The Evangelical Dictionary of World Religions

VAJRAYANA BUDDHISM. Vajrayana is a tradition within Buddhism whose most distinctive element is the accelerated process toward enlightenment that it offers its practitioners (relative to the time frame for attaining enlightenment typical of other Buddhist sects). The word vajrayana (which is translated variously as “diamond vehicle” and “thunderbolt vehicle”) is suggestive of both the indestructibility of enlightenment and the fact that enlightenment comes very suddenly and powerfully. Sometimes the term Tibetan Buddhism is used interchangeably with Vajrayana Buddhism, although, strictly speaking, the former term refers to that form of Vajrayana that took root in Tibet during the eighth century and whose various lineages, until the last fifty years or so, proceeded largely within the geographical confines of Tibet. (By contrast, Shingon Buddhism is a form of Vajrayana practiced largely in Japan.) Moreover, though Vajrayana usually is distinguished from Mahayana Buddhism, the former is a species of the latter, having branched out from it while retaining many of its fundamental characteristics. Nearly universal among adherents of Vajrayana is the belief that their tradition is the culmination of doctrinal and methodological development.

History. Scholars who work in the area of Vajrayana Buddhism are divided in their view of where geographically Vajrayana Buddhism originated. Some scholars think Vajrayana began in what was once a region of northwestern India, which is now a part of Pakistan. Another school of thought holds that Vajrayana started in southern India. Regardless of which viewpoint is supported by the preponderance of the evidence, modern historians of Buddhism agree that the first texts propounding distinctively Vajrayana ideas date from the early fourth century. In India Vajrayana Buddhism developed both in the monasteries and among the lay population, with wandering masters who frequented towns, caves, forests, and charnel grounds. In its mature form, Vajrayana studies have been pursued in monastic universities such as Nalanda, Odantapuri, and Vikramashila. As the popularity of Vajrayana grew, many traveling masters spread the teachings across India and beyond.

Some of them traveled to China and reached the capital city of Chang’an, where they presented their novel ideas to the Tang emperor Taizong (r. 627–49). In other cases, Vajrayana monks were summoned by foreign rulers to appear before them. The Tibetan monarch Trisong Detsen (r. 742–97) requested that the Swat Valley scholar-yogi Padmasambhava (ca. eighth century) travel to his palace and teach Vajrayana and, more importantly, subdue the negative spirits of Tibet. Late in his reign, Emperor Kammu (r. 781–806) of Japan dispatched Kukai (774–835), a prominent Buddhist monk, to China, where he was to gain a thorough knowledge of Vajrayana before returning with a report on it. (Kukai later founded the Shingon sect of Japanese Buddhism.) By the ninth century, Vajrayana Buddhism had been established on the Indonesian islands of Java and Bali. However, the fortunes of Vajrayana Buddhism (along with those of every other form of Buddhism in India) began to change dramatically just before the turn of the eleventh century, when a series of invasions by Muslim conquerors from the north resulted in the massacre of thousands of Indian Buddhists and the destruction of their temples and monasteries. Three hundred years after the first wave of these attacks, Vajrayana and the rest of Buddhism had been nearly wiped out in India. During this attempt to expunge Buddhism from India, however, the Vajrayana tradition was able to continue in Nepal; Tibet, where many refugees of the Islamic invasions had fled; and East Asia and parts of Southeast Asia. The three renowned Buddhist masters Drakpa Gyaltsen (1147–1216), Sakya Pandita (1182–1251), and Chogyal Phakpa (1235–80) each journeyed from Tibet to present Vajrayana teachings to Prince Godan of Mongolia, who subsequently became an adherent of Vajrayana. In 1279, not long after this last visit, by Chogyal Phakpa, the Mongol ruler Kublai Khan (1215–94) defeated the military forces of the Song Dynasty of China and supported the Tibetan form of Vajrayana Buddhism in China. Over the centuries, many great Tibetan Vajrayana masters toured China and received support from the emperors. After the end of the Mongolian dynasty, in the late fourteenth century, the influence of Vajrayana waned in China, eventually being nearly eclipsed by a combination of Pure Land Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism. During the seventeenth century, Tibetan lamas routinely advised the emperors of Mongolia. When the Chinese Communist Revolution broke out in 1950, China’s army invaded Tibet in an attempt to force Tibet to submit to Communist rule. Many Vajrayana Buddhists had little choice but to flee the country. In November of that year, fifteen-year-old Tenzin Gyatso (1935–) was installed as the supreme ruler of Tibet (the 14th Dalai Lama) in the midst of Chinese occupation of his nation. In 1959 Gyatso escaped from Tibet and began his work (which continues today) as the spiritual head of world Tibetan Buddhism and the political head of the government of Tibet, all of which he has accomplished while in exile. During the last several decades a number of prominent institutes and other organizations committed to the dissemination and promotion of Vajrayana Buddhism have been founded in North America. These include the Nyingma Institute (Berkeley, California), the Shambhala Meditation Center (Halifax, Nova Scotia), the Dzogchen Foundation (Garrison, New York), the Tibetan Buddhist Learning Center (Washington, New Jersey), and Karma Triyana Dharmachakra (Woodstock, New York). It is estimated that presently there are between fifteen and thirty million adherents worldwide, mostly concentrated in Tibet, Mongolia, Bhutan, and Nepal.

Canon and Authority. The Tibetan canon is divided into two major sections: the Kangjur (Translation of the Words) and the Tanjur (Translation of the Teachings). The Tanjur is generally deemed less authoritative than the Kangjur because the latter consists entirely of the Buddha’s utterances, whereas the former includes the teachings of Buddhist spiritual guides other than Siddhartha Gautama. The canon of Tibetan Buddhism is not closed, however. Reportedly, Padmasambhava hid a number of Buddhist scriptures (called termas) throughout Tibet so that they would be found at various future times when they were especially needed for the continuing development of the Vajrayana tradition. When discovered, these previously concealed texts become part of the Tibetan canon. Although the scriptures of Vajrayana Buddhism in one sense are viewed as authoritative in themselves, it is also the case that they can be properly interpreted only by an authorized spiritual master. Within the Gelug sect of Tibetan Buddhism, the Dalai Lama—currently Tenzin Gyatso—is considered the most important and reliable interpreter of Vajrayana, though the Panchen Lama also is a significant authority on matters of Vajrayana doctrine and practice. (The identity of the individual currently holding the latter title is disputed.) It is believed that the persons who hold these two eminent positions within Tibetan Buddhism (tulkus) are successively reincarnated into new bodies over time, so that supreme spiritual authority is possessed by the same person throughout history. Vajrayana Buddhism maintains a highly secretive process of transmitting the wisdom that is to be used for attaining enlightenment (bodhi) quickly. This information is handed down during clandestine rituals and is never revealed to the public. According to Vajrayana devotees, such secrecy is necessary because if not performed within a community of practitioners, Vajrayana methods are not only ineffective but quite possibly harmful.

Ultimate Reality and Humanity. Unlike the monotheistic religions such as Islam, Christianity, and Judaism, in which a transcendent God creates the universe ex nihilo, or polytheistic systems that believe God fashioned eternally existing matter into an orderly cosmos (a view found in Mormon cosmology), in Vajrayana Buddhism the totality of phenomena originate interdependently in a reality known as the Primordial Buddha (samantabhadra), the source and ground of existence. This Primordial Buddha does not exist as an independent, objective reality from which other entities proceed. Instead, the Buddhist doctrine of “dependent arising” maintains that the Primordial Buddha and the subjective consciousness of each person are inextricably intertwined, such that in the final analysis they are seen to be one and the same fundamental reality. In this view, the reality body (or truth body; dharmakaya) of Vajrayana devotees who have become enlightened contains within itself the Primordial Buddha. This means that whereas the minds of those who are not Buddhas (“awakened ones”; those who have reached enlightenment) remain cluttered with worldly phenomena, those who have achieved buddhahood have rid themselves of such transient and illusory appearances. The true nature of a Buddha—and, by extension, the nature of reality as a whole—is described by the doctrine of trikaya (three bodies). This doctrine maintains that each Buddha has three different bodies, each of which possesses unique properties: a created body (nirmanakaya) whose attributes are exhibited in the world of appearances; a “mutual enjoyment” body (sambhogakaya) that is experienced when a person is fast approaching enlightenment; and a reality body (dharmakaya) that is a vehicle of enlightenment itself.

Though more often in popular Vajrayana than in its intellectually sophisticated forms, devotees venerate a number of Buddhas and bodhisattvas (enlightened beings who have devoted themselves to helping others attain buddhahood). The most popular of these quasi-divine beings include Amitabha, Vairocana, Akshobhya, Ratnasambhava, and Amogasiddhi (the five Dhyani Buddhas); Avalokiteshvara (a.k.a. Chenrezig), Manjusri, Maitreya, Tara, and Vajrapani (all prominent bodhisattvas); and sixteen reincarnated lamas known as arhats who will eventually become bodhisattvas. Some, usually wrathful bodhisattvas are known as dharmapalas; these fearsome defenders of Buddhist teaching assist wavering devotees in their quest for enlightenment. Prominent among the wrathful manifestations of Buddhas are Mahakala, Vajrakilaya, Guhyasamaja, Kalacakra, Yamantaka, and Cakrasamvara. Countless other beings, though lesser in stature than the Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and arhats, are objects of high esteem in that they are enjoyment bodies of the Buddha.

Ignorance and Enlightenment. According to Vajrayana teaching, the true nature of all people is that of “pure emptiness,” otherwise known as the ubiquitous Buddha nature or the Primordial Buddha. However, nearly all people are ignorant of their true nature, and thus they continue in bondage to the illusions and desires of this-worldly existence. This, in turn, has the unfortunate consequence of perpetuating the cycle of death and rebirth, which can be broken only by achieving enlightenment. The path to enlightenment consists of two interrelated sets of practices, ethical and ritual. The former consists primarily of cultivating virtues that promote (and, secondarily, eliminating vices that inhibit) the successful living-out of the Buddhist worldview. Compassion is the key virtue in this regard. Although vices like theft, lying, drunkenness, and dissolute behavior are frowned upon, one of the most serious transgressions in Vajrayana is the breaking of religious vows. The latter set of practices on the path to enlightenment involves a plethora of esoteric tantric practices including meditation techniques, the visualization of symbols, ceremonial offerings, mantras, and in some cases the performance of sex rituals between males and females. Some practitioners focus their thoughts during meditation on a particular yidam, an enlightened being with whom they identify. (Popular yidams include Cakrasamvara, Guhyasamaja, Hayagriva, Hevajra, Kalacakra, Kurukulle, Yamantaka, Vajrakilaya, and Vajrayogini, as well as the Buddhas and bodhisattvas mentioned above). Each of these practices is a heuristic designed to assist devotees in realizing their present identity with the Primordial Buddha.

The Vajrayana tradition especially emphasizes the use of particular ritual objects as a means of hastening the attainment of enlightenment. Included among these are the ghanta, a bell symbolizing wisdom; the dorje, a representation of a thunderbolt that symbolizes creativity and skillful means; and the damaru, a small hand drum with two skins in the shape of twin wheels. Another such ritual object is the mandala diagram, an elaborate, multicolored atlas of the cosmos depicting methods of attaining enlightenment and signifying the ephemeral nature of life. In the construction of these diagrams, Vajrayana monks employ exact measurements and a variety of complex geometric configurations. The best known of these diagrams is the Kalacakra mandala, which portrays over seven hundred members of the Vajrayana pantheon.

Postmortem Existence. After death persons who have achieved enlightenment during their life will be immediately liberated from the cycle of reincarnation and enter into complete nirvana, a spiritual state described variously as the extinction of all desire and indescribable bliss. The exceptions to this rule are those exceptionally compassionate persons who have decided to become bodhisattvas, delaying their own liberation and reentering the world of phenomenal things so as to help greater numbers of sentient beings attain enlightenment. The mind streams of those who did not reach enlightenment prior to their demise will pass through an intermediate state (bardo)—consisting of three stages and lasting forty-nine days in all—that precedes their reincarnation or (in the case of those who become enlightened while in bardo) entry into nirvana. Being reborn from the bardo, the mind stream may experience a series of hells; heavens; birth as an animal, ghost, human, or titan; or rebirth in one of the Pure Lands, depending on one’s practice.

Major Tibetan Lineages. 1. Nyingma. Nyingma (Tibetan, the ancient ones), the earliest form of Tibetan Buddhism, was established during the eighth and ninth centuries when the intrepid Indian masters Padmasambhava and Shantarakshita introduced Vajrayana ideas, Buddhist philosophy, and the vinaya to the rulers of the Tubo kingdom in Tibet. These two scholars also were instrumental in translating Sanskrit Buddhist texts into Tibetan and in founding the first Tibetan Buddhist monastery. Nyingma faced no rival schools until the eleventh century, although much of the three centuries during which it stood alone witnessed substantial maltreatment of its members by various Tibetan kings. Beginning in the eleventh and twelfth centuries and continuing until the Chinese Communist invasion of 1950, the Nyingma sect and a number of emerging Tibetan Buddhist schools thrived and coexisted peacefully. Several of its most significant scholars during this time were Rongzom Mahapandita (1012–88), Kunkhyen Longchen Rabjam (1308–63), Jigme Lingpa (1730–98), and Mipham Jamyang Namgyal Gyamtso (1846–1912). Traditionally, the most important tulku in the school was the head abbot of the Mingdrolling monastery, who upheld certain ritual functions representing the Nyingma in Lhasa. Kyabje Dudjom Rinpoche (ca. 1904–87) was installed, while in exile in India, as the official acting head of the Nyingma lineage. Since then he has been succeeded by three others, the most recent of whom (installed in 2003) was Penor Rinpoche (ca. 1932–2009). Unique features of the Nyingma lineage include its eschewal of political power, its deemphasis on the monastic life, its contention that there are six levels of tantric instruction rather than the usual four, and the great importance it places on finding previously undiscovered Vajrayana texts.

2. Kagyu. The Kagyu sect (in Tibetan kagyu means “whispered transmission”) was founded in the eleventh century primarily through the efforts of two industrious scholar-practitioners: Khyungpo Nyaljor (978–1079), who founded the Shangpa Kagyu, and Marpa Choekyi Lodoe (1012–99), who founded the more important Drakpo Kagyu. Both were heavily influenced in their thinking by the teachings of the Indian tantric practitioners Tilopa (988–1069) and Naropa (1016–1100). It was Marpa who did the bulk of the translation work that made the writings of Tilopa and Naropa available to Tibetan monks in their native language. Marpa’s most influential pupils, Milarepa (1052–1135) and his student Gampopa (1079–1153), were instrumental in the early period; the latter’s teaching gave rise to the development of four major subschools of Kagyu: Barom, Pagdru, Karma, and Tsalpa. Kalu Rinpoche (1905–89), perhaps the most highly regarded proponent of Kagyu in the twentieth century, belonged to the Shangpa. The analogue of the Dalai Lama in Kagyu is the Karmapa Lama, a position currently held by Trinlay Thaye Dorje (1983–). The most distinctive mark of Kagyu is its claim that it provides its adherents with instructors who have not only mastered its doctrines but also retain no flaws relating to the practice of Buddhism. The pinnacle of Kagyu spirituality is the reception of the Great Seal teachings of Gampopa, which expound four critical stages of Buddhist meditation.

3. Sakya. The Sakya sect was founded by Khon Konchog Gyalpo (1034–1102) in the middle of the eleventh century when he established the school’s first monastery on the gray terrain of the Ponpori Hills in southern Tibet (in Tibetan, sakya means “pale or gray earth”). Konchog Gyalpo had been greatly influenced by the teachings of Drokmi Lotsawa (992–1072), his guru. Following Konchog Gyalpo were five successive leaders of the sect whose work led to its continued flourishing in later centuries: Sachen Kunga Nyingpo (1092–1158), Sonam Tsemo (1142–82), Drakpa Gyaltsen (1147–1216), Sakya Pandita (1182–1251), and Chogyal Pakpa (1235–80). From the late thirteenth to the mid-fourteenth centuries, Sakya lamas served as rulers of Tibet under the graces of the emperors of Mongolia. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, two prominent subsects emerged within Sakya: Ngor and Tshar. In the nineteenth century, three highly esteemed Sakya devotees, Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo (1820–92), Jamgon Kongtrul Lodro Thaye (1813–99), and Orgyen Chokyur Lingpa (1829–70), began the Rime Movement, a nonsectarian Tibetan Buddhist tradition whose goal was to integrate the disparate doctrines of the various schools of Vajrayana. Hailing from the Khon family lineage, the present (and forty-first) Sakya Trizin (spiritual head of the Sakya sect), Ngawang Kunga Tegchen Palbar Samphel Wanggi Gyalpo (1945–), performs the duties of his office from exile in the city of Rajpur, India. Teachings that have had a substantial formative influence on the Sakya tradition include the Mahamudra system of Siddha Virupa (ninth century), the esoteric Vajrayogini doctrine of Mal Lotsawa (eleventh century), and the tantric practices of Bari Lotsawa (1040–1112).

4. Gelug. Founded by the scholar-monk Je Tsongkhapa (1357–1419), the Gelug (way of virtue) sect traces its roots back to the Kadampa tradition of the legendary Indian Buddhist master Dipankara. One of Tsongkhapa’s brightest students, Gyalwa Gedun Drupa (1391–1474), was installed as the first Ganden Tripa (this title now is referred to as “Dalai Lama”) of Tibetan Buddhism. This position conferred on its holder both temporal and spiritual authority over Tibet. The most important subsequent Dalai Lamas have included Gendun Gyatso (1475–1542), Lozang Gyatso (1617–82), Thupten Gyatso (1876–1933), and the present Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, who was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989. Gelug is arguably the most eclectic of the Tibetan Buddhist lineages. It has attempted to synthesize the doctrines and practices of the Indian tantra and sutra teachings and the philosophical systems of Nagarjuna (ca. 150–250) and Asanga (ca. 300–375). The Gelug School emphasizes the Vinaya, a set of 253 rules for monastic discipline.

Bibliography. Diamond Way Buddhism home page, http://www.diamondway-buddhism.org/; K. Dowman, Masters of Mahamudra: Songs and Histories of the Eighty-Four Buddhist Siddhas; G. K. Gyatso, Tantric Grounds and Paths: How to Enter, Progress on, and Complete the Vajrayana Path; T. Gyatso, The Way to Freedom: Core Teachings of Tibetan Buddhism; V. Huckenpahler, ed., Great Kagyu Masters: The Golden Lineage Treasury; J. Kongtrul, The Treasury of Knowledge, book 1, Myriad Worlds; R. M. Novick, Fundamentals of Tibetan Buddhism; J. Powers, introduction to Tibetan Buddhism; D. Rinpoche, The Nyingma School of Tibetan Buddhism: Its Fundamentals and History; H. E. K. Rinpoche, Secret Buddhism: Vajrayana Practices; C. Trichen, The History of the Sakya Tradition; Tsongkhapa, Tantric Ethics: An Explanation of the Precepts for Buddhist Vajrayana Practice; G. Tucci, The Religions of Tibet, repr. ed.

S. J. Rost

VEDANTA. The term Vedanta is formed from Veda (Sanskrit, “book of knowledge”) and anta (Sanskirt, “at the end”). At the end of each of four Vedas are the Upanishads, from which the philosophy of Vedanta has been derived. The Hindu philosophical system of Vedanta has been a significant component of Indian religious history for more than twelve hundred years.

Within Vedanta are three schools, each with its own philosophy regarding Brahma. Advaita (nondualism) teaches that Brahma is the ultimate reality. The world and everything in it are but illusion. Vishishtadvaita (qualified nondualism) has a philosophy similar to Advaita but ascribes attributes and personality to Brahma. Dvaita (dualism) teaches that Brahma is God (including all the manifestations, such as Krishna and Vishnu), that Brahma has personality, and that all individuals possess their own souls. Souls and matter are entities separate from Brahma. Dvaita also teaches that bhakti (benevolent devotion) is the way to enlightenment.

Included among the early proponents of Advaita are Adi Sankara (788–820), Gaudapada (ca. eighth century), and Govinda Bhagavatpada (ca. eighth century). During the nineteenth century, Guru Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1836–86) was a leading proponent of this philosophy.

More recently, the teachings of Advaita have become the dominant school within Vedanta, and Advaita has been adopted (though in many cases modified) by a number of American groups whose doctrinal roots are found within historic Hinduism. Some of its contemporary adherents contend that modern physics has provided evidence for the unity of the cosmos taught in Advaita.

Featuring a sophisticated metaphysics and epistemology, Vedanta stems from the fundamental conviction that human beings suffer from a deep and systemic illusion (maya) regarding the nature of reality and thus are trapped in an endless cycle of death and rebirth (samsara). Central to Vedanta is the pursuit of a decisive freedom from this spiritual bondage, wherein the cycle of death and rebirth is brought to an end and the enlightened practitioner attains liberation (moksha). It is held that knowledge (jnana) of the true nature of humanity brings about this liberation, whereas bondage is the result of ignorance (avidya) concerning this matter. Enlightenment, then, consists in understanding one’s real nature (Atman), which in turn is (in the final analysis) identical with ultimate reality (Brahma). One who achieves this realization escapes from the cycle of death and rebirth (thus attaining liberation); such a person is known as a jivanmukta. Those who fail to overcome their erroneous perception of themselves as an abiding, truly existing self must undergo rebirth and try again.

According to Advaita Vedanta, eternal Brahma is the material and instrumental cause of the universe, and hence the world does not exist independently of Brahma. However, adherents of Advaita Vedanta understand the world in three primary ways: (1) Ajati Vada, which states that the world is not a real event, (2) Srshti-drshti Vada, which asserts that the world is merely perceived, and (3) Drshti-srshti Vada, which contends that the world is created simultaneously with the human perception of it. Moreover, Brahma is said to be beyond all action, causality, or change, and is devoid of diversity, parts, or attributes (nirguna). Brahma, then, cannot be equated with the universe of appearances (which was not created ex nihilo but rather proceeds out of Brahma, although Brahma remains unchanged). Adherents to Advaita Vedanta admit that the Upanishads attribute properties to Brahma but also maintain that a proper interpretation of these texts precludes the predication of genuine attributes to Brahma. (The Vedas are said to contain faultless, authoritative information concerning Brahma that cannot be inferred from anything else, and Advaitans consult the Brahma Sutras for additional help in grasping the nature of Brahma.) In fact, Advaita Vedanta alleges that the reality of Brahma cannot be captured in words and thus that human descriptions of Brahma invariably fail to convey the true nature of Brahma, amounting to little more than flawed mental constructs. This, in turn, has implications for the ontological status of the human self (jiva), which ultimately is identical with Brahma: once the “individual” sees the unreality of his own existence, he realizes that all is Brahma. A person’s quest for liberation is thus impeded by his unreflective habit of making false distinctions between the self and Brahma.

Bibliography. E. Deutsch, Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction; S. H. Phillips, “Vedanta,” in Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, vol. 9; K. H. Potter, A. B. Creel, and E. Gerow, Guide to Indian Philosophy; S. Satchidanandendra, The Method of the Vedanta: A Critical Account of the Advaita Tradition; V. Vidyasankar, Advaita Vedānta home page, http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/.

H. W. House

VEDAS. The Vedas are a collection of the oldest Hindu scriptures, which are dated as an oral tradition to about 1500–300 BC, although actual textual sources do not appear until between AD 1000 and 1500. It is generally thought that the Vedas (Sanskrit, “knowledge”) were gathered and evolved over roughly nine hundred to twelve hundred years.

The Vedic works stem from four primary scriptures, called the Samhitas (“collections”). The four Samhitas are the Rig Veda (composed ca. 1500 BC), the Sama Veda (ca. 1200 BC), the Yajur Veda (ca. 1000 BC), and the Atharva Veda (ca. 1000 BC). Note that these centuries are very approximate.

The Rig Veda consists of ten books and 1,028 “hymns” praising the older Hindu gods and giving instructions on the proper forms of sacrifice or service to scores of different deities. The hymns are not to be sung by a group but are to be chanted by a priest; most are about ten verses long.

The Sama Veda, the Veda of sacrificial formulas, largely praises the god Soma (of the hallucinogenic soma plant); 95 percent of its hymns are copied from Rig Veda.

The Yajur Veda, the Veda of sung chants, also contains hymns from the Rig Veda, but adds speculations and interpretations of their meaning. There are two versions, and each branch of Hinduism tends to prefer one or the other: the Black Yajur Veda (of which there are four recensions) and the White Yajur Veda (two recensions). The Black and the White incorporate significantly different texts.

The Atharva Veda contains mantras, spells, and incantations for health, prosperity, success, and other benefits. The Atharva Veda is also called the Brahma Veda, receiving its name from an earlier age when Brahma referred to cosmic power or magic.

Associated with each Samhita are three additional groups of writings: the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, and the Upanishads. In other words, there are Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads for each Veda.

Between eight and nineteen Brahmanas are distributed among the four Samhitas, ranging in length from five volumes to a single page. The Brahmanas are prose works commenting on the hymns and interpreting the meaning of the sacrifices. They give attention to Brahma (a creator deity who displaces two earlier gods of the Samhitas) and to the priestly Brahmin caste, seen as essential to regulating accurate worship. The Brahmanas and the Aranyakas originate in a later period, circa 1000–600 BC.

The Aranyakas (forest texts) originated sometime after the Brahmanas. They received their name from their emphasis on retreating into the woods for meditation, and they question the value of sacrifices, suggesting that a symbolic or spiritual sacrifice will do just as well.

The Upanishads are the most recent texts (major Upanishads were composed ca. 600–300 BC), representing a distillation of the meaning of the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, and the Aranyakas. Their literary genre takes the form of dialogues between guru and disciple, from which comes the term Upanishad, “to sit under.” The Upanishads attend to the nature of Brahma, the undifferentiated substrate of the cosmos, and Atman, the individual self or identity. They introduce and develop concepts not stated in the Samhitas, such as reincarnation and the law of karma. The number of Upanishads ranges widely; it is often given as 108, but some authorities say there are as few as 10 essential Upanishads.

Note that the term Vedas is multivalent, meaning different things depending on the context. Normally the term refers specifically to the four Samhitas (whose titles all end in Veda). Sometimes Vedas refers to the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, and the Aranyakas; other times it includes the Upanishads as well. Occasionally, the term incorporates two additional bodies of writing, the Sutras and the Vedangas.

Devout Hindus believe the Vedic scriptures (including the Upanishads) are inspired in a sense surpassing the strictest inerrantist sense given to the word inspired by Christian fundamentalism. The Vedas are believed to be infallible and eternal, not discovered or composed by human authors. They are shruti, revelations that were heard and recorded by the rishi, divine-human seers of ancient times.

No single version of the Vedas, even in Sanskrit, is accepted by all Hindus as authoritative. The true Vedas existed only in oral form and were not committed to manuscript for hundreds of years. And paradoxically, despite the concept of inerrant revelation, there is no universally fixed canon or approved list of Vedic texts because there are different branches of Hinduism. There are different recensions of each major text; sometimes the Atharva Veda is omitted from the list; and the number of Upanishads varies depending on the Vedic tradition or school of thought. The oldest extant manuscripts of the Vedas date from the eleventh and fourteenth centuries AD.

Although printed versions and translations from the Vedas exist, tradition stands against copying or printing the Vedic scriptures. According to the Mahabharata, “Those who sell the Veda, those who defile the Veda, and those who write the Veda, they shall go to hell” (13.23). Vedic writings often appear in anthologies or abridged editions for English readers, while unabridged and scholarly translations are very rare. The most authoritative, unabridged translations of the Rig Veda were produced in the nineteenth century by H. H. Wilson and Ralph T. H. Griffith (separate works).

Bibliography. A. C. Clayton, The Rig-Veda and Vedic Religion, with Readings from the Vedas; R. N. Dandekar, “Vedas,” in Encyclopedia of Religion, edited by L. Jones, 2nd ed.; W. Doniger O’Flaherty, ed. and trans., Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism; C. A. Jones and J. D. Ryan, “Veda(s),” in Encyclopedia of Hinduism, edited by D. Cush, C. Robinson, and M. York; D. Killingley, “Veda,” in Encyclopedia of Hinduism, edited by D. Cush, C. Robinson, and M. York; J. F. Lewis and W. G. Travis, Religious Traditions of the World; S. Schuhmacher and G. Woerner, eds., The Rider Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion; M. E. Snodgrass, Encyclopedia of World Scriptures; B. Walker, “Vedas” and “Vedism,” in The Hindu World: An Encyclopedic Survey of Hinduism, 2 vols.

E. Pement

VIPASYANA. Vipasyana (Pali, vipassana; both mean “insight” or “clear seeing”) denotes the intuitive cognition that recognizes the Buddhist truth about impermanence, suffering, and egolessness. This cognition does not arise through intellectual assent but rather occurs in the process of meditation. Vipasyana is a crucial component in the attainment of enlightenment. “Insight meditation” is a core practice in the Theravadan Buddhist tradition, as found in Thailand and Burma. In the Mahayana tradition, vipasyana is defined as the experience of the cosmos that yields the true insight about emptiness.

Vipasyana meditation has been transplanted from its Theravadan Southeast Asian context into the West and is particularly popular in the US. Dhiravamsa, a Thai monk, brought vipasyana meditation to the US in 1969. He pioneered the Vipassana Fellowship of America (now called the Dhiravamsa Foundation). Another prominent Asian teacher of Theravada vipasyana whose work has been popularized in the West is S. N. Goenka. In addition, many Tibetan monks have taught vipasyana according to their traditions in the West as well.

The most obvious adaptation of vipasyana in the West is seen in the Insight Meditation Society in Barre, Massachusetts. Joseph Goldstein, Jack Kornfield, and Sharon Salzberg, each of whom had studied in Southeast Asia, established the society in 1976. Both Goldstein and Kornfield have been prolific writers, popularizing the tenets of vipasyana or insight meditation. In their adaptation, vipasyana is presented as a breath meditation or mindfulness meditation for individuals who live in a fast-paced consumer culture. Aspirants may attend a weekend intensive seminar to be inducted into the precepts and practices, which after that event may be applied according to the dictates of Western lifestyles. The Four Noble Truths are expounded, but the stringent requirements in an ordered monastic community in Asia are absent in this Westernized adaptation. In 1958 Geshe Ngawang Wangyal established the first Tibetan (Gelugpa) monastery in the US, where he taught Tibetan practices and philosophy, including vipasyana.

Bibliography. J. Goldstein, Insight Meditation: The Practice of Freedom; J. Kornfield, A Path with Heart; A. S. S. Namto, Insight Meditation: Practical Steps to Ultimate Truth.

P. Johnson

VIRGIN BIRTH. The virgin birth of Jesus is one of the signature doctrines of the Christian faith. It is the belief that Mary as a virgin, and without the instrumentality of human sexual intercourse, conceived and gave birth to Jesus Christ. The virginal conception of Jesus with Mary as his mother was believed, according to the witness of Christian Scripture (the Bible), to have been accomplished by the miraculous activity of God the Holy Spirit.

Two New Testament texts clearly assert the fact of the virgin birth: Matthew 1:18–25 and Luke 1:26–38. Other texts are referred to as supporting the virgin birth, such as Mark 6:3; John 1:13; and Galatians 4:4. Additionally, Isaiah 7:14 includes the prophecy that a “virgin shall conceive and bear a Son, and shall call His name Immanuel” (NKJV). The Hebrew text uses the term ‘almah, meaning a young woman of marriageable age, probably implying that she would be a virgin, although not specifically stating so. The Septuagint (Greek) version of Isaiah does expressly use the term for “virgin” (parthenos). The Septuagint possibly correctly reflected the pre-Christian Jewish interpretation of the word by using a Greek term that refers specifically to one who is a virgin.

Although some argue that the lack of other biblical verses explicitly stating the fact of the virgin birth militates against its importance, it is notable that Matthew’s and Luke’s infancy narratives, though very different in many respects and clearly independent of each other, both agree on the virgin birth, “a clear indication that it is based on an earlier common tradition” (Ferguson et al., 709).

Given the unmarried status of Mary, the only other possible explanation of her pregnant state, apart from the virginal conception, would be an illegitimate pregnancy outside wedlock. The Talmud claims that Jesus’s birth occurred outside wedlock, a claim repugnant and reprehensible to Christians.

In addition to the Bible itself, the early church fathers wrote often about the virgin birth. They affirmed its historicity and reflected on its theological significance. Additionally, two widely utilized and early Christian creeds, the Apostles’ and the Nicene, contain clear affirmations of the virgin birth, an indication of its early and substantial acceptance.

The virgin birth of Christ is not to be confused with either the immaculate conception of Mary or her perpetual virginity, two much later Roman Catholic dogmas. The first maintains that Mary was born without the influence and essence of original sin, and the latter declares that she remained a virgin even during the birth process of Jesus, without a broken hymen, and lived as such having borne no children through her marriage with Joseph. The first is rejected by evangelicals because there is no scriptural witness for it, and the second because there are passages that speak of the brothers and sisters of Jesus. In their scriptural context, references to brothers and sisters of Jesus clearly referred to a physical, familial relationship, and not a spiritual relationship (Matt. 13:55–56; Mark 3:31–35).

Other misinterpretations of the virgin birth include liberal nineteenth- and twentieth-century theologies that generally interpreted the virgin birth as a spiritual metaphor. They said, that is, that in the primitive, prescientific worldview of early Christianity, the virgin birth was a legendary accretion to the story of Jesus reflecting the Christian movement’s devotion, admiration, and reverence for Jesus but not the literal, historical truth of his human experience.

Other aberrations of the virgin birth among religions and heterodox groups include Islam’s perspective. The Qur’an, in sura 19:16–21, maintains that Jesus indeed was born of a virgin. His birth without a human father was a sign to the world of Jesus’s prophetic status. The Qur’an does not develop the idea theologically, and while Islam affirms this miraculous occurrence, the religion denigrates the notion of Allah having a son. The breathing of Gabriel on Mary is generally believed to be the means whereby God’s spirit entered Mary in order for Jesus to be conceived. Notably, Islam does not attempt to define or elucidate what or who this spirit is.

The Jehovah’s Witnesses accept that Mary was a virgin at the conception of Jesus but do not accept his eternal divine nature as God the Word. Rather, they believe that the virgin birth was a transitional phase of the process by which Michael the archangel became God’s son Jesus. In the parlance of the Watch Tower movement, God transferred the life force of Michael from heaven into Mary’s womb: “He willingly submitted as God transferred his life from heaven to the womb” (Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, Knowledge That Leads). Jesus was not, therefore, God in the flesh—the divine Son of God—but “the glorified spirit Son of God” (Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, Reasoning from the Scriptures).

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) also reconstructs the virgin birth. While the Book of Mormon texts highlight the teaching that Mary “did conceive by the power of the Holy Ghost and bring forth a son” (Alma 7:10), and contemporary spokesmen reaffirm this concept, other interpretations emerged within Mormonism. One is the notion that Jesus was conceived in the first instance as a premortal spirit son of God in the premortal realm (Doctrine and Covenants 93:21; Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 9). Then he was conceived again in this world, as a mortal human, by and through the person of Mary. Brigham Young, an early leader of the LDS Church (1801–77), denied that the “Holy Ghost” was the instrument of conception. Bruce McConkie, a Mormon apostle and theologian, commented, “Christ was begotten by an Immortal Father in the same way that mortal men are begotten by mortal fathers” (546–47). Others have similarly suggested a literal sexual union between God and Mary: “The body [Jesus’s] . . . was sired by the same Holy Being we worship as God, our Eternal Father” (Benson, 6–7). Gospel Principles, the catechetical manual of the LDS Church, maintains that “God the Father became the literal father of Jesus Christ” (53).

The virgin birth is a revealed truth of the Holy Scripture. It explicates the mode whereby God the Word became fully human and was born in the flesh while retaining all his divine nature.

Bibliography. E. T. Benson, The Teachings of Ezra Taft Benson; Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Gospel Principles; S. B. Ferguson et al., eds., New Dictionary of Theology; B. R. McConkie, Mormon Doctrine; Joseph Smith Jr. et al., Doctrine and Covenants; Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, Knowledge That Leads to Everlasting Life; Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, Reasoning from the Scriptures.

R. P. Roberts

VISHNU. In Vedic literature, Vishnu is the god who sustains the universe. He is one of the three main gods of Hinduism along with Brahma, regarded as the creator of the universe, and Shiva, regarded as the destroyer of the universe. Vishnu is said to be involved in ensuring that a proper balance between good and evil exists at all times on the earth. When the balance between these two forces is unsettled, Vishnu appears among human beings to correct the imbalance and restore harmony. When compared to Brahma and Shiva, Vishnu is shown to be the most active among the Hindu Vedic gods. Brahma is rarely worshiped individually among the Hindus since the cosmos is seen as an emanation of him, and Shiva has no recorded manifestations in the Hindu literature.

Worshipers of Vishnu. Those who worship Vishnu among the Hindu faithful are called Vaishnavites. Images of Vishnu in Hindu art take the form of blue- or black-skinned figures with four arms. Hinduism teaches that Vishnu has over one thousand names, and the repetitious pronouncement of them is a form of worship. Vishnu is said to have appeared on earth in nine different avatars, or manifestations, to assist in overcoming evil, with one avatar still to come.

Manifestations of Vishnu. In Indian mythology, Vishnu appears in numerous incarnations. As Matsya, Vishnu appeared in the form of a fish to rescue the first man, Manu. As Kurma, Vishnu was a turtle that saved the cosmos from destruction from the churning of the oceans, which was caused by the gods and demons who were working together to mine the ocean bottoms. As Varaha, he appeared as a boar and killed the titan Hiranyaksh, who had stolen the sacred Vedas; this act by Vishnu resulted in releasing the earth from its imprisonment at the bottom of the ocean. Vishnu’s fourth avatar was a half lion and half man who battled and killed the titan Hiranyashasipu, brother of the titan Niranyaksha. Vishnu appeared as Vamana the dwarf, to deliver the earth from Bali the titan, who had forced the gods to flee from the heavens. Parasurama was Vishnu’s sixth manifestation; he appeared to kill power-drunk King Kartavirya, who had stolen the holy cow Kamadhenu, said to grant the wishes of its owner. As Rama he appeared in order to kill the demon King Ravana, who had kidnapped Rama’s wife, Sita.

The last two manifestations of Vishnu are perhaps the two most recognizable.

As Krishna, Vishnu appeared in order to kill the tyrannical king of Mathura, Kansa. It is this avatar that the Mahabharata epic captures in story. Vishnu as Krishna visits Arjuna, one of five Pandava brothers, who is fighting to regain rule of the kingdom. Krishna-Vishnu discusses with Arjuna the responsibility that he has to perform his duty (dharma) and tells him about the three paths to a better life: devotion (Bhakti Yoga), action (Karma Yoga), and knowledge (Jnana Yoga). This conversation became known as the Bhagavad Gita.

Vishnu’s final avatar was in the form of Buddha. In this appearance, Vishnu is said to have come to alleviate the suffering of humankind. Buddhism as a formal religion does not view Buddha in the same way as Hinduism views him. Within Buddhism, Buddha was an enlightened one who came to teach others the path of enlightenment. Vishnu’s final appearance is anticipated within Hinduism as Kalki, seated on a white horse at the end of the present age, referred to as Kaliyuga.

See also AVATAR; BHAKTI YOGA; BRAHMA; DHARMA; HINDUISM; KARMA; SHIVA; VEDAS; YOGA

Bibliography. A. Michaels and B. Harshav, Hinduism: Past and Present; H. W. Tull, The Vedic Origins of Karma: Cosmos as Man in Ancient Indian Myth and Ritual; M. B. Wangu, Hinduism.

M. Spaulding