U

UNITARIANISM. This is a long-standing heresy of the church, appearing in a variety of different groups and movements through church history. Generally speaking, Unitarianism is nontrinitarian and affirms a very strict monotheism. Various explanations are given regarding the supernatural abilities of Christ, but all advocates of Unitarianism deny that the Son and the Spirit are of the same substance as the Father.

Arius. Perhaps Arius is the clearest example of this view in the early church, as he emphasized the “begottenness” of the Son and famously argued that “there was a time when the Son was not.” Despite the condemnation of his doctrine at the Council of Nicaea in 325, the doctrine continued to endure. Examples are numerous, but include people like King Theodoric, who had Boethius condemned to death in 524; Michael Servetus in the sixteenth century; Joseph Priestley in the eighteenth century; and many Congregational churches in New England during the eighteenth century.

Unitarian Universalists. Unitarian Universalists (UU) are a conglomeration of Unitarians and Universalists who joined together in the nineteenth century and who also deny the Trinity. They claim descent from the earliest Christians, arguing that certain church fathers like Origen taught universalism and that trinitarianism is an addition to Christianity rather than a foundational belief. Although UUs have held other Christian beliefs throughout history, today most UUs embrace Eastern religious teachings. Even as they undermine or deny the deity of Christ, most Unitarians do not teach universalism.

Oneness Pentecostalism. Another group that might be classified as Unitarian is the United Pentecostal movement. Historically we think of Unitarians as denying the deity of Christ and affirming the Father as God alone (called Dynamic Monarchianism in historic Christianity). United Pentecostals do not commit this error, but are Unitarian nonetheless since they deny the Trinity of three divine persons. Instead, they maintain one divine person who manifests himself in various forms at different times (called Modalistic Monarchianism in historic Christianity). This is distinct from the orthodox trinitarian view, in which all three persons of the one divine being exist at the same time, sharing the same substance indivisibly and distinct from one another.

Other Pentecostal groups that may be categorized as Unitarian are the Apostolic Movement and the United Church of Jesus Christ (Apostolic). Like the United Pentecostal Movement, the United Church of Jesus Christ takes a modalistic view of the Godhead in which the one God reveals himself in three different persons on various occasions.

See also ONENESS PENTECOSTALISM

Bibliography. H. W. House, Charts of Cults, Sects & Religious Movements; W. Martin, The Kingdom of Cults; M. Noll, A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada; R. Tucker, Another Gospel.

J. K. Dew

UPANISHADS. The Upanishads are sacred texts of Hinduism that constitute the central teachings of the Vedanta, a body of philosophy based on the end or conclusion of the Vedas (the -anta means “end”) and used for the traditions relating to self-realization that help one understand ultimate reality or Brahma. The term Upanishads is from a Sanskrit word that refers to sitting near a teacher in order to receive instruction (Macdonell, 53).

The Upanishads date to the late Brahmana period, between 800 and 300 BC, but some were written in the modern period and are very important for understanding the Hindu religion. The Upanishads teach important Vedic doctrines such as self-realization, yoga, meditation, karma, and reincarnation. A major personage of the Upanishads is Yajnavalkya. His philosophy informs later Hindu scriptures such as the Bhagavad Gita.

The underlying philosophy of the Upanishads is the combination of mysticism and speculation and the acceptance of the belief in an absolute reality called Brahma, the monistic force from which the universe extends. The highest goal for a person’s life is to achieve enlightenment by means of three avenues: karma marga, the way of action and ritual; jnana marga, the way of knowledge and meditation; and bhakti marga, the way of devotion. Interpretation of the Upanishads has given rise to three major schools of Vedanta: dvaita (dualism), advaita (nondualism), and vishishtadvaita (qualified nondualism). The Dvaita School, espoused by teacher Madhvacharya, considers Brahma a personal deity. The Advaita School, promoted by Sankara, does not understand Brahma in a personalistic sense, and the third school shares elements of both.

See also BHAGAVAD GITA; HINDUISM; VEDAS

Bibliography. The Hindu Universe, “Upanishads,” http://www.hindunet.org/upanishads/; A. A. Macdonell, A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary; Max Müller, trans., The Upanishads.

H. W. House

URIM AND THUMMIM, MORMON USE OF. In a biblical context, the Urim and Thummim are thought to be gems or stones that were somehow associated with the breastplate used by Israel’s high priest (Exod. 28:30). Numerous biblical passages suggest it was used in decision making, although how exactly this was done remains a mystery (Num. 27:21). Some scholars believe they were used to give yes-no or true-false answers.

In the context of Mormonism, it is believed that the Urim and Thummim were a set of stones fastened like “spectacles.” These stones were allegedly buried with the “gold plates” and would enable Joseph Smith to translate the plates’ “Reformed Egyptian” characters into English. This translation would come to be known as the Book of Mormon. Even within Mormonism, the use of Urim and Thummim is somewhat nebulous. Depictions of Smith translating the plates rarely, if ever, show him wearing any such spectacles. Martin Harris, one of Smith’s scribes, claimed in 1829 that Smith placed “the spectacles in a hat” and that by looking into the hat Smith could translate the characters into English. According to most eyewitness reports, Smith did most of the translation using a “seer stone” in his hat, not the stone spectacles.

See also CHURCH OF JESUS CHRIST OF LATTER-DAY SAINTS; REFORMED EGYPTIAN; SMITH, JOSEPH, JR.

Bibliography. G. W. Bromiley, International Standard Bible Encyclopedia; B. R. McConkie, Mormon Doctrine; C. Van Dam, The Urim and Thummim: A Means of Revelation in Ancient Israel; R. S. Van Wagoner and S. C. Walker, Joseph Smith: The Gift of Seeing.

W. McKeever