The Evangelical Dictionary of World Religions

ICHINEN SANZEN. The Nichiren Buddhist doctrine of ichinen sanzen (all worlds contained in one thought) describes the reality wherein every act of human thinking encompasses all existing worlds. These are the ten spheres: Perfect Buddhas, bodhisattva state, Solitary Buddhas, Hinayana state, heaven, human, titans, animals, ghosts, hell. Each of these is multiplied by the ten factors: appearance, nature, entity, power, influence, internal cause, relation, latent effect, manifest effect, consistence. And these are multiplied by the three realms, which are the five-aggregates realm, the living-being realm, and the environmental realm. In this way, each thought is said to contain within itself the entire cosmos. According to this doctrine, there is a continual, reciprocal interface between the world of phenomena and the most fundamental reality. It is also taught that every momentary experience a person has is one of ten states, or worlds (jikkai). The basic content of the doctrine of ichinen sanzen is taken from the Lotus Sutra and was developed by the Buddhist scholar Zhi-yi (538–97), the founder of T’ien Tai Buddhism (a Chinese Mahayana school); later it was modified by Nichiren (1222–82), the founder of the Japanese sect Nichiren Shoshu.

Bibliography. P. B. Yampolsky, ed., Letters of Nichiren.

J. Bjornstad

I CHING / YIJING. The I Ching, or Yijing, is an ancient book of Chinese wisdom and divination. Also known as the Book of Changes, the I Ching (pronounced “ee-ching”) consists of sixty-four hexagrams of solid and broken lines. Solid lines represent the force of yang. Broken lines represent the force of yin. Each hexagram is associated with a particular social, psychological, or spiritual symbol, similar to the drawings on tarot cards. One consults I Ching to receive wise counsel.

The Origin of the I Ching. According to Chinese legend, Emperor Fu Hsi (2953–2838 BC) invented an eight-trigram form of I Ching as a tool of divination. Around 1150 BC, Wen Wang, an imprisoned political leader during the Shang Dynasty, revised the system into sixty-four hexagrams. His son Wu Wang and a nephew added commentary on each symbol. Researcher Cyril Javary contends that the real inventor of I Ching is Confucius, who attributed its evolution to important historical figures so that it might receive wide acceptance.

In the early 1840s, James Legge, a well-known missionary to China, translated the I Ching into English. Richard Wilhelm, another missionary, wrote the most popular translation in 1882. It received wide acceptance in the West.

The Underlying Philosophy behind I Ching. Yin/yang describes the dualistic nature and movement of the universe. This essence is bipolar in design, composed of light and dark, male and female, positive and negative, and so forth. Yin/yang is not two separate entities but merely two aspects of the same essential motion that permeates all. An analogy might be that of riding a bicycle. To move one must push one pedal while releasing the other. Pushing and releasing are part of one movement. They cannot be separated. Pushing only one pedal will lead nowhere, and so will pushing both pedals at the same time. The Chinese view the universe as perpetual motion. There are sixty-four movements in the universe, each represented by the hexagrams.

Use of the I Ching. Each hexagram has a name, a commentary, and six lines, some solid and others broken. In the solid lines, energy is understood to flow outward from the center of the hexagram. In broken lines, energy flows from the outer edge toward the center, where the gap appears. The solid and broken lines and the direction of the energy symbolize the need for balance in one’s life between ex-tension and in-tension. Through an elaborate process one reads the chosen hexagram to determine how to balance one’s life and bring everything into harmony, thus producing the desired results. The process involves asking a question concerning some life situation, then tossing specially designed coins three times or dividing sticks into small random bundles. The random results point to a corresponding hexagram in the I Ching, which, when interpreted correctly, offers advice, predicts the future, or helps one figure out a solution to the problem. The ultimate goal of the exercise is to help one reach a state of harmony with yin/yang, which produces health, happiness, and peace.

See also CONFUCIANISM; YIN AND YANG

Bibliography. C. Javary, Understanding the I Ching; E. Shaughnessy, I Ching: The Classic Book of Changes.

R. A. Streett

IDOLATRY. Idolatry is usually defined as veneration of material objects believed to represent or embody sacred power, especially that of a god or goddess. “Idolatry” may be said, however, to include a range of practices involving a variety of objects that together constitute a hierarchy of meaning-symbols. At the most basic level, many religions, including Christianity (especially the Roman Catholic and Eastern traditions), use statues or images simply as symbolic representations of personages (e.g., saints, the devil, or the Buddha) or ideals (e.g., the Assyrian winged lion or the Hindu lotus-flower). A biblical example might be Aaron’s “golden calf” (Exod. 32:4), which, in violation of the second commandment, visually represented Yahweh. At another level, an object may be thought to possess magical or supernatural powers via some external power or rite (a talisman) or because it embodies a spirit (a fetish). Laban’s “household idols” (teraphim), which Rachel took and hid (Gen. 31:19), probably fall into this category. The true idol takes the meaning-symbol a step further by embodying the actual form of a spirit or power. Even here the relation between “idol” and deity is variously understood. The image of Artemis, for example, supposedly “fell from heaven” (Acts 19:35), perhaps indicating it was produced in an ecstatic state, or that it was fashioned from some material object that bore a striking resemblance to the goddess, or that it was a meteorite that came to be regarded as a divinely sent image, but not that Artemis was the image. Isaiah, on the other hand, ridicules those who fashion gods and end up worshiping blocks of wood (Isa. 44:18–19)!

Behind all forms of idolatry is the desire to have continual access to, relationship with, and/or control over sacred powers believed to affect the courses of nature and life. Idolatry also sets limits on the “power” represented, however, which helps to explain the categorical prohibition of images and idols in Scripture (Exod. 20:4).

C. R. Wells

INCARNATION. The word incarnation is derived from a Latin word developed from in + caro (flesh), which literally means “in the flesh.” In Christian theology, the term refers to the supernatural act of God, effected by the Holy Spirit, whereby the eternal Son of God, the second person of the Triune Godhead, in the fullness of time, took into union with himself a complete human nature apart from sin and thus, as a result of that action, has now become the God-man forever, the Word made flesh (John 1:1, 14; cf. Rom. 1:3; 8:3; Gal. 4:4; Phil. 2:7–8; 1 Tim. 3:16; 1 John 4:2).

The means whereby the incarnation came about is the virgin conception, commonly known as the virgin birth—the miraculous action of the Holy Spirit in the womb of Mary—so that what was conceived was nothing less than the Lord Jesus, who is fully God and fully man in one person forever (Matt. 1:18–25; Luke 1:26–38). He did this in order to become the Redeemer of the church, our prophet, priest, and king, and thus to “save his people from their sins” (Matt. 1:21). By becoming one with us, the Lord of Glory is not only able to share our sorrows and burdens but was also able to secure our redemption by bearing our sin on the cross as our substitute and being raised for our justification (see Rom. 4:25; Heb. 2:17–18; 4:14–16; 1 Pet. 3:18).

In later church reflection on the biblical data that present Jesus as simultaneously God and man, the Council of Chalcedon (AD 451) affirmed that in the incarnation God the Son gave personal identity to the human nature that he had assumed without losing or compromising his divine nature; hence the affirmation that the Lord Jesus now exists forever as one person in two natures and that the properties of each nature are preserved without confusion, change, division, and separation. This entails that the man Jesus from the moment of conception was personal by virtue of the union of the human nature with the divine Son. As a result of this affirmation, a significant part of the church was split from the official church. To this day, several groups (including the Copts of Egypt and the Syrian Orthodox Church) continue to be out of communion with both the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox churches over the issue of the incarnated Jesus, although in recent years efforts have been made to reconcile divergent Orthodox groups.

Bibliography. M. Erickson, The Word Became Flesh; D. Macleod, The Person of Christ; R. L. Reymond, “Incarnation,” in Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, edited by W. Elwell; D. F. Wells, The Person of Christ.

S. Wellum

INERRANCY. The inerrancy of Scripture is a consequence of its verbal-plenary inspiration. Scripture, in the original autographs (i.e., the original manuscripts) and correctly interpreted, is free from error, or better, entirely true and never false in all that it teaches and affirms precisely because it is the product of a sovereign-personal, omniscient God who cannot err (2 Tim. 3:15–17; 2 Pet. 1:20–21; cf. Num. 23:19; Ps. 119:89, 160; Prov. 30:5; John 17:17; Heb. 6:16–18). Recently, inerrancy has been the hallmark of evangelical Christianity. Even though the term was used in the past, it was introduced into the contemporary discussion to emphasize what the church has always held—namely, that Scripture, in its entirety, is the authoritative, infallible Word of God. As such it alone is the sufficient, certain, and authoritative rule of all saving knowledge, faith, and obedience.

At least three important points need to be emphasized in regard to inerrancy. First, inerrancy applies equally to all parts of Scripture as originally written. The emphasis in such texts as 2 Timothy 3:16 is on the origin of Scripture and thus its autographic form. There is no biblical evidence that inspiration and inerrancy pertain to copies or translations of the biblical text except insofar as those texts accurately reflect what was originally given. That is why Scripture repeatedly warns not to alter the text either by addition or subtraction (see Deut. 4:2; 12:32; Prov. 30:6; Rev. 22:18–19). Second, inerrancy is limited not merely to matters of faith and practice but to all areas of knowledge that Scripture addresses. It is impossible to create a neat dichotomy between the theological and the factual given the fact that God acts to bring about redemption in history. Third, Scripture is inerrant even though it speaks in ordinary, phenomenological language and various literary forms. The amount of precision demanded of the biblical text must be consistent with the standards of the time when it was written.

The warrant for affirming inerrancy is Scripture itself. Given what the Bible claims for itself—namely, that it is God’s Word written, that the biblical tests for a prophet demand total and complete truthfulness of his message in order for it to be viewed as from God (see Deut. 13:1–5; 18:20–22), and that Scripture uses Scripture to build its arguments, sometimes on a single word or even a tense of a verb (see Matt. 22:32, 43–45; John 10:34–35; Gal. 3:16)—it is difficult not to affirm the full authority and inerrancy of Scripture.

Bibliography. D. A. Carson and J. Woodbridge, eds., Hermeneutics, Authority and Canon; P. D. Feinberg, “Bible, Inerrancy and Infallibility of,” in Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, 141–45; N. L. Geisler, ed., Inerrancy.

S. Wellum

INJIL. Mentioned several times in the Qur’an, the Injil (whose title is an Arabic transliteration for the Greek evangelion, “gospel”) is an alleged protogospel that describes the life and ministry of Jesus Christ. It is considered one of the five Holy Books of Islam, along with the Qur’an, the Suhuf Ibrahim (scrolls of Abraham), the Zabur (hymns or songs), and the Tawrat (the Arabic word for Torah). Some Muslims use the term Injil to refer to the four canonical Gospels, while others use it for the entire New Testament. Islamic apologists maintain that the information once contained in the (no longer extant) Injil accords with everything taught in the Qur’an. According to the Islamic doctrine of Tahrif (corruption), the original gospel writings were distorted by Jewish and Christian editors, resulting in the disparity between the texts of the four Christian gospels and the message of the Qur’an. In particular Muslims dispute the Gospels’ reports of Jesus being called the Son of God and their accounts of his death and resurrection.

Bibliography. G. Adelphi and E. Hahn, “The Integrity of the Bible according to the Qur’an and the Hadith”; J. L. Esposito, The Oxford Dictionary of Islam; D. A. Madigan, The Qur’an’s Self-Image: Writing and Authority in Islam’s Scripture.

R. L. Drouhard

INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR KRISHNA CONSCIOUSNESS (ISKCON). ISKCON was founded in 1966 by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada (1896–1977). Adherents of ISKCON are commonly known as Hare Krishnas, although within the organization they are called “devotees.” There are approximately three hundred Hare Krishna temples throughout the world.

ISKCON theology is based in pantheistic thought and incorporates major Hinduistic tenets such as reincarnation, karma, and yoga. Many unique doctrinal aspects to this religion come from Prabhupada’s interpretation of the Hindu scripture the Bhagavad Gita. He taught that Krishna, whose name in India’s Sanskrit language means “all-attractive,” is the supreme personality of God. Krishna is said to have first appeared on earth about five thousand years ago and proved his divinity by performing superhuman feats. It is believed that, since his initial appearance, Krishna has been transformed into different humans known as avatars, with his last incarnation coming in the body of Caitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534) from India. Prabhupada taught that God has a number of names, including Jesus; in fact, he claimed that the Greek Christos and the Sanskrit Krishna are the same word.

Devotees adopt Sanskrit names and practice devotional Bhakti Yoga to rid their souls of bad karma. Many Hare Krishna males don orange robes and shave their heads except for a single lock of hair in the back of the head; the women wear Indian dresses. Devotees commonly apply a V-shaped yellow clay symbol on their foreheads known as a tilak. A major part of Hare Krishna worship is the daily recitation of a three-word devotional chant: “Hare Krishna, Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna, Hare Hare, Hare Rama, Hare Rama, Rama Rama, Hare Hare.” Devotees are required to repeat this mantra a total of 1,728 times a day, either individually or in groups. They often use Indian instruments such as drums, hand cymbals, and hand organs to dance to the melodic expression, sometimes publicly in parks or universities. They also sell literature, including the ISKCON Back to Godhead magazine. Instructed to abstain from drugs, tobacco, alcohol, caffeine drinks, and gambling, devotees practice strict vegetarianism; in fact, they equate the killing of animals with killing one’s brother or sister. Sex is allowed only for procreation within marriage, and then only once per month. Any sexual act not performed for the procreation of children is considered illicit sex.

Bibliography. S. J. Gelberg, Hare Krishna, Hare Krishna; J. Hubner et al., Monkey on a Stick: Murder, Madness, and the Hare Krishnas; J. S. Judah, Hare Krishna and the Counterculture.

E. Johnson

ISLAM, BASIC BELIEFS OF. Islam (from Arabic, “submission”) is a belief system that encompasses at least 1.5 billion people throughout every corner of the globe. The basis for Islam is the revelations (purportedly) given to Muhammad (ca. 570–632) during a twenty-two-year ministry in the cities of Mecca and Medina (both in present-day Saudi Arabia), which are gathered in the text of the Qur’an. From the Arabian Peninsula, Islam spread through conquest over the Middle East, the Iranian plateau, and Central Asia initially. Over a period of centuries, sometimes through conquest, sometimes through trading links and the ministry of Sufi holy men, adjacent areas in Anatolia and southeastern Europe, West and East Africa, India, and Southeast Asia were converted.

The basic teachings of Islam are that God (Allah) has no partners and that the message of his divine unity has been imparted continually to a series of messengers (or prophets) through human history. In general humanity has systematically rejected this message, causing God to punish nations with destruction as a sign to others. Most of the important messengers—Adam, Noah, Moses, Aaron, Solomon, John the Baptist, and Jesus—are taken from the Bible, although the stories told about them in the Qur’an sometimes diverge considerably from the biblical accounts. All are said to have preached the message of Islam in the form of progressive revelation—valid for its time until the next messenger appeared—which culminated in the appearance of Muhammad. Islamic doctrine holds that there will be no further prophets after Muhammad and that all prior revelations are void after the proclamation of Islam.

Islam is expressed in daily life by the five pillars of Islam: the shahada (confession of faith), the five daily prayers, the giving of charity (usually 2.5 percent of one’s income), fasting during the month of Ramadan, and a pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca once during one’s lifetime. Beyond these basics, Sunni Islam is practiced by emulating the actions of Muhammad as closely as possible. Approximately 85 percent of the world’s Muslims are Sunni. This type of Islam is named for the sunna, or way that Muhammad acted, and is based on the massive number of traditions (hadith) that purport to detail every aspect of his life for the benefit of future generations. Legal scholars then converted the principles contained within the hadith literature into law codes (the shari‘ah). Sunni Muslims recognize four legal schools: the Hanafi (predominating in the Middle East, Turkey, Central Asia, India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh), the Maliki (in North and West Africa), the Shafi`i (in parts of Egypt, East Africa, Indonesia, and Malaysia), and the Hanbali (in Saudi Arabia). In most cases, each school has recognized the legitimacy of the other schools.

Politically, Sunnis are differentiated from the minority Shi‘ite group by their adherence to the idea that Muhammad’s successor, given the title of caliph (meaning “deputy”), should be elected by the community. This election would manifest God’s will and give the caliph much of the spiritual and temporal authority that Muhammad had (but not his prophetic office) in theory. However, in practice, although the first caliphs were elected, the later ones were dynastic and quickly lost both their temporal and their spiritual authority. Most of the spiritual authority was taken up by the religious scholars (the ulama), who effectively since the ninth century have constituted the leadership of Sunni Islam.

Shi‘ism, comprising most of the remaining 15 percent of Muslims, is another interpretation based on the idea that both spiritual and temporal authority come from the descendants of Muhammad (venerated by Sunnis but not accorded the right to rule). Because of the numerous branches of Muhammad’s family, there are many different Shi‘ite groups, each one claiming authority for a certain family or individual. The two largest Shi‘ite groups are the Twelver Shi‘ites (Ithna‘ashariyya) and the Seveners, also called the Isma‘ilis. Twelver Shi‘ites ascribe authority to twelve imams (leaders), including ‘Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law; Muhammad’s two grandsons, Hasan and Husayn; and nine of Husayn’s descendants down to 874.

For Shi‘ites the most important early event was the murder of Husayn in 680 at the site of Karbala (today in southern Iraq). This event is given cosmic importance, and the blood of Husayn continues (according to Shi‘ites) to stain their opponents for all time, while the guilt of not having succored him continues to burden Shi‘ites, who mourn his death on the tenth of Muharram each year. Both Twelvers and Seveners descend from Husayn, but the Seveners break off from the seventh imam after ‘Ali (the fourth after Husayn), while the Twelvers continue through another line. In 874 the last of the Twelve imams is said to have gone into occultation (disappeared from human eyes) for his own protection. According to Twelvers, God has elongated his lifetime down to the present, and he will be revealed at the end of the world and establish a messianic kingdom. Unlike the Twelvers, the Sevener Isma‘ilis have never been without the physical presence of an imam (today the Agha Khan). Their theology relies on an eternal cycle of divine revelation in the pattern of seven; as each heptad comes to an end, God opens up another cycle, sometimes with a considerably different message (usually based on Neoplatonic beliefs).

There are smaller, breakaway Shi‘ite groups that have usually formed trinitarian systems based on the divinity of ‘Ali (Muhammad’s son-in-law). The major representative of this tendency is the Nusayri-‘Alawites (in Syria). Because of the nonmonotheistic teachings of these groups, their existence within the fold of Islam is problematic. The Druze (in Lebanon, Syria, and Israel), who divinized one of the Isma‘ili imams (the caliph al-Hakim; d. 1021), are also a breakaway group that no longer claims to be Muslim. Later breakaway groups from Islam include the Bahá’ís (Iran) and the Ahmadis (Pakistan and India), both of which claim to have prophetic revelation after the time of Muhammad.

A third grouping of Muslims, Sufis, overlaps with both Sunnis and Shi‘ites. Sufism is the mystical interpretation of Islam and has its roots in the common ascetic tradition of the Middle East. Early Sufis, up until the tenth and eleventh centuries, were ecstatic in their pronouncements and often made exaggerated claims concerning their identity with God that enraged the ulama. Starting with the eleventh century, Sufism became more mainstream, and from this period until the end of the nineteenth century most major Muslim personalities practiced Sufism. In its essence, Sufism is a path leading to union with God that involves self-denial (but not chastity), spiritual exercises, and ultimately annihilation of the self. For the most part, since the fourteenth century it has been practiced as part of extensive brotherhoods (tariqas), the most prevalent of which are the Qadiriyya (pan-Islamic), the Naqshbandiyya (Central Asia, South Asia, Indonesia), the Mevleviyya (Turkey and Central Asia), the Tijaniyya (North and West Africa), the Shadhiliyya (North Africa), and the Rifa‘iyya (Middle East). Each one of the brotherhoods is characterized by a different interpretation of the path; in practice some can be highly militant and involved in society, while others can practice withdrawal and be almost pacificist.

Contemporary Islam has all the above currents present but also has produced a synthesis known as radical Islam. Radical Islam is a protest against the removal of Islamic norms from Muslim societies, and it demands a reimposition of the Shari‘ah (usually not defined) and the establishment of a pan-Islamic state. Radical Muslims often aggressively confront the ulama, which they characterize as being a tool of secular governments; often label Sufis or other Muslims with whom they disagree non-Muslims (takfir); and use calls for jihad as a cover to proclaim their message.

Islam is a vital and growing missionary religion that seeks and gains converts from every walk of life in the entire world. It has a global and totalizing message that does not permit its followers to compromise the absolute monotheism it preaches. However, it should be noted that large numbers of Muslims, especially in Africa, South Asia (India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh), and Southeast Asia (Indonesia) are essentially syncretistic in their belief system, having adopted Islam through the medium of Sufism. This syncretism has allowed these large numbers of Muslims to engage many practices and beliefs that are not necessarily compatible with normative Islam. Vis-à-vis Judaism and Christianity, Islam is supersessionist and has appropriated the sacred history of the Bible and modified the stories of the important biblical figures (usually called prophets in Islam but not necessarily identical to those referred to as prophets in the Bible) so that in the Qur’anic narratives they are made to preach the message of Islam. The principal differences between Islam and Christianity focus first on the figure of Jesus, who in Islam is merely a prophet who heralds the coming of Muhammad. Additionally, Jesus is believed to have not been crucified but lifted into heaven. Other key differences include the rejection of the doctrine of original sin in Islam and the role of the law (Shari‘ah) in the process of salvation (as opposed to grace).

Bibliography. D. Brown, A New Introduction to Islam; F. Denny, An Introduction to Islam; J. Esposito, Islam: The Straight Path; I. Goldziher, Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law; F. Rahman, Islam; Rahman, Major Themes of the Qur’an; A. Rippin, Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices; D. Waines, An Introduction to Islam.

D. B. Cook

ISLAM, ESCHATOLOGY OF. Islamic eschatology is divided into two very distinct types: that which is concerned with this world (malahim and fitan) and that which is concerned with the next (e.g., the day of resurrection, the day of judgment, heaven and hell). The eschatological sense of the Qur’an is very well developed, with themes implying that the end of the world will be cataclysmic and is imminent. However, the events on earth leading up to this cataclysm are not very well developed in the Qur’an, and one has to rely on the tradition literature (hadith) for most of the basic themes.

Historical Background. Apocalyptic historical traditions revolve around the battles that the Muslims fought with the Byzantine Empire (seventh through ninth centuries) and stem from the frustration felt by Muslims at their inability to conquer Constantinople, the empire’s capital. These traditions also reflect the fears of the Syrian Muslims that the Byzantines would be able to reconquer the region of Syria. Concurrent with these traditions are historical traditions about the numerous civil wars (fitan) that wracked the Muslim world for its first two hundred years. It is from this period that we find the various competing groups using messianic propaganda for their political ends.

The Mahdi. The messianic figure is called the mahdi (the rightly guided one). Traditions concerning his identity can be divided into two strands: an Arab strand, which emphasizes his Arab heritage and descent from Muhammad (usually directly but sometimes from his tribe, the Quraysh), and a universalist strand, which emphasizes that he can be from any ethnicity or genealogy but must be the best possible Muslim at his time. The first, Arab, strand is promoted by Shi‘ites, who hold their Twelfth Imam (occulted in 874) to be the mahdi and look for his future revelation, as well as by many Sunnis who look to the descendants of Muhammad’s elder grandson, al-Hasan, to provide a candidate descended from him (today the royal families of Jordan and Morocco). The second strand is held only by Sunnis who embrace a universalist interpretation of Islam and has contributed to the appearance of a wide range of mahdi claimants throughout Muslim history.

Jesus in Islamic Eschatology. Jesus’s role in the messianic future is controversial. As Jesus is held to have been lifted bodily into heaven from the cross (Qur’an 4:157), there is a concurrent tradition (not Qur’anic) that he will return. Frequently the tradition literature holds him to be a messianic figure and can even identify him as the mahdi in early materials. But in general Jesus’s reappearance is more closely connected to fighting the antichrist (the dajjal), who will appear either during the reign of the mahdi or slightly before it. The dajjal is usually said to be a monstrous figure, with one eye, and with the word infidel (kafir) written on his forehead. He will attempt to lead the entire world astray, using miracles that are parodies of those of Jesus (healing the sick, supplying food, raising the dead, etc.). Only a few Muslims will be able to withstand this temptation. At the last extremity, Jesus will appear, descending on either Jerusalem or Damascus, fight the dajjal and kill him, and then live out the rest of his life as a Muslim (while inducing Jews and Christians to convert to Islam).

The Islamic Messianic Age. The messianic age in Islam is characterized as a repeat of the ideal age of the conquests, when wealth was plentiful and there was a constant influx of people and territories into the world of Islam. Messianic citations such as Isaiah 11:6–8 are common within the literature. The mahdi is usually described as a man who will “fill the earth with justice and righteousness just as it had been filled with injustice and unrighteousness” (Wensinck). However, the messianic age in Islam is extremely short, usually said to last between three and nine years, when Gog and Magog (Yajuj wa-Majuj) come from the east to destroy the entire world. These tribes, usually said to be subhuman creatures dwelling in Central Asia, kill everyone in their path and destroy everything. God will kill them using a worm that devours their bodies.

Islamic Day of Judgment. It is difficult to find an apocalypse that takes one beyond these events. There is a break between earthly apocalyptic events and heavenly judgment events. However, it is clear that after the destruction of Gog and Magog, God destroys the earth and causes all humanity to be raised for judgment. This day is frequently described in the Qur’an as the day of judgment or the day of resurrection. Until that point, people who had died would be held preparatory to their judgment, with only a few able to go straight to heaven prior to everyone’s judgment (this category includes prophets, righteous people, and martyrs). On that day, humanity would be resurrected and brought before the throne.

The Role of Jerusalem. In some Islamic literature, this eschatological future would be given the earthly landscape of the city of Jerusalem, in which humanity would be raised in the desert area to the east of the city, brought up to the Mount of Olives, and made to walk on a narrow bridge over the Valley of Kidron (where hell was said to be located in a chasm) to the Haram al-Sharif (Temple Mount) on the other side. The blessed would be able to make this crossing in haste, while the damned would fall off into hell. Art in the Dome of the Rock (also on the Temple Mount) dating from the early Muslim period emphasizes its close connection with paradise, and according to tradition, under the Mosque of Al-Aqsa (located on the south end of the Haram platform) there is a well that gives entrance into paradise.

Stratified Heaven and Hell. Both heaven and hell are divided into several levels, with rewards and punishments accorded to believers and unbelievers on the basis of the level to which they are sent. It is possible for believers to have to suffer for a time in hell in order to expiate their sins, and certain theologians made provisions for unbelieving innocents (children, people who could not have converted to Islam, etc.) to spend eternity in hell while not suffering any punishment.

Conclusion. Much of the eschatological material in Islam is closely related to biblical materials or is in reaction to it. Contemporary interpretations of apocalyptic predictions have been popular throughout the Muslim world and frequently portray contemporary events as having been predicted by classical material, but most of the material covering heaven and hell has not been changed since medieval times.

Bibliography. D. Cook, Contemporary Muslim Apocalyptic Literature; Cook, Studies in Muslim Apocalyptic; M. Fakhry, The Qur’an: A Modern English Version; al-Maqdisi, al-Musharraf b. al-Murajja’, Fada’il Bayt al-Maqdis wa-l-Khalil wa-fada’il al-Sham, edited by O. Livne-Kafri; J. I. Smith and Y. Y. Haddad, The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection; A. J. Wensinck, ed., Concordance et indices de la tradition musulmane.

D. B. Cook

ISSA. Issa (also spelled “Isa”) is the true name of Jesus, according to the Qur’an. Beginning in the late nineteenth century, the name also became a common designation for Jesus among Theosophists and authors of related esoteric religious works—one example is Nicholas Notovitch, author of The Lost Years of Jesus: The Life of St. Issa (1894).

In Islam Issa is given an exalted status among the succession of prophets of Allah. The Qur’an describes him as the virgin-born son of Mary (Maryam) and a miracle worker, and Islamic tradition (hadith) assigns him a unique role in striking down an end-time antichrist figure. But Jesus only appeared to die on the cross, according to the Qur’an; in reality God took him alive up to heaven: “They slew him not, . . . but it appeared so unto them. But God took him up to Himself” (4:157–58). Islam also denies the cardinal Christian doctrines of Jesus’s deity and the atoning value of his death.

Modern Western Theosophical and New Age teachers commonly reject these same central New Testament teachings (except that they do not accept Islam’s semidocetic view that the crucifixion of Jesus was really an illusion) and view Jesus as simply one of many great religious teachers.

Bibliography. C. Glassé, “Jesus,” in The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam; E. C. Prophet, The Lost Years of Jesus: On the Discoveries of Notovitch, Abhedananda, Roerich, and Caspari.

L. Wilson