74. Davis, “Harold Wright Cruse: The Early Years,” 25.

75. Ibid., 18.

76. Liberator 3, no. 8 (August 1963): 1.

77. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr. (New York: Warner Books, 1998), 218.

78. Ibid., 219.

79. Harvard Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality, 1954–1992, rev. ed. (New York: Hill and Wang, 1993), 152–53.

80. Liberator 3, no. 10 (October 1963).

81. Dan Watts, “Dream and Reality,” (editorial), Liberator 3, no. 10 (October 1963): 1. Interestingly, this editorial may have also been co-written or ghost-written by Beveridge.

82. Liberator 3, no. 10 (October 1963).

83. C. E. Wilson, “The Pilgrimage,” Liberator 3, no. 10 (October 1963): 4–7.

84. Ibid., 4.

85. Ibid.

86. Ibid., 6.

87. Leroi Jones, Home: Social Essays (Hopewell, NJ: Ecco Press, 1998), 152.

88. James Foreman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries (Washington, DC: Open Hand Publishing, 1985), 335.

89. Liberator 3, no. 10 (October 1963): 12–13.

90. Ibid., 3. See Kevin K. Gaines, American Africans in Ghana: Black Expatriates and the Civil Rights Era (Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 167–68.

91. Julian Mayfield, “Uncle Tom Goes to Africa,” Liberator 3, no. 3 (March 1963): 9–10. The Negro Digest reprinted this article in its June 1963 issue with permission from Liberator.

92. Wilson, interview with the author, April 15, 2006.

93. Ibid.

94. Ibid.

95. Ibid.

96. Liberator 5, no. 5 (May 1965): 30.

97. Ogbar, Black Power, 37.

98. Ibid., 38.

99. Michael A. Gomez, Black Crescent: The Experience and Legacy of African Muslims in the Americas (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 356.

100. Harvard Sitkoff, Struggle for Black Equality, 196.

101. Liberator 1, no. 7 (July 1961): 2.

102. Liberator 2, no. 5 (May 1962): 3.

103. New York Times, May 6, 1962, 73.

104. Gerald Horne, The Fire This Time: The Watts Uprising and the 1960s (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1995), 137–38.

105. New York Times, May 6, 1962, 73.

106. P. Joseph, Waiting, 63–65.

107. Frederick Knight, “Justifiable Homicide, Police Brutality, or Government Repression? The 1962 Police Shooting of Seven Members of the Nation of Islam,” The Journal of Negro History 79, no. 2 (Spring 1994): 182–96.

108. Liberator 2, no. 6 (June 1962): 4.

109. Ibid.

110. Ibid.

111. See Malcolm X, The Autobiography of Malcolm X (1965; reprint, New York: Ballantine Books, 1990), 288–317; Karl Evanzz, The Messenger: The Rise and Fall of Elijah Muhammad (New York: Vintage Books, 2001), 270–82, 287–308; Gomez, Black Crescent, 331–70; Mattias Gardell, In the Name of Elijah Muhammad: Louis Farrakhan and the Nation of Islam (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005), 76–85; William Sales Jr., From Civil Rights to Black Liberation: Malcolm X and the Organization of Afro-American Unity (Boston: South End Press, 1994), 53–95; Hakim A. Jamal, From the Dead Level: Malcolm X and Me (Springfield, MA: Masjid At-Tawhid, 1971); Peter Goldman, “Malcolm X: Witness for the Prosecution,” in Black Leaders of the Twentieth Century, ed. John Hope Franklin and August Meier (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982), 305–30; Reiland Rabaka, “Malcolm X and/as Critical Theory: Philosophy, Radical Politics, and the African American Search for Social Justice,” Journal of Black Studies 33, no. 2 (November 2002): 145–65.

112. Rose L. H. Finkenstaedt “Never on Christmas: A Black Muslim Story,” Liberator 3, no. 3 (March 1963): 16.

113. Rose Finkenstaedt, correspondence with the author, March 2006.

114. Liberator 3, no. 3 (March 1963): 16–17.

115. John Henrik Clarke, “Introduction,” Harlem: A Community in Transition (New York: Citadel, 1964; reprint, 1969), x.

116. Clarke, “Four Men of Harlem: The Movers and The Shakers,” in Harlem USA, ed. John Henrik Clarke (Brooklyn: A&B Books, 1964; reprint, 1971), 243–70. In an earlier anthology, Clarke considered Powell and Malcolm X two of the pivotal figures of Harlem history. A. Philip Randolph and Father Divine were the other two.

117. Joseph, Waiting, 21–23.

118. Liberator 3, no. 11 (November 1963): 12–14.

119. Ibid., 12.

120. Interview with the author.

121. See George Breitman, The Last Year of Malcolm X: The Evolution of a Revolutionary (New York: Pathfinder, 1967); and William Sales Jr., From Civil Rights to Black Liberation: Malcolm X and the Organization of Afro-American Unity (Boston: South End Press, 1994.)

122. Joseph, Waiting, 92–98.

123. For a chronology of Malcolm’s life, see Clayborne Carson, Malcolm X: The FBI File (New York: Carroll & Graf, 1991), 70–75.

124. The Liberator expressed consistent support for the Michigan-based Freedom Now Party, which was headed up by Cleage and others. See Sterling Gray, “Architect of a Revolution,” Liberator 3, no. 12 (December 1963): 8–9.

125. Dan Watts, “Malcolm X: Self Defense vs. Submission” (editorial), Liberator 4, no. 4 (April 1964): 3.

126. According to the New York Times, Herbert Callendar, president of the Bronx CORE chapter, was arrested and jailed for attempting a citizen’s arrest of Mayor Wagner. Callendar accused Wagner of allowing public funds to be used on construction projects that discriminated against black construction workers. See “Callendar Jailed; Sentencing Put Off until Wednesday,” New York Times, January 9, 1965, p. 17.

127. Liberator 4, no. 5 (May 1964): 4.

128. Carlos E. Russell, “Exclusive Interview with Malcolm X,” Liberator 4, no. 5 (May 1964): 12–13, 16.

129. Ibid., 13.

130. Ibid.

131. Shelby Sankore, “Letter to Muhammad Ali,” Liberator 4, no. 5 (May 1964), 7; see also Mike Marqusee, Redemption Song: Muhammad Ali and the Spirit of the Sixties (London: Verso, 1999).

132. C. Eric Lincoln, Black Muslims, 113–15; Essien-Udom, Black Nationalism, 191–92; Ernest Allen, “Minister Louis Farrakhan and the Continuing Evolution of the Nation of Islam,” in The Farrakhan Factor: African-American Writers on Leadership, Nationhood, and Minister Louis Farrakhan, ed. Amy Alexander (New York: Grove Press, 1998), 52–102; Jeffrey O. G. Ogbar, Black Power, 22.

133. Russell, “Exclusive Interview.”

134. Ibid., 16.

135. For a listing of sources detailing Malcolm’s evolution, see n. 105.

136. G. Breitman, The Last Year of Malcolm X: The Evolution of a Revolutionary (New York: Pathfinder, 1967); see also Sales, From Civil Rights to Black Liberation.

137. Muhammad Ahmad, We Will Return in the Whirlwind (Chicago: Charles Kerr, 2007), 124.

138. Carlos E. Russell, “A Question of Dignity,” Liberator 3, no. 8 (June 1963): 15, 20.

139. Malcolm X, “We are all Blood Brothers,” Liberator 6, no. 7 (July 1964): 4–6.

140. Ibid., 5.

141. Ibid.

142. Kevin K. Gaines, American African in Ghana: Black Expatriates and the Civil Rights Era (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 179–209.

143. Ibid., 164–65.

144. Ibid.

145. Liberator 6, no. 10 (October 1964), 16.

146. Gaines, ibid.

147. Liberator 6, no. 7 (July 1964): 8.

148. Ibid.

149. Ossie Sykes, “Harlem Report: After the Rebellion,” Liberator 6, no. 9 (September 1964): 4.

150. Ibid. See also Joseph, Waiting, 112–13.

151. Ibid., 5.

152. Ibid., 6.

153. New York Times, August 7, 1964, 12.

154. For more on HARYOU and HARYOU-ACT see Kenneth Clark, Dark Ghetto: Dilemmas of Social Power (New York: Harper and Row, 1967); Clark, “HARYOU: An Experiment,” in Harlem: A Community in Transition, ed. John Henrik Clarke (New York: Citadel, 1964; reprint, 1969), 210–13; Clark, “HARYOU-ACT in Harlem: The Dream That Went Astray,” in Harlem USA, ed. John Henrik Clarke (Brooklyn: A&B Books Publishers, 1971), 80–85.

155. Theodore Jones, “Negro Boy Killed; 300 Harass Police,” New York Times, July 17, 1964, 1, 31; John Sibley, “2 Harlem Demands Accepted by Mayor,” New York Times, August 7, 1964, 1, 12.

156. Len Holt and Bill Mahoney, “Make Harlem Black—Therefore Beautiful,” Liberator 6, no. 9, (September 1964): 10–11.

157. Malcolm X, By Any Means Necessary, edited by George Breitman (New York: Pathfinder, 1970, rpt. 1992), 84–89; Peniel Joseph, Waiting, pp. 1–34; 112–117; Muhammad Ahmad, We Will Return in the Whirlwind, 23–33; Breitman, The Last Year of Malcolm X, 26–39.

158. Holt and Mahoney, “Make Harlem Black,” 11.

159. Interview with the author.

160. Liberator 5, no. 3 (March 1965).

161. Dan Watts, “Malcolm X: The Unfulfilled Promise,” (editorial), Liberator 5, no. 3 (March 1965): 3. This editorial was also likely ghost-written for Watts by Beveridge.

162. Ibid.

163. Interview with the author, June 1, 2006.

164. Liberator 5, no. 4 (April 1965): 8.

165. “Why Malcolm X Died: An Analysis by RAM,” Liberator 5, no. 4 (April 1965): 9–11.

166. Ibid., 10.

167. Max Stanford (Muhammad Ahmad), “Revolutionary Nationalism and the Afroamerican Student,” Liberator 5, no. 1 (January 1965): 13–15.

168. C. E. Wilson and Ossie Sykes, “Malcolm X: A Tragedy of Leadership,” Liberator 5, no. 5 (May 1965): 7–10.

169. Wilson, “The Quotable Mr. X” Liberator 5, no. 5 (May 1965): 11–13.

170. A.B. Spellman, “The Legacy of Malcolm X,” Liberator 5, no. 6 (June 1965): 11–13.

171. Ahmad, Whirlwind, 101, 137.

172. C. E. Wilson, interview with the author, April 16, 2006.

173. James Boggs, Letter to the Editor, Liberator 5, no. 3 (March 1965): 26.

174. James Boggs, “Black Power: A Scientific Concept Whose Time Has Come,” Part 1, Liberator 7, no. 4 (April 1967): 8–10; and Part 2, Liberator 7, no. 5 (May 1967): 8–10. For an exhaustive collection of writings over Boggs’s career, see Stephen M. Ward, ed., Pages from a Black Radical’s Notebook: A James Boggs Reader (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2011).

175. Larry Neal, “A Reply to Rustin,” Liberator 5, no. 7 (July 1965): 6.

176. Ibid.

177. Though Neal does not cite the specific article, see Bayard Rustin, Tom Kahn, et al., “The Negro Movement: Where Shall it Go Now?,” The Radical Imagination: An Anthology from Dissent Magazine, ed. Irving Howe (New York: New American Library, 1967), 174–89. This article originally appeared in 1964. It is plausible that portions or variations of it were also published a year later, thus providing fodder for Neal’s critique. Dissent was a quarterly magazine of some significance for many American leftists, liberals, and progressives from its founding in 1954 onward. Though it was primarily a publishing outlet of the white left, some black writers could also be found among the writing on its pages. The journal published political and social commentary from a range of intellectuals including Irving Howe (one of the journal’s founders), as well as Norman Mailer, Rustin, Michael Harrington, C. Wright Mills, Richard Wright, Barbara Ehrenreich, Theodore Draper, Frances Fox Piven, Todd Gitlin, Martin Kilson, and Claude Brown. See also Nicolaus Mills, ed., Legacy of Dissent: 40 Years of Writing from Dissent Magazine (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1994); and Nicolaus Mills and Michael Walzer, eds., 50 Years of Dissent (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004).

178. Neal, “Reply to Rustin.” Emphasis in the original.

179. Ibid., 6–7.

180. Ibid. Emphasis in the original.

181. Dan Watts, “Rev. King and Vietnam,” (editorial), Liberator 7, no. 5 (May 1967): 3.

182. Ibid., 7.

183. Liberator 6, no. 1 (Jan. 1966): 9–11.

184. Ibid.

185. Ibid., 4.

186. Ibid.

187. Ibid., 5.

188. Boggs, “Black Power.”

189. Liberator 7, no. 7 (July 1967): 14–15.

Chapter Five

1. Michelle Joan Wilkinson, “In the Tradition of Revolution: The Socio-Aesthetics of Black and Puerto Rican Arts Movements, 1962–1982,” Ph.D. dissertation, Emory University, August 2001.

2. Robin D. G. Kelley, Freedom Dreams: The Black Radical Imagination (Boston: Beacon Press, 2002), 35.

3. Richard Iton, In Search of the Black Fantastic: Politics and Popular Culture in the Post–Civil Rights Era (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 22.

4. For a historical discussion of the revolutionary potential of African culture, see Sékou Touré, “A Dialectical Approach to Culture,” in Pan-Africanism, ed. Robert Chrisman and Nathan Hare (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1974), 52–73.

5. Liberator 1, no. 7 (July 1961): 1.

6. Liberator 1, no. 9 (September 1961): 1.

7. Liberator 1, no. 1 (January 1962): 1.

8. “Black Actors Act against Broadway Producers,” Liberator 2, no. 4 (April 1962): 4.

9. “African Cultural Group to Introduce ‘High Life,’ ” Liberator 2, no. 10 (October 1962): 6.

10. “Big Turnout Expected for African Dinner and Dance on November 16,” Liberator 2, no. 11 (November 1962): 13.

11. These events often attracted a wide range of support from the grassroots to the upper levels of state government. One advertisement for the event told of New York governor Nelson Rockefeller’s endorsement for the African cultural nights, stating that these events rendered a “distinct public service” and declaring June 1, 1962, African Music Night throughout New York.

12. St. Clair Drake, “The American Negro’s Relation to Africa,” Africa Today 14, no. 6 (December 1967): 12–15; Drake, “Black Studies and Global Perspectives: An Essay,” Journal of Negro Education 53, no. 3 (Summer 1984): 226–42; N.A., “African Studies in the United States,” African Studies Bulletin 6, no. 1 (March 1963): 43–56.

13. Carlos E. Russell, “Sonny Liston: The Man behind the Myth,” Liberator 3, no. 3 (March 1963): 4–5.

14. Carlos E. Russell, “Negritude,” Liberator 3, no. 3 (March 1963): 10.

15. Carlos E. Russell, “Identity,” Liberator 3, no. 9 (September 1963): 17.

16. Langston Hughes, “Junior Addict,” Liberator 3, no. 4 (April 1963): 3.

17. James Smethurst, The Black Arts Movement: Literary Nationalism in the 1960s and 1970s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 148–50.

18. Beveridge, interview with the author, April 8, 2006.

19. Clebert Ford, “The Negro and the American Theater,” Liberator 3, no. 5 (May 1963): 6–7.

20. George Goodman Jr., “Maya Angelou’s Lonely Black Outlook,” in Conversations with Maya Angelou, ed. Jeffrey M. Elliot (Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi, 1989), 7–9.

21. Jim Williams, “The Need for a Harlem Theatre,” in Harlem: A Community in Transition, ed. John Henrik Clarke (New York: Citadel Press, 1970), 157–66.

22. Charlie L. Russell, “The Wide World of Ossie Davis,” Liberator 3, no. 12 (December 1963): 22.

23. Clebert Ford, “Responsibility of Black Artists,” Liberator 3, no. 8 (August 1963): 9, 20.

24. Ibid.

25. Clebert Ford, “Theatre: Review and Forecast,” Liberator 4, no. 1 (January 1964): 17–19.

26. Errol G. Hill and James V. Hatch, A History of African American Theatre (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 282.

27. Charlie L. Russell, “The Wide World of Ossie Davis,” Liberator 3, no. 12 (December 1963): 11, 22.

28. Internet Broadway Database; accessed May 23, 2009.

29. Clarke Papers, Box 2, Folder 7.

30. Donald Bogle, Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies, and Bucks: An Interpretive History of Blacks in American Films, 3rd ed. (New York: Continuum, 1994), 204–6.

31. Clebert Ford, “Black Nationalism and the Arts,” Liberator 4, no. 2 (February 1964): 14–16.

32. Charlie L. Russell, “Leroi Jones Will Get Us All in Trouble,” Liberator 4, no. 6 (June 1964): 10–11.

33. Internet Broadway Database; accessed May 22, 2009. ANTA was renamed in honor of playwright August Wilson in 2005.

34. Clebert Ford, “James Baldwin: Official Angry Negro,” Liberator 4, no. 7 (July 1964): 7.

35. Roy Johnson, “Blues for Mr. Charlie,” Liberator 6, no. 3 (March 1966): 22.

36. Smethurst, Black Arts Movement, 345–50.

37. Clebert Ford, “The Black Boom: Black Like Me; Cool World (Movie Reviews),” and “Towards a Black Community Theatre,” Liberator 4, no. 8 (August 1964): 16–17, 18–19.

38. Clebert Ford, “Zulu,” Liberator 4, no. 9 (September 1964): 21.

39. Woodie King, “Black Theatre: Present Condition,” in Black Poets and Prophets, ed. Woodie King and Earl Anthony (New York: New American Library, 1972), 180–88. King also wrote and published short stories in Liberator throughout the decade.

40. Charlie L. Russell, “LeRoi Jones Will Get Us All in Trouble,” Liberator 4, no. 6 (June 1964): 10–11.

41. Victor Leo Walker II, “Archetype and Masking in LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka’s Dutchman,” in Black Theatre: Ritual Performance in the African Diaspora, ed. Paul Carter Harrison et al. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2002), 236–43.

42. Askia Touré, interview with author, February 26, 2009.

43. James Smethurst, The Black Arts Movement, 103–5.

44. Lawrence P. Neal, “A Black View of the Elections,” Liberator 4, no. 10 (October 1964): 7–8.

45. Askia Touré, interview with author, February 26, 2009.

46. Ibid.

47. Lawrence P. Neal, “Review of Shadow and Act by Ralph Ellison,” Liberator 4, no. 12 (December 1964): 28–29.

48. Lawrence P. Neal, “LeRoi Jones’ The Slave and The Toilet” (Theatre Review), Liberator 5, no. 5 (February 1965): 22–23.

49. Lawrence P. Neal, “The Welfare Trap,” Liberator 5, no. 3 (March 1965): 28.

50. Lawrence P. Neal, “Selma, Alabama: Black People in Crisis,” Liberator 5, no. 4 (April 1965): 22.

51. Amiri Baraka, “Foreword: The Wailer,” in Visions of a Liberated Future: Black Arts Movement Writings, ed. Larry Neal (New York: Thunder Mouth’s Press, 1989), ix–xix.

52. Larry Neal, “On Malcolm X,” in Visions of a Liberated Future, 125–32.

53. Lawrence P. Neal, “The Cultural Front,” Liberator 5, no. 6 (June 1965): 26–27.

54. Lawrence P. Neal, “The Genius and the Prize,” Liberator 5, no. 10 (October 1965): 11.

55. Though Neal worked from a different aesthetic foundation and sensibility, for a discussion of the term, see Walter Benn Michaels, “Race into Culture: A Critical Genealogy of Cultural Identity,” Critical Inquiry 18, no. 4 (1992): 655–85.

56. Lawrence P. Neal, “The Black Writer’s Role—Richard Wright,” Liberator 5, no. 12 (December 1965): 20–21.

57. Lawrence P. Neal, “The Black Writer’s Role—Ralph Ellison,” Liberator 6, no. 1 (January 1966): 9–11.

58. Larry Neal, “The Black Writer’s Role, II—Ralph Ellison’s Zoot Suit,” in Visions of a Liberated Future, 30–56.

59. Larry Neal Vita. Larry Neal Papers, Box 1, Folder 1.

60. Amiri Baraka, Foreword, “The Wailer,” in Visions of a Liberated Future, ix–xix.

61. Lawrence P. Neal, “The Development of Leroi Jones, Part 1,” Liberator 6, no. 1 (January 1966): 4–5.

62. Lawrence P. Neal, “The Development of LeRoi Jones, Part 2,” Liberator 6, no. 2 (February 1966): 18–19.

63. Lawrence P. Neal, “The Black Writer’s Role,” Liberator 6, no. 6 (June 1966): 7–9. Emphasis in original.

64. Ibid., 8.

65. Rolland Snellings (Askia Touré) to Larry Neal, letter dated June 2, 1967, Neal Papers, Box 2, Folder 1.

66. Lawrence P. Neal, “The Black Writer’s Role—James Baldwin,” Liberator 6, no. 4 (April 1966): 10–11, 18.

67. Lawrence P. Neal, “White Liberals vs. Black Community,” Liberator 6, no. 7 (July 1966): 4–6.

68. Larry Neal and Evelyn Rogers, Marriage Certificates. Larry Neal Papers, Box 1, Folder 4.

69. Lawrence P. Neal, “Report on Black Arts Convention at Detroit,” Liberator 6, no. 8 (August 1966): 18–19.

70. Smethurst, Black Arts Movement, 179–246. In this chapter, “Institutions for the People,” Smethurst focuses on the relationship between Chicago and Detroit Black Arts/Black Power activity. As he shows, these cities formed a hub of Midwest activity in this period. I mention the Detroit conference because Liberator’s ties to Detroit are demonstrable—including the Freedom Now Party, Albert Cleage, the Boggses, Grassroots Leadership Conference, Concept East, and so on—whereas I have not been able to determine the magazine’s connection to Chicago as of this writing.

71. Larry Neal Papers, Box 1, Folder 1.

72. Larry Neal, “Any Day Now: Black Art and Black Liberation,” in Black Poets and Prophets: The Theory, Practice, and Esthetics of the Pan-Africanist Revolution, ed. Woodie King and Earl Anthony (New York: New American Library, 1971), 148–65. This article originally appeared in Ebony magazine.

73. Clayton Riley, “The Black Arts,” Liberator 5, no. 4 (April 1965): 21.

74. Clayton Riley, “Living Poetry by Black Arts Group,” Liberator 5, no. 5 (May 1965): 19.

75. Clayton Riley, “Amen Corner,” Liberator 5, no. 5 (May 1965): 26–27; Howard Taubman, “Theatre: The Amen Corner; Baldwin’s First Play,” New York Times, April 16, 1965, 35.

76. Errol G. Hill and James V. Hatch, A History of African American Theatre (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 420–24.

77. Clayton Riley, “More than a Game,” Liberator 4, no. 6 (June 1964): 12–13.

78. Clayton Riley, “Boxing: Black Hope, White Cop Out,” Liberator 4, no. 7 (July 1964): 12–13.

79. Ibid., 13.

80. Adrian Burgos Jr., Playing America’s Game: Baseball, Latinos, and the Color Line (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007).

81. Dave Zirin, A People’s History of Sports in the United States (New York: New Press, 2008), 268.

82. Harry Edwards, The Revolt of the Black Athlete (New York: Macmillan, 1969); Jack Scott, The Athletic Revolution (New York: Free Press, 1971).

83. Carlos E. Russell, “The Rebellious Spirit of Bill Russell,” Liberator 4, no. 2 (February 1964): 10–11.

84. Clayton Riley, “The Olympics: They Should Have Stayed Home,” Liberator 4, no. 11 (November 1964): 19; Riley, “The Olympics: If They Stayed Home,” Liberator 4, no. 12 (December, 1964): 23–24.

85. Jackie Robinson, Baseball Has Done It, with an Introduction by Spike Lee (1964; reprint, New York: Ig Publishing, 2005).

86. Clayton Riley, “Jackie Robinson Strikes Out,” Liberator 4, no. 10 (October 1964): 22.

87. Zirin, People’s History, 205–8.

88. William L. Van De Burg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965–1975 (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1992).

89. Loyle Hairston, “Muhammad Ali vs. The Great Society,” Liberator 7, no. 7 (July 1967): 18–19.

90. Clayton Riley, “Nothing But a Man,” Liberator 5, no. 2 (February 1965): 20.

91. Clayton Riley, “Pawnbroker,” Liberator 5, no. 6 (June 1965): 25.

92. Clayton Riley, “China!” Liberator 5, no. 7 (July 1965): 20.

93. Clayton Riley, Theater Review, Liberator 5, no. 10 (October 1965): 14.

94. Clayton Riley, “A Black Quartet,” Liberator 9, no. 9 (September 1969): 21.

95. Will Bradley and Charles Esche, eds., Art and Social Change, A Critical Reader (London: Tate, 2007). This book covers art movements in four distinct historical periods, 1871, 1917, 1968, and 1989, which represent moments of watershed political activity in the U.S. and Europe. Though the editors include two Black Panther Newspaper articles by Emory Douglas, no other mention is made of the Black Arts Movement. Though Douglas deserves critical attention, he was obviously not the only black artist producing politically inspired art in the 1960s.

96. See, for example, Margo Natalie Crawford, “Black Light on the Wall of Respect: The Chicago Black Arts Movement,” in New Thoughts on the Black Arts Movement, edited by Collins and Crawford (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2006), 23–42.

97. Muriel L. Feelings and Tom Feelings, “Zamani Goes to Market,” Liberator 10, no. 3 (March 1970): 11–15.

98. Liberator 4, no. 8 (August 1964): 19.

99. Erina Duganne, “Transcending the Fixity of Race: The Kamoinge Workshop and the Question of a ‘Black Aesthetic’ in Photography,” in New Thoughts on the Black Arts Movement, 187–209.

100. Ibid., 201.

101. See, for example, Smethurst, Black Arts, 147–52.

102. Ibid., 188.

103. Richard J. Powell, Black Art and Culture in the 20th Century (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997), 118.

104. Roy DeCarava, The Sound I Saw (New York: Phaidon, 2001).

105. “Abdul Rahman Brings Art to His People,” Liberator 4, no. 11 (November 1964): 13.

106. “Bedwick Thomas and the Black Art Movement,” Liberator 5, no. 4 (April 1965): 26.

107. Lawrence P. Neal, “The Black Revolution in Art: A Conversation with Joe Overstreet,” Liberator 5, no. 10 (October 1965): 9–10.

108. Powell, Black Art and Culture, 132–36.

109. Amiri Baraka, “Recent Monk,” in Black Music (New York: William & Morrow, 1970), 26–34. This article originally appeared in Down Beat.

110. Robin D. G. Kelley, “New Monastery: Monk and the Jazz Avant-Garde,” Black Music Research Journal, 19, no. 2 (Autumn, 1999): 135–68. See also Robin D. G. Kelley, Thelonious Monk: The Life and Times of an American Original (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2009).

111. Theodore Pontiflet, “The American Way: Monk in TIME,” Liberator 4, no. 6 (June 1964): 8–9.

112. Neal, “Any Day Now,” 149.

113. Charlie Russell, “Has Jazz Lost Its Roots?,” Liberator 4, no. 8 (August 1964): 4–7.

114. Charlie Russell, interview with the author, June 10, 2006.

115. Charlie Russell, “The Evolution of a Jazz Musician,” Liberator 4, no. 11 (November 1964): 14–15, 30.

116. Charlie Russell, “Minding the Cultural Shop,” Liberator 4, no. 12 (December 1964): 12–13. See also Eric Porter, What Is This Thing Called Jazz? (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002).

117. Ibid.

118. A recent study that explores some of these tensions in the production and criticism in music and popular films of the period is Amy Abugo Ongiri, Spectacular Blackness: The Cultural Politics of Black Power Movement and the Search for a Black Aesthetic (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2010).

119. John D. Baskerville, “Free Jazz: A Reflection of Black Power Ideology,” Journal of Black Studies 24, no. 4 (June 1994): 484–97.

120. Charles Hobson, “Black Bourgeoisie and Gospel Music,” Liberator 5, no. 1 (January 1965): 11.

121. Kelley, “New Monastery.”

122. Charlie Russell, “Ornette Coleman Sounds Off,” Liberator 5, no. 7 (July 1965), 12–15.

123. Ibid.

124. Lawrence P. Neal, “A Conversation with Archie Shepp,” Liberator 5, no. 11 (November 1965): 24–25.

125. Robert L. Douglas, Resistance, Insurgence and Identity: The Art of Mari Evans, Nelson Stevens and the Black Arts Movement (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2008), 181–287. This chapter deals at length with Stevens’ career as an artist, art organizer, and educator, including a gallery of images from his extensive oeuvre.

126. Amiri Baraka, “New Tenor Archie Shepp Talking,” Black Music, 145–55. This article originally appeared in Down Beat under the title, “Voice from the Avant Garde.”

127. A selection of these writings was compiled and published as Black Music (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1970).

128. Gayatri Spivak, The Post-Colonial Critic: Interviews, Strategies, Dialogues, ed. Sara Harasym (New York: Routledge, 1990).

129. Letters to the Editor, Liberator 6, no. 2 (February 1966): 21.

130. Baskerville, “Free Jazz,” 492. See also Frank Kofsky, Black Nationalism and the Revolution in Music (New York: Beacon, 1970).

131. Nadi Qamar, “Titans of the Saxophone,” Liberator 6, no. 4 (April 1966): 21.

132. Saul, Freedom Is, 260–68.

133. Paul Anthony, “John Coltrane: Beyond Genius, Night Trane,” Liberator 7, no. 9 (September 1967): 19.

134. Nadi Qamar, “The Black Music Predicament,” Liberator 6, no. 6 (June 1966): 19.

135. Scott Saul, Freedom Is, Freedom Ain’t: Jazz and the Making of the Sixties (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 313.

136. A. B. Spellman, “Marion Brown: Growing into Gianthood,” Liberator 6, no. 9 (September 1966): 20–21. In addition to recording several albums, Brown had also turned to writing about black culture. For example, he wrote an entry on the history of black painters and sculptors for the American Negro Reference Book the same year as Spellman’s review. See Marion Brown, “The Negro in the Fine Arts,” in American Negro Reference Book, ed. John P. Davis (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1967), 766–74. Brown’s article is a further example of the way in which many musicians often doubled as historians and critics documenting African American expressive culture.

137. Marc Brasz, “Four Lives in the Bebop Business (review),” Liberator 6, no. 12 (December 1966): 19.

138. “Interview with The Last Poets’ Umar Bin Hassan and Abiodun Oyewole,” in Darius James, That’s Blaxploitation: Roots of the Baadasssss ’Tude by Darius James (New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 1995), 167–81.

139. Kalamu ya Salaam, “Black Theatre—the Way It Is: An Interview with Woodie King Jr.,” African American Review 31, no. 4 (Winter 1997): 647–58. (No interview date given in the published interview).

140. Vincent Canby, “Bland Exteriors and Madness Within,” New York Times, April 9, 1971, 23.

141. Thomas A. Johnson, “Renaissance in Black Poetry Expresses Anger,” New York Times, April 25, 1969, 49.

142. Kalamu ya Salaam, Interview with Woodie King Jr.

143. Clayton Riley, Theatre Review, Liberator 9, no. 7 (July 1969): 21.

144. Owing to labor opportunities and widespread impoverishment in Puerto Rico, New York City has been the largest destination of Puerto Rican migration since 1950. According to recently published statistics, in 1950 there were 252,515 Puerto Ricans in New York, but by 1970, that number had grown to 878,980. See The Puerto Rican Diaspora: Historical Perspectives, ed. Carmen Teresa Whalen and Victor Vazquez-Hernandez (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2005), 3.

145. “The Young Lords: Power to the People,” Liberator 10, no. 2 (February 1970): 11–13.

146. Wilkinson, “In the Tradition of Revolution.”

147. Ron Welburn, Record Review of The Last Poets (produced by East Wind Associates, distributed by Pip Records, New York), Liberator 10, no. 11 (November 1970): 20, 23.

148. Ron Welburn, Record Review of Ain’t No Ambulances for No Nigguhs Tonight, by Stanley Crouch (Flying Dutchman, FDS-105), Liberator 10, no. 12 (December 1970): 23.

Epilogue

1. James Boggs, “The Final Confrontation,” Liberator 8, no. 3 (March 1968): 4–8; “The American Revolution,” Liberator 8, no. 10 (October 1968): 4–9.

2. Liberator 8, no. 4 (April 1968): 22.

3. Watts, “The Program” (editorial), Liberator 8, no. 3 (March 1968): 3.

4. Ibid.

5. Liberator 10, no. 2 (February 1970): 19.

6. Watts, “Big Brother” (editorial), Liberator 10, no. 12 (December 1970): 1.

7. “Former Chicago Priest Assigned New Post at Fordham ‘U’ in N.Y,” New York Times, 12 Sept. 1970, 24.

8. Fordham University Archives and Special Collections.

9. Liberator 11, no. 3 (March 1971): 3.

10. See Houston Baker Jr., Betrayal: How Black Intellectuals Have Abandoned the Civil Rights Era (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008).

11. Edward Said, Representations of the Intellectual (New York: Vintage, 1996), 110.