The Evangelical Dictionary of World Religions

SABBATARIANISM. Sabbatarianism is the belief that the Sabbath (the seventh day of the week), derived from the fourth commandment in the Old Testament, must be observed. This is based on a literalistic understanding of the Bible and the legalistic application of biblical teachings in a Christian context. Within Christianity sabbatarianism sometimes refers to considering Sunday as the Sabbath and transferring the kinds of regulations found within the Jewish Sabbath to the Christian day of worship, Sunday (the first day of the week). In other usages within Christianity, sabbatarianism refers to the doctrine that Christians ought to observe Saturday, not Sunday, as the day of worship and rest.

The early church did not have strict regulations about Sabbath observance. Jesus Christ proclaimed that “the Sabbath was made for man, not man for the Sabbath” (Mark 2:27). Paul denounced those who made Jewish observances such as the Sabbath compulsory for Christians (Gal. 4:4–11; Col. 2:16–17). Unlike Jewish practice, in which one’s activities were circumscribed on the Sabbath, for Christians no one day of the week related to “rest” since Jesus, rather than the Sabbath, gave them the rest of God (Heb. 4:8–10).

The practice of the early church, particularly under the Pauline ministry, was to meet on Sunday for worship (Acts 20:6–12; 1 Cor. 16:2). This custom probably originated due to the resurrection of Jesus on the first day of the week (John 20:1–18) and subsequent appearances by him on this day (John 20:19, 26). Paul did go to synagogue in his travels, but it was for the purpose of evangelism among Jews (Acts 13:14–15; 14:1; 17:17; 18:4), rather than the meeting of Christians.

By the fourth century, Sunday was regarded as equivalent to the Jewish Sabbath, and the prohibiting of ordinary business transactions on Sundays followed. During the Middle Ages, the fourth commandment was kept on Sundays. Yet sabbatarianism was only a minor aspect of medieval Catholicism and even invited the hostility of early reformers such as the Lollards and Martin Luther (1483–1546). The Reformers thought that sabbatarianism functioned as a part of doctrines that upheld the authority of the Catholic Church. Therefore, William Tyndale (1494–1536) and Robert Barnes (1450–1540) argued that there were no particular religious holidays at all because every day is a Sabbath for the Christian. Though Sunday was kept holy by the medieval borough and the medieval diocese and inherited by the Protestants, Sunday sports and church fairs were still permitted after the time of service, making the sabbatarian controversy less significant.

Saturday Sabbath keeping was practiced by some Socinians in Transylvania in Hungary. But its general popularity was of English origin during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when sabbatarianism began to gain strength. Separatist Puritans protested against the keeping of saints’ days and drew attention to the strict observation of Sunday as the Sabbath. Most Puritans regarded it not only as a holy day to be kept but also as one that ought to be spent as a holy day of rest.

During the reigns of Henry VIII (1509–47) and Edward VI (1547–53), the Anglican Church, which preserved traditions found in Catholicism, took a middle ground between the Catholic and the early Puritan position. It was not until the reign of Elisabeth I (1558–1603) that sabbatarianism was mobilized. Only after an incident in London involving bearbaiting on Sunday, January 13, 1583, when eight people were killed, did John Field (d. 1588) warn against Sabbath breaking after he equated Sunday with the Jewish Sabbath. The queen vetoed a bill for the strict observance of the Sabbath in 1585, and fairs, sports, and other secular activities were permitted and widely practiced.

Puritan magistrates tried to enforce a stricter observance of Sunday, regarding it as a Sabbath, and Lancelot Andrewes (1555–1626) wrote a comprehensive theological treatise on the fourth commandment from a moral perspective that was frequently adopted by later Puritans. Following Andrewes, Richard Greenham (1535–94) wrote a Treatise of the Sabbath (1592), and Nicholas Bownde (d. 1613), Greenham’s son-in-law, entered the fray with his The Doctrine of the Sabbath (1595). Though Bownde’s book was banned, it circulated widely and stirred controversy between the Stuart Crown and the Puritan-dominated Parliament. The Book of Sports (1618), issued by James I (r. 1603–25), intensified the Sabbath debate, regulating the playing of harmless games and maintaining sobriety on Sunday. The Saturday Sabbath movements of John Traske (1585–1636), Theophilus Brabourne (1590–1661), and Henry Jessey (d. 1660) were crucial steps in moving sabbatarianism toward developing into organized religious sects.

Sabbatarianism was later transplanted to American soil and became widespread in the nineteenth century, with both Sunday and Saturday sabbatarian movements. While the Sunday sabbatarian movement tried to secure Sunday as a holy Sabbath, Saturday sabbatarianism developed into sectarian movements. The most important of these is the Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) Church, which was influenced by the Seventh-Day Baptists.

After the Millerite “Great Disappointment” of October 22, 1844, when William Miller’s prediction of the second coming of Jesus failed, Ellen G. White (1827–1915), one of Miller’s followers, helped found the SDA Church, stressing the Sabbath and the “cleansing of the heavenly sanctuary.” Joseph Bates (1792–1872), a retired sea captain, was instrumental in the theological articulation of the SDA views about the Sabbath. Convinced that Christians must obey God’s law, particularly the seventh-day Sabbath, he made the unhistorical claim that the early church observed the seventh day as the Sabbath before Sunday was observed after the edict of Constantine.

This sabbatarian impulse influenced a new breed of religious groups around the world. Victor Houteff (1886–1955), who taught at a Sabbath school, founded the Shepherd’s Rod. It was renamed the Davidian Seventh-day Adventists in 1942. From this group, Benjamin Roden (d. 1978) formed the Branch Davidians, which came under the leadership of David Koresh (1959–93), leading to the Waco tragedy.

The Church of God, another Adventist splinter group, abandoned most of White’s teachings except for her seventh-day doctrine. In 1933 Herbert W. Armstrong (1892–1986) founded the Worldwide Church of God, a staunch Saturday Sabbath group.

In South Korea, the World Mission Society Church of God was founded by Ahn Sahng-hong in 1964 after he left the SDA Church. Preaching “Restore the Early Church’s Truth, revive the Early Church’s Faith and redeem the whole world,” this church heavily focuses on the keeping of the Saturday Sabbath. It has claimed that the church ought to be the “Witness of Ahnsahnghong” since its founder came to be regarded as the true God and his teachings those of “the last Christ.” In South Africa, the Church of amaNazaretha, the largest Zulu African Independent Church, founded by Isaiah Shembe (1867–1935) around 1911, like many other African Independent Churches, also observes the Old Testament Sabbath as God’s holy day.

Sabbatarianism is rooted in a professedly literal interpretation of the Bible that fails to distinguish between the old and the new covenants. John Edward Carnell offers a telling biblical critique, arguing that such movements betray the hermeneutical principle by converting Old Testament ceremonies into New Testament principles and privileging Jewish tradition against the development of Christian understanding. Although evangelical Protestants continue to hold somewhat differing views of the Sabbath, the extreme, dogmatic Saturday-only sabbatarianism of many Adventist sects is clearly contrary to the Bible.

Bibliography. D. D. Barrett, The New Believers: Sects, “Cults” and Alternative Religions; E. J. Carnell, The Case for Orthodox Theology; D. A. Carson, ed., From Sabbath to Lord’s Day; C. J. Donato, ed., Perspectives on the Sabbath: 4 Views; W. A. Elwell, “Lord’s Day” and “Sabbath,” in Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible, vol. 2; R. R. John, “Taking Sabbatarianism Seriously: The Postal System, the Sabbath, and the Transformation of American Political Culture,” Journal of the Early Republic; D. S. Katz, Sabbath and Sectarianism in Seventeenth-Century England.

C. H. Kim

SACRAMENTS. The term sacrament comes from the Latin sacramentum, meaning “make holy,” and refers to a sacred event, rite, or ritual provided to the church. Historically, Christianity has believed the sacraments were handed down from Jesus to the apostles and from the apostles to the church. Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Anglicans, Lutherans, Reformed churches, and other traditions hold at least two, and as many as seven, sacraments (though some Protestants would substitute the word ordinance for sacrament).

Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. Eastern Orthodoxy and the Roman Catholic Church have historically viewed the sacraments as the media through which Christ dispenses grace to the faithful. There are seven sacraments, divided into three categories: those of initiation into the church (baptism; confirmation, called Chrismation in the East; and Eucharist), those of healing (penance and anointing of the sick), and the sacraments of communion and of service (holy orders and matrimony). Baptism is the sacrament that washes away the stain of original sin and signifies the catechumen’s entry into the life of God. All sin is forgiven through baptism, and after baptism nothing remains to inhibit the catechumen’s salvation. Justification is thus given at baptism, which allows for faith and the desire to submit to the Holy Spirit’s leadership.

Confirmation bestows on the neophyte the Holy Spirit’s presence in him or her. It follows baptism and completes baptismal grace (in the East it is done at the time of baptism). The person who receives the sacrament of confirmation expresses the will to live a full life of discipleship, which entails living in obedience to Christ and consistently witnessing to his glory both in and out of the church. The anointing with chrism on the neophyte’s forehead confers the sacrament.

The Eucharist represents the apex of the life of the church because through it the church identifies with Christ in his sacrifice. Christ himself, according to Eastern and Roman teaching, ministers the eucharistic sacrifice through the mediation of priests. While the Eastern Orthodox Church has historically affirmed the physical presence of Christ in the Eucharist, in the Roman Catholic Church, the Council of Trent emphasized that the elements of the Eucharist become the literal body, blood, soul, and divinity of Christ through the act of transubstantiation—that the wheat bread and grape wine mystically transform into the literal body and blood of Jesus. No person may receive communion unless he or she is in a state of grace and have committed no mortal sin.

Penance is the sacrament through which the forgiveness of sins committed after baptism is given. This sacrament is also known as that of conversion, confession, or reconciliation. It involves genuine regret for sins committed, repentance, confession to a priest, and the intention to perform works of reparation. Works of reparation are done so that the person may reinvigorate a will to live obediently. The effects of penance include reconciliation with the church, forgiveness of sins both eternally and temporally, the cleansing of one’s conscience, and a renewal of desire to live as a Christian.

Anointing of the sick is given to those who face illness or imminent death. The sacrament is conferred in order to strengthen the person to endure suffering for Christ’s sake, to restore health, and/or to prepare for passing over to the Father.

Holy orders is the sacrament bestowed on any Christian who seeks to carry out the mission of Christ and the church. It is seen as an aspect of the apostolic succession because Christ entrusted his mission to the apostles and to succeeding generations of the faithful. The episcopate, the presbyterate, and the diaconate are the three degrees of the sacrament. Thus the priesthood of ministers differs from the common priesthood of the faithful because divine power to serve the church has been conferred on ministers. This service entails teaching, worship, and pastoral governance. Holy orders are given only to baptized men.

Marriage signifies the union of Christ with the church and provides the husband and wife with the grace to love and be faithful to each other as Christ displays love and faithfulness to his bride. Remarriage after divorce is permitted, but the two spouses are not allowed to receive communion. Still, the sacrament of marriage is intended to edify the Christian home, the domestic church, where children grow in the heritage of the Lord.

Anglicanism. The Anglican Church originally held substantially the same view of the sacraments as the Roman Catholic Church, from which it broke in 1534. However, owing to the influence of the Protestant Reformation, the Anglican Church now teaches that the sacraments are “certain sure witnesses, and effectual signs of grace, and God’s good will towards us” that “strengthen and confirm our Faith in Him” (Church of England, Article 25). It rejects transubstantiation in regard to the Eucharist but upholds infant baptism. Although it affirms seven sacraments, the Anglican Church only acknowledges baptism and the Eucharist as being instituted by Christ.

Lutheranism. The Lutheran Church follows Martin Luther’s teachings that there are only two sacraments, baptism and the Lord’s Supper, although sometimes absolution is included as a third. Further, although Luther taught the necessity of faith for salvation, he taught that the sacraments are means by which the believer secures the promise of grace. Luther also rejected transubstantiation but argued that Christ was somehow present “in, under, and through” the elements, and this presence is called “the real presence of Christ,” a mystery in which the elements, though true bread and wine, nonetheless have the real presence of Christ’s flesh and blood transmitted through his divine nature.

Calvinism and Reformed Churches. Calvin taught that there are only two sacraments, baptism and the Lord’s Supper. The sacraments are “an external sign, by which the Lord seals on our consciences his promises of good-will toward us, in order to sustain the weakness of our faith, and we in our turn testify our piety towards him” (4.14.1).

Other Groups. Some Christian groups, such as Baptists (in general) and Pentecostals, do not practice sacraments but call baptism and Communion “ordinances” (arguing that Christ ordained them) and do not see them as having any specific spiritual benefit. Still others—generally within certain Brethren, Pentecostal, and Holiness groups—will add an ordinance called “foot washing,” based on John 13:1–17 and 1 Timothy 5:10.

Bibliography. John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, translated by H. Beveridge; Church of England, Thirty-Nine Articles; W. Grudem, Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine; Libreria Editrice Vaticana, Catechism of the Catholic Church; G. Wainwright and K. B. Westerfield Tucker, eds., The Oxford History of Christian Worship.

J. D. Wilsey and H. W. House

SACRED FIRE. In Zoroastrianism a sacred fire is a ritual conflagration that symbolizes the holy light of Ahura Mazda and the cosmic struggle against the forces of evil. The prophet Zoroaster (Greek; Persian, Zarathushtra) described sacred fire as the source of all goodness, purity, and spiritual illumination and as the metaphysical ground of unity between God and human beings. There are three major types of sacred fires:

1. Atash Dadgah (fire of the appointed place) is a temporary fire intended to burn only during a particular Zoroastrian ceremony, often in the household of a devotee.

2. Atash Adaran (fire of fires) is a permanent fire that burns in a minor fire temple, monitored and kindled by a group of Zoroastrian priests appointed to this task.

3. Atash Behram (fire of victory) is a continuous fire that represents divine kingship and burns in a major fire temple. (Starting an Atash Behram [or Bahram] poses extreme logistical problems in that one of its requirements is that it be made from the cinders of 1,001 fires, including at least one fire that was ignited by a bolt of lightning.)

Zoroastrian theology declares that Ahura Mazda created three great fires—Adur Burzen-Mihr, Adur Farnbag, and Adur Gushnasp—as a means of protecting humanity and establishing true religion and worship. Popular Zoroastrianism in modern Iran contends that this trio of fires (also known as the royal fires) have existed since the time Ahura Mazda created the world.

Sacred fire has been a defining symbol of Zoroastrianism throughout its history. According to some scholars, a proto-Zoroastrian fire cult appears to have predated Zoroastrianism by several centuries. There is archaeological evidence that Zoroastrian fire temples were built to house sacred fires as early as 500 BC and continued to be built across much of Asia for more than a thousand years. However, Islamic invasions of Persia (modern Iran) and India during the Middle Ages resulted in the destruction of many of these temples; during these assaults many Zoroastrians were forced to transport sacred fires from one location to another to avoid having them snuffed out by their Muslim conquerors. (Some historians of Zoroastrianism believe that sacred fires may still exist that have burned continuously for more than two thousand years.) As of 2017 only eight known Atash Beahrams remained in existence in India (and possibly one in Iran; there is variance among sources). However, adherents of Zoroastrianism have constructed fire temples (atash kadehs) at a number of locations throughout the US, including New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, DC. Non-Zoroastrians are not allowed to enter most of these temples.

Ritual implements used in many sacred fire ceremonies include a metal vase in which the fire burns (afrinagan), a cloth mask (covering the nostrils and mouth) worn by participants to prevent the sacred fumes from being ritually contaminated by their breath, a bundle of twigs (barsom) held in a moon-shaped metal stand (mah-ruy), and ritual tongs (chipyo) and a ritual ladle (chamach) for tending the fire. During these ceremonies, the priest often recites the “litany to fire” (Atash Nyayesh) while worshipers place sandalwood or frankincense in the fire.

See also HINDUISM

Bibliography. V. Balu, The Glory of Puttaparthi; Tal Brooke, Avatar of Night; Brooke, Riders of the Cosmic Circuit.

A. W. Barber

SALVATION, EVANGELICAL VIEW OF. Soteriology is one of several divisions of systematic theology that deals specifically with the Christian doctrine of salvation. It is concerned with all aspects of God’s redemptive plan by which a person is reconciled with him. One of the more specific descriptions in Scripture of God’s work of redemption is found in Ephesians 1:1–14, which details the participation of the Trinity in the work in salvation. The plan of redemption begins with God the Father, who has chosen his elect before the foundation of the world (Eph. 1:4) and predestined them to be adopted as sons (Eph. 1:5). It is not any merit on our part that influences God’s election but rather his good pleasure. The will of God in salvation is carried out by the obedience of Jesus Christ, who willingly took on human flesh (incarnation) and submitted himself to the will of the Father. Christ obediently gave himself up as the sacrificial lamb to die on the cross as a perfect sacrifice for the sins of humankind. The final work of salvation is accomplished by the Holy Spirit, who indwells and seals the elect and is the guarantee of our inheritance.

The Necessity of Salvation. Humanity’s need for salvation originates in the garden of Eden. Humanity was created in a state of perfection, which logically follows from the fact that God, being perfect in his nature, could only create that which is in a state of perfection. However, unlike God, human beings had the capacity to be corrupted (sin) by an act of their will. Genesis 3 records the account of humanity’s temptation and eventual fall. Humanity’s sin, being utterly offensive to a holy God, separated human beings from God and put them at enmity with him. As a result of Adam’s sin, all his posterity suffers the consequences of sin, which are spiritual and physical death. Romans 5:12 explains that because of the sin of one man (Adam), death would be passed to all, which is the imputation of Adam’s sin.

The enmity that exists between God and humanity is not passive but active according to Romans 1:18, which states that humanity is the object of God’s wrath. Paul uses two important terms to explain our fallen state and then proceeds to describe how that state is exhibited in human attitude and actions, thus incurring condemnation by God. First, humanity is in a state of ungodliness, which refers to our irreverence toward or total disregard for God. Our irreligious behavior is manifested in our rejection of God and ultimate demise into idolatry, the worshiping of that which is made (Rom. 1:21–25). This is an extraordinary reversal of the natural order. In Genesis 1 and 2 humanity, as male and female, was told to subdue and have dominion over the earth. However, as a result of the fall, human beings now corrupt that mandate and subject themselves to creation.

The second term, unrighteousness, refers to behavior that flows from and is consistent with a state of ungodliness. In Romans 1:26–32, Paul completes his argument by describing the specific nature of human unrighteousness. Men and women engage in abominable acts, namely, homosexuality, as well as a lengthy list of other sinful acts that are irrefutable proof that humanity is truly depraved and in need of redemption.

The Provision of Salvation. God is holy and just, which means he cannot allow sin to go unpunished. However, God is also loving and merciful, and in his mercy he has made provision for the salvation of his elect. Given the fact that human beings are by nature sinful, we do not have the capacity to save ourselves. The unblemished sacrifice God righteously requires as an appeasement (propitiation) for sin is the only means by which salvation, or the work of redemption, can be accomplished (Rom. 5:1–11).

Scripture is clear that works of righteousness by human beings cannot save; they are saved exclusively by the work of Christ, who is the object of the gospel (John 14:6). Human beings appropriate saving faith in Christ (Eph. 2:8–9) by means of the Holy Spirit’s convicting work (John 3:5–6; 2 Thess. 2:13; Titus 3:5).

The Elements of Salvation. The wrath of God exhibited toward humanity due to sin requires propitiation, or appeasement. Atonement is the payment demanded by God in order to achieve satisfaction. In the Old Testament, Israel atoned for its sins by offering an unblemished animal. However, this sacrifice was temporary, a prefiguration of the ultimate sacrifice of Christ on the cross as the once-and-for-all atonement. Salvation involves a number of particular elements.

1. Redemption is an act of deliverance, which in humanity’s case is deliverance from the bondage of sin (Rom. 3:24; Eph. 1:7).

2. Regeneration is the inward transformation of the person by the power of the Holy Spirit (John 3:4–7).

3. Justification is a legal or penal metaphor with reference to a law court. By application it means the repentant sinner is no longer guilty before God. Justification is like a pardon in the sense that the elect of God are no longer guilty of sin but stand before God clothed in the righteousness of Christ (Rom. 4:21–24).

4. Reconciliation brings peace with God, a restoration to fellowship that was lost as a result of sin (Rom. 5:7–11).

5. The word adoption describes the relationship those who have been regenerated have with God. It is the apex of redemptive grace and privilege, denoting a legal act or transfer from the family of the world into the family of God (Rom. 8:14–23; Gal. 3:26–4:7; Eph. 1:5; Rev. 21:7).

6. Sanctification is the act of setting the redeemed apart from the world for the purpose of living a life of obedience to God. There is positional sanctification, which takes place at the moment of salvation. Progressive sanctification is the ongoing work of God in the believer, who, in obedience to God, continues to grow and mature spiritually (Heb. 5:11–14). Final sanctification, or glorification, is accomplished at the resurrection of the dead when the believer’s spiritual essence is reunited with the person’s glorified body (1 Cor. 15).

One of the most explicit, foundational statements regarding the gospel appears in 1 Corinthians 15:1–4. Paul reminds the Corinthians that at one time they received, stood in, and were saved by the gospel he preached. The gospel he passed on as of primary importance consisted of Christ’s death (atonement) for our sins, his burial, and his resurrection. The gospel Paul preached is the proclamation of the death, burial, and resurrection of Jesus Christ, which includes the understanding that we must repent of our sins.

The Event of Salvation. The efficient cause of salvation is God, who initiates salvation internally by free grace alone (Titus 3:5), the external cause being the merit and intercession of Christ (John 17:20). The act of regeneration is solely by the power of God, who enables the mind to understand the things of God, who then moves the will to freely respond to the truth. The instrumental cause is the word of God (John 17:17; Rom. 10:17; Eph. 5:26; 2 Tim. 3:15; 1 Pet. 1:23), resulting in (final cause) salvation (justification, etc.) (2 Thess. 2:13) and the glorification of God (1 Pet. 2:9).

The logical starting point in the salvation event is the mind. In Romans 10:2, Paul expresses concern for his countrymen who seek after God, but not according to knowledge. The movement to salvation is cognitive, which proceeds to an act of the will, as moved by God, to assent to the truth of the gospel. Both the cognitive and the volitional aspects of salvation culminate in trust in Christ and a turning away (repentance) from sin in order to walk in the newness of life (2 Cor. 5:17).

Schools of Thought. There are two major Protestant schools of thought regarding the work of God on behalf of humanity. These two schools, Arminianism and Calvinism, differ on a number of issues, namely, their understanding of human depravity, election, predestination, and eternal security.

Arminianism is synergistic (from Greek, synergos, the idea of mutual cooperation) in its soteriology, holding to the view that human beings and God cooperate together in the process of salvation. Arminianism teaches that humans have libertarian free will and can choose to either accept or reject the free offer of salvation. Classic Arminianism is derived from the writings of Jacob Arminius and teaches that the atonement is unlimited; grace is resistible; the gospel is freely offered to all, not just the elect; one must persevere to the end; and humanity is totally depraved. It rejects Pelagianism (which claims that humanity has not been corrupted by original sin and does have the capacity, apart from prevenient grace, to live a spiritually successful life) and semi-Pelagianism (the view that humanity, though corrupted by sin, can initiate salvation). Some strains of Arminianism do embrace Pelagian or semi-Pelagian views of humanity and salvation, but these extreme views are considered heretical by classic Arminians.

Within the classic Arminian camp, more and more Christians are embracing the teachings of Luis de Molina, commonly known as Molinism. Popularized by William Lane Craig, Molinism teaches that God in his foreknowledge knows who will embrace the gospel if given the opportunity, so the elect are all individuals who freely embrace the gospel. Middle knowledge is also an important feature of Molinism. It is the view that God in his foreknowledge knows every possible choice a person will make.

Opposite Arminianism and a synergistic approach to salvation is Calvinism, which embraces monergism (Greek, monergon, which means a single agent, God, acts independently of any human agent), the view that God alone is the sole agent in salvation. Man does not have the capacity to initiate salvation or the free will to reject the effectual call. The acronym TULIP consists of five doctrines that epitomize classic Calvinism. Man is totally depraved (T); believers are unconditionally elect (U); the atonement is limited to the elect (L), though there are Calvinists who reject limited atonement for unlimited atonement (Amyraldianism); the saving grace effective in the elect is irresistible (I); and the elect are eternally secure—that is, they will persevere in the faith until the end (P).

Within evangelicalism are those who believe that certain Arminian and Calvinist doctrinal views are not supported by Scripture. Moderate Arminians believe that the elect are those who freely embrace the gospel and that the ability to reject or accept salvation resides in the exercise of free will, so grace can be resisted, but they believe in eternal security. Moderate Calvinists question the extent of the atonement.

Though classical Calvinists and Arminians regard these mediating positions as illegitimate, they nevertheless continue to be a widespread view within evangelicalism.

Nature of Saving Faith. Within the evangelical community, there has been considerable debate over the nature of saving faith and specifically its relation to obedience. On one hand, there is what is popularly known as “lordship salvation,” which stresses profession of faith and submission to the lordship of Jesus Christ in order to show genuine salvation. The distinguishing characteristic of this view is the believer’s willing obedience to the call of Christ. Those who are truly born again will follow Christ as faithful disciples, exhibiting the evidence of faith by their good works (James 2:19–25). Opponents of lordship salvation charge that this approach is essentially works salvation, an accusation rejected by lordship adherents.

One of the better-known proponents of the lordship view is John MacArthur, pastor of Grace Community Church in Southern California. MacArthur says:

The gospel Jesus proclaimed was a call to discipleship, a call to follow Him in submissive obedience, not just a plea to make a decision or pray a prayer. Jesus’ message liberated people from the bondage of their sin while it confronted and condemned hypocrisy. It was an offer of eternal life and forgiveness for repentant sinners, but at the same time it was a rebuke to outwardly religious people whose lives were devoid of true righteousness. It put sinners on notice that they must turn from sin and embrace God’s righteousness. It was in every sense good news, yet it was anything but easy-believism. (21)

Opposite the lordship camp are those who adhere to what is commonly known as “free grace” theology. This group takes a minimalist approach to salvation, arguing that a simple profession of faith in Christ is sufficient to guarantee eternal life. While repentance is necessary for turning away from one’s sins, it is not necessary for salvation, for only true faith is salvific. As for sanctification, one need not exhibit faithful obedience to Christ as evidence of salvation, so justification and sanctification are essentially stand-alone, distinct works of grace. The true believer can live a life of disobedience to Christ and suffer only the loss of rewards on the day of judgment.

Cognitive Content of Saving Faith. Another controversial question in evangelical teachings about salvation is the issue of the necessary or minimal content of the gospel message. This question concerns the extent to which one must know and accept gospel facts and doctrines in order to be saved. Unfortunately, there is no uniform agreement or consensus on this issue. Some evangelicals argue that one must clearly believe in the deity of Jesus Christ in order to be saved. Some include belief in the Trinity or Christ’s substitutionary atonement as a condition for salvation. Others argue that believers can be saved without first gaining adequate understanding of such doctrines, though such understanding should follow conversion in due time.

From the time of J. Gresham Machen to the present, evangelicals continue to struggle with the question, “What is the content of the gospel that saves?” If someone fails to acknowledge Jesus as Lord, is that person saved? Is mere affirmation of the deity of Christ sufficient? If a person’s Christology is flawed, is salvation possible? Is salvation belief in Christ’s atoning work, repentance of sins, and trust in his resurrection? This issue poses a greater challenge to Arminians than to Calvinists, for within Arminianism there is the potential for one to embrace a false gospel, given that salvation is not exclusively the sovereign work of God but involves both the call of God and the cooperation of human beings. Since individuals are responsible for either accepting or rejecting saving faith, the responsibility is also on each person to know the content of the gospel.

In Calvinism the process of salvation is exclusively the work of God, which logically includes the content of the gospel message. So it would be impossible for the elect to embrace any variation of the gospel that is not efficacious. Just as God initiates the work of salvation and sovereignly carries it through to completion, by necessity God also enables the elect to appropriate a correct knowledge of the gospel.

Whether one is an Arminian or a Calvinist, the fact that evangelicals cannot arrive at a consensus regarding what one must believe in order to be saved poses a problem with respect to other faiths that share similar minimalist beliefs. Within the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Mormon theologians such as Stephen Robinson and Robert Millet believe that Jesus Christ is God (though not in an orthodox trinitarian sense), died for the sins of humankind, and was resurrected in a literal, physical body. Millet in particular says that salvation resides in Christ, and those who want to be saved come to him by faith, repentance, and baptism; receive the Holy Spirit; and persevere to the end. For those evangelicals who embrace a minimalist view of what one must know and believe to be saved, it would be difficult to argue that Millet and anyone else with a similar belief is not a true believer.

Salvation and Those Who Have Never Heard. This difficult issue typically involves two factors: geographical location and cultural conditioning. Geographically speaking, there are lost people in regions that have never been penetrated by the gospel. Because of the lack of physical proximity to, or potential for, sources of the gospel, it is argued that God would be unjust to consign people in such situations to eternal reprobation.

Proposed solutions to this problem are inclusivism, exclusivism, and pluralism. Inclusivism teaches that God in his mercy and grace will save people on the basis of what they are capable of knowing, particularly with respect to natural theology, or knowledge of God derived from creation (Rom. 1:19–20). Though salvation in Scripture is contingent on one’s knowledge of and response to Christ, the inclusivists believe that those who have never heard can nevertheless be saved on the basis of whatever revelation they have received. Some inclusivists believe that for those who have never heard, at death God will give them the opportunity to accept or reject Christ.

Unlike inclusivism, exclusivism firmly believes that a specific knowledge of and faith in Jesus Christ is essential to salvation, thus ruling out the possibility of salvation through any other means.

The third option is pluralism, the belief that God has made himself known through many different religions and that those who are sincere in their beliefs will be saved. In other words, there are many paths to God, and no one religious system is superior to or better than another.

Inclusivism and exclusivism are typically found within the evangelical community, whereas pluralism is predominant within liberal theologies. For Arminians the salvation of those who have never heard is possible by means of either specific knowledge of Christ or the extent of God’s revelation to that person. The Molinist perspective argues that God in his foreknowledge knows who would believe if presented with the gospel. Therefore, God will make sure that those potential believers are able to encounter the gospel.

Within Calvinist theology, the salvation of those who have never heard, regardless of geographical or cultural circumstances, is exclusively the sovereign work of God. So any alleged geographical or cultural limitations or obstacles are moot.

There is no one definitive evangelical position on salvation, for within the two main schools of thought, Calvinism and Arminianism, there exist variations on such issues as eternal security, limited or unlimited atonement, what one must specifically believe in order to be saved, inclusivism or exclusivism, and so on. In spite of these particular variations, mainstream evangelicalism does embrace some level of the depravity of man, God as the efficient cause of salvation, Christ as having made atonement for sin, and salvation by grace alone.

Bibliography. J. Arminius, The Works of James Arminius; T. Burke, Adopted into God’s Family; J. Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion; Z. Hodges, The Gospel under Seige; A. Hoekema, Saved by Grace; M. Luther, Bondage of the Will; J. MacArthur, The Gospel according to Jesus; R. Olson, Arminian Theology; J. I. Packer, “The Means of Conversion,” Crux; T. R. Schreiner and B. A. Ware, eds., Still Sovereign; M. Seifrid, Christ, Our Righteousness; J. R. W. Stott, The Cross of Christ.

S. J. Rost

SAMADHI. In Sanskrit samadhi literally means “to acquire wholeness,” or “even intellect.” Samadhi is a state of deep concentration achieved through meditation, in which object consciousness dissipates and finally the distinction between the subject and the object (duality) is obliterated.

Samadhi is one of the three trainings of Buddhism, along with ethics and wisdom. Buddhists seek to cultivate samadhi as exercising skillful means in all they do; hence, one can talk of the samadhi of a Zen koan or the samadhi of bodhisattva action.

The word samadhi also appears in late Hinduism. Samadhi is said to be the goal of yoga, when one’s consciousness becomes one with reality and achieves a state of stillness. In some forms of Hinduism, it is the term used euphemistically for death, with the idea that the person has willfully departed from his physical body. It can also refer to a mausoleum for honored gurus.

Bibliography. B. Nyanatiloka Mahathera, Buddhist Dictionary: Manual of Buddhist Terms & Doctrines.

H. P. Kemp

SAMSARA. Samsara is the self-perpetuated cycle of death and rebirth in Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism. In this series of reincarnations, a person’s karma (the combined spiritual effects of his ethical actions in previous lives) makes reincarnation necessary and determines what form (insect, reptile, human, hell being, god, etc.) or social caste that person is reborn into (though the details of this vary among the religions in which samsara plays a role). Sometimes samsara refers to the temporal, changing dimension of reality (usually identified with the physical world), the false perception of which results from ignorance regarding the true nature of existence. Release from the bondage of samsara is the highest objective of those who seek enlightenment and liberation.

See also BUDDHISM; HINDUISM; JAINISM; SIKHISM

Bibliography. M. D. Coogan, The Illustrated Guide to World Religions; R. H. Roberts, India: Religion and Philosophy.

M. Power

SANGHA. In Sanskrit and Pali, sangha means “assembly” or “community,” referring to the community of adherents in Buddhism. Sangha is one of the “Three Jewels” in which a Buddhist “takes refuge,” together with the Buddha and the dharma. In Theravada Buddhism, sangha consists of the male monastic community. In Mahayana schools, it consists in the first place of all the Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and great masters; secondarily, of the monks and nuns; and, finally, of all adherents. A sangha can be lineage specific (e.g., master-disciple relationship) and often refers to the residents or members at a Buddhist center or temple. The firstborn male is sometimes offered to the monastic sangha to be raised in some traditions. The monastic sangha is traditionally viewed by the laity as the serious practitioners of Buddhism who devote their entire lives to the pursuit of enlightenment, while the laity is resolved to minimize the accumulation of karmic debt in the Theravadan tradition. Hence the sangha is never separated from the laity since material support of the sangha is efficacious in earning karmic merit. In some cultures, it is customary for all males to join a sangha at some point in their lives, although temporarily. This may be after the death of a relative or before marrying.

With Buddhism’s transcultural spread into the West, notions of sangha are changing, including a more democratized structure, a widening of the definition to any community of Buddhists who support one another in spiritual practice (including an increased role for women), and the emergence of an electronic sangha.

For the most part, those who wish to join the monastic sangha must be at least twenty years old, be healthy, be free from debts, have the consent of parents, understand the rules of monastic life, and have some knowledge of Buddhist teachings.

Bibliography. C. S. Prebish and K. K. Tanaka, eds., The Faces of Buddhism in America.

H. P. Kemp

SANKARA. Adi Sankara (also pronounced and spelled Shankara) was an Indian philosopher (AD 788–820) who founded four Hindu monasteries (mathas) to promote his doctrine of Advaita Vedanta (nondualism). Advaita Vedanta is the Hindu doctrine that Brahma, the one unchanging entity in the universe, is all that truly exists. Sankara’s philosophy contended that there is no difference between the world and the individual (and also the Brahma). There is oneness of self with the universe and the universal spirit known as Brahma.

Sankara was a popular debater with rival Hindu teachers, was instrumental in a revival of Hinduism during his day, and was a prominent proponent and teacher in the Vedanta school of Hinduism. He also attacked Buddhism and Jainism. Some of his ideas seem to have been borrowed and modified from Mahayana Buddhism. Scholars of his life and thought argue that his views are closer to a philosophic system of nontheistic dualism. He died while trekking in the Himalayas, but his teaching has had a lasting influence in Hindu intellectual circles, and he is considered one of the “great souls” of India and Hinduism.

His life and thought came into popular Western culture through the movie Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom, in which Indiana Jones is asked to retrieve a mystical stone—a Sankara Stone. In the world of the movie, it was believed that the Hindu god Shiva gave Sankara five sacred stones and charged him to go back into the world and battle evil with them.

Bibliography. A. L. Dallapicolla, Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend.

T. J. Demy

SANKIRTAN, THE HARE KRISHNA PRACTICE OF. Sankirtan is a practice of Hare Krishna devotees that involves publicly chanting of the Hare Krishna mantra (“Hare Krishna, Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna, Hare Hare, Hare Rama, Hare Rama, Rama Rama, Hare Hare”) and distributing literature published by the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON). Adherents of Hare Krishna hand out ISKCON publications frequently since they believe that engaging in such work may result in the liberation of themselves and those to whom they give these materials. ISKCON suffered a well-publicized setback in February 1999 when the US Supreme Court let stand a lower court ruling stating that Hare Krishnas may be barred from selling their publications in airports in the states of Alabama, Georgia, and Florida. Many devotees spend several hours per day chanting, using a string of prayer beads to track their progress. Perhaps the best-known example of sankirtan in the US was the inclusion of the Hare Krishna mantra in George Harrison’s 1970 tune “My Sweet Lord.”

Bibliography. E. F. Bryant and M. L. Ekstrand, The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant; G. Dwyer and R. J. Cole, eds., The Hare Krishna Movement: Forty Years of Chant and Change; A. C. B. Swami Prabhupada, Chant and Be Happy: The Power of Mantra Meditation.

M. Power

SANKIRTANA. Sankirtana, from the Sanskrit san (together) and kirtana (singing the names of a deity), is the practice of singing God’s name, such as Vishnu or Krishna, with divine feeling as an expression of devotion. This practice is said to remove the impurities of the mind, steady the mind, and bring the person face-to-face with the deity. Sankirtana can be found in many of the bhakti movements.

Its origin may be traced back in the Hindu Vaishnava tradition, at least to the devotional revival of the fifteenth century. Later in the sixteenth century, when the ascetic Isvara Puri met Chaitanya Mahaprabhu while on a pilgrimage to Gaya, Puri gave Chaitanya a mahamantra that is used by the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) today. Chaitanya’s life was changed by singing this mantra in the village streets to proclaim his devotion to Krishna—thus, the practice of sankirtana.

Within ISKCON, sankirtana can also refer to the distribution of the group’s literature and to their public preaching about Krishna consciousness.

Bibliography. N. Delmonico, “Chaitanya Vaishnavism and the Holy Names.”

J. Bjornstad

SANNYASA. Meaning “renunciation,” sannyasa is the last of the four idealized stages of life (ashramas) in Hinduism and Indian philosophy. It is normally accessible only to people who belong to the highest, or “twice-born,” social groups (varnas): Brahmin, Kshatriya, and Vaishya. Though not exclusively, this stage generally comes late in an individual’s life, following separated periods of celibate learning, marrying and having children as a householder, and becoming progressively detached from the world and its obligations as a forest dweller. In sannyasa, the fourth and final stage, an individual (the sannyasin) removes attachment to the home and material goods, including all connections with family, to live the rest of life as an ascetic. The renunciation includes a search for fundamental religious truth, specifically liberation from the cycle of birth and rebirth. Usually sannyasa is also preceded by a period of instruction and initiation conveyed by a spiritual leader or religious mentor (guru). Often included in this ceremony is the acceptance of a new name and the transmission of a religious mantra.

See also BRAHMA; HINDUISM; MANTRA; RAMANUJA

Bibliography. L. Dumont, Homo Hierarchicus: The Caste System and Its Implications; Dumont, “World Renunciation in Indian Religions,” Contributions to Indian Sociology; W. Doninger O’Flaherty, Asceticism and Eroticism in the Mythology of Śiva.

T. Aechtner

SAOSHYANT. In Zoroastrianism the term saoshyant (Avestan, “one who will bring benefit”) refers to a coming universal savior—on some accounts the last of three such figures—who will proclaim Ahura Mazda’s message to humanity and bring about a comprehensive renovation of the world. Sent by Ahura Mazda and bearing his divine authority, the saoshyant will be born following the miraculous impregnation of his virgin mother with the seed of Zoroaster (Greek name; Persian, Zarathustra). According to Zoroastrian legend, Zoroaster’s seed is being preserved at the bottom of a lake. The virgin will bathe in the lake and become impregnated by this seed. The man born to this virgin will be called Astvat-ereta (He Who Embodies Righteousness). In keeping with the central role of humanity in the final struggle, the saoshyant will humanly embody righteousness (ashoi) and will lead an army that will defeat the forces of evil in a great, final battle. After this he will play a role in the resurrection of the dead (ristakhiz) and the divine judgment of wickedness. In the Gathas, Zoroaster anticipates an imminent apocalypse, writing of the saoshyant as a central figure in Zoroastrian eschatology.

See also SUFISM

Bibliography. C. Celebi, “Sema: Human Being in the Universal Movement”; L. Vaughan-Lee, Sufism: The Transformation of the Heart.

R. L. Drouhard

SEVENTH-DAY ADVENTISM. Seventh-day Adventism (SDA) grew out of the Millerite movement of the 1840s in the northeastern US. When Jesus failed to return in 1843 and then in 1844 as William Miller had predicted, the group of people who did not return to their churches coalesced and eventually organized the Seventh-day Adventist Church.

The group was founded by James White, a former pastor in the Christian Connexion (a Methodist breakaway group); a staunch antitrinitarian named Joseph Bates, a sea captain who was instrumental in bringing the seventh-day Sabbath to the group; and Ellen Gould White, James’s wife, who received visions and was credited with having the New Testament gift of prophecy. The fledgling group organized around the investigative judgment, a doctrine that validated the 1844 date.

History. Adventism was one of the new religious movements that emerged from the Second Great Awakening of the nineteenth century. The organization grew with the help of the publishing work of James White, which begain in 1846. In 1860 the founders chose the name that defined their two prominent doctrines (namely, Saturday as the Sabbath for Christians and the second coming of Christ), establishing Battle Creek, Michigan, as their early headquarters. In 1874, following Ellen White’s 1872 vision on the proper principles of education, the Adventist educational system was incorporated as the Seventh-day Adventist Educational Society. Also during the 1870s, the Adventists established their medical work, still known today as the “right arm of the message” (Land, 128).

After James White and Joseph Bates died, Ellen White was the dominant voice of the organization. In the 1880s, she visited Europe and helped establish Adventism abroad. In 1888 Adventism experienced a doctrinal crisis when Alonzo Jones and Ellet Waggoner preached “righteousness by faith” at a Bible conference in Minneapolis, Minnesota. The discussion of the relationship between law and grace has never been fully resolved within Adventism (see discussion on internal disagreements below).

Ellen White died in 1915, but as the church grew, leaders looked to her writings for guidance, and the curricula in the denominational schools and Sabbath schools continue to teach members that she is a “messenger” or “prophet” from God, an office that she said included “much more than this name [prophet] signifies” (Selected Messages, 35–36). This teaching continues even though extensive research by Ronald Numbers and Walter Rae, verified also by Adventist-sponsored research, has demonstrated that she plagiarized a large percentage of her work (Rae).

Today the Adventist organization is based in Silver Spring, Maryland. Because of its missionary work, Adventism is growing rapidly worldwide. In 2017 the Seventh-day Adventist Church reported 20,343,814 baptized Adventist members. According to the religious statistical website Adherents.com, as of August 2009 Adventism was the twelfth-largest religious body in the world, exceeding groups such as the Jehovah’s Witnesses and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Moreover, it is the sixth-most-ubiquitous international religious body.

Typically, Adventist “evangelistic” programs do not reveal that they are Seventh-day Adventists. Their Prophecy and Revelation seminars, many of which are produced by denominationally owned It Is Written, are held around the world, and their radio program The Voice of Prophecy is also heard internationally. They offer multiple online and correspondence Bible courses, and they produce multiple magazines and television programs designed to introduce Adventist practices and beliefs. Many independent Adventist ministries also evangelize for the Adventist church. Among these organizations are the television program Amazing Facts and the satellite TV station 3ABN.

Adventist publications include Signs of the Times, Ministry Magazine, Liberty, and The Clear Word, a Bible paraphrase with Adventist doctrines written into the text without citations. The Clear Word is printed and distributed by the denomination. The Andrews Study Bible, based on the New King James Version of the Bible, was released in June 2010, with study notes produced by Adventist scholars and of course reflecting SDA theology.

Beliefs in Common with Historic Christianity. Adventists agree with evangelical Christianity that God is the Creator of all things and that Jesus was born of a virgin, lived a sinless life, died, rose again, and bodily ascended into heaven. They practice baptism by immersion in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, and this baptism is the entrance rite into Seventh-day Adventist membership. Additionally, the Adventist 28 Fundamental Beliefs contains official statements concerning the Trinity, the three persons of the Trinity, and the Scriptures that appear to be orthodox.

Distinctive Beliefs Different from the Historic Church. Unlike the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and Protestant Christianity, including evangelical Christianity, Adventism teaches “soul sleep,” conditional immortality, seventh-day Sabbath-keeping as the sign of the seal of God, worship on Sunday as the mark of the beast, a “great controversy” worldview that sees humanity vindicating God’s character by choosing to obey him in the face of Satan’s accusation to the watching universe that God is unfair, an “investigative judgment,” and a nineteenth-century prophet, Ellen White.

Scripture and Revelation. While their Fundamental Belief 1 states that the word of God is “the standard of character, the test of experience, the authoritative revealer of doctrines, and the trustworthy record of God’s acts in history” (General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists, Seventh-day Adventists Believe, 11), and their Fundamental Belief 18 states, “The Bible is the standard by which all teaching and experience must be tested,” officially Adventists still consider Ellen White to be “a continuing and authoritative source of truth” (General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists, Seventh-day Adventists Believe, 247). As stated above, Adventists view White as a prophetess or messenger from God; they regard her writings as a light that illuminates the light of Scripture.

Doctrine of God. Critics of Seventh-day Adventism emphasize that their doctrine of God is colored by the fact that James White, one of the principal founders of the organization, was antitrinitarian and Arian or semi-Arian. The Clear Word (TCW), a paraphrase of the Bible with Adventist theology written into the text without citations, demonstrates that nontrinitarian theology is still a problem in the SDA Church. John 10:30, ESV, reads, “I and the Father are one.” TCW: “You see, my Father and I are so close, we’re one.” In addition, Adventism shows a strong tendency toward tritheism, seeing the persons of the Trinity as separate beings united into a God-family (Batchelor, 18–21).

Jesus, Sin, and Salvation. Two unique doctrines of Adventists cause evangelicals and other Christians to question their orthodoxy as it relates to Jesus and sin. The first is that Adventists believe that Jesus could have sinned, that his incarnation involved God risking that the Godhead and the universe might spin into “cosmic chaos” if Jesus did sin (Batchelor, 30).

The second doctrinal problem is the Adventist view of salvation based on the “great controversy” paradigm. Central to this understanding is the unique investigative judgment. The investigative judgment (or sanctuary doctrine) is based on the Adventist interpretation of Daniel 8:14 as “clarified” by a vision received by early Adventist Hiram Edson in which he saw Jesus moving from the holy place in the heavenly sanctuary to the holy of holies. The resulting doctrine, endorsed by a confirming vision received by Ellen White, teaches that Jesus’s atonement was not finished on the cross. Rather, his blood provided a means of transferring the sins of those professing Christ into heaven, where they were “stored,” thus defiling the heavenly sanctuary, until Jesus would complete his atonement by investigating the life records of professed believers.

When Jesus finishes investigating, probation will be over. Ellen White said, “Those who are living upon the earth when the intercession of Christ shall cease in the sanctuary above are to stand in the sight of a holy God without a mediator. Their robes must be spotless; their characters must be purified from sin by the blood of sprinkling. Through the grace of God and their own diligent effort they must be conquerors in the battle with evil” (Great Controversy, 425).

At the end of the investigative judgment, Jesus places the confessed sins on the scapegoat, Satan, who will bear them out of heaven into the lake of fire, where he will be punished for them. Thus the sanctuary in heaven will be cleansed.

Many Adventists focus on the aspect of the investigative judgment emphasizing that its purpose is to vindicate God’s character to the watching universe. This idea is embedded in Ellen White’s original writing about the investigative judgment, and Adventist theologians have focused on this facet of the doctrine and have made humanity’s vindication of God’s character the focal point of the judgment.

In 1980 Adventist theologian and professor Desmond Ford presented his research to a group of Adventist leaders and scholars at Glacier View, Colorado, showing conclusively that the investigative judgment is nowhere supported in the Bible (Hook, 236–56). Nevertheless, the organization continues to teach this doctrine, whose only source is the writings of Ellen White. The Adventists’ Fundamental Belief 24 states in part: “The investigative judgment reveals to heavenly intelligences who among the dead are asleep in Christ and therefore, in Him, are deemed worthy to have part in the first resurrection. It also makes manifest who among the living are abiding in Christ, keeping the commandments of God and the faith of Jesus. . . . This judgment vindicates the justice of God in saving those who believe in Jesus (General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists, Seventh-day Adventists Believe, 347–48).

Soul Sleep. Adventists Fundamental Belief 7 states that “each [person] is an indivisible unity of body, mind, and spirit, dependent upon God for life and breath and all else” (General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists, Seventh-day Adventists Believe, 91). Adventists understand the phrase “an indivisible unity of body, mind, and spirit” to be teaching that no part of a human survives death except in the memory of God. They teach that the “spirit” of a human being is merely his or her breath. It is breath, not a conscious essence of a person, that they say returns to God. Seventh-day Adventists Believe states: “Solomon’s statement that the spirit (ruach) returns to God who gave it indicates that what returns to God is simply the life principle that He imparted. There is no indication that the spirit, or breath, was a conscious entity separate from the body” (392). The Amazing Facts Bible study “Are the Dead Really Dead?” states, “God’s people will know from their earnest study of His book that the dead are dead, not alive. Spirits of the dead do not exist.”

Nature of Humanity and Sin. Because of Adventists’ denial of a literal spirit separate from the body that can know and worship God (John 4:24), many Christian theologians believe that Adventists have no clear understanding of the new birth or of depravity. Adventists see the Holy Spirit as informing the mind and giving people the power to keep the commandments. Moreover, they believe that Jesus was exactly as we are, that he inherited fallen flesh from his mother—yet he never sinned. They perceive inherited sin to be transmitted genetically. Therefore, overcoming sin is seen as perfectly keeping the Ten Commandments by accessing enough power from the Holy Spirit to resist temptation. Adventists teach that Jesus was our example, stating in their book Seventh-day Adventists Believe (General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists, 58), “To set the example as to how people should live, Christ must live a sinless life as a human being. As the second Adam, He dispelled the myth that humans cannot obey God’s law and have victory over sin. He demonstrated that it is possible for humanity to be faithful to God’s will.”

The Sabbath. Many contemporary Adventists say that the seventh-day Sabbath is not a requirement for salvation. On the other hand, Adventists believe that obedience to God’s law, including the Sabbath, directly bears on their salvation, and abandoning the Sabbath would be considered blatant disobedience (Paulsen, section 4).

Ellen White established the seventh-day Sabbath as the final test that divides true believers from the lost, and she called it the “seal of God”: “Too late [the enemies of God] see that the Sabbath of the fourth commandment is the seal of the living God” (Great Controversy, 640, emphasis added). Not only did White establish the Sabbath as the seal of God and the mark that identifies those who will be saved; she identified worship on Sunday as being the mark of the beast:

The Sabbath will be the great test of loyalty . . . when the final test shall be brought to bear upon men, then the line of distinction will be drawn between those who serve God and those who serve Him not. While the observance of the false Sabbath in compliance with the law of the state, contrary to the fourth commandment, will be an avowal of allegiance to a power that is in opposition to God, the keeping of the true Sabbath, in obedience to God’s law, is an evidence of loyalty to the Creator. While one class, by accepting the sign of submission to earthly powers, receive the mark of the beast, the other choosing the token of allegiance to divine authority, receive the seal of God. (Great Controversy, 605, emphasis added)

Adventist Fundamental Belief 20 calls the Sabbath “a sign of our sanctification, a token of our allegiance, and a foretaste of our eternal future in God’s kingdom. The Sabbath is God’s perpetual sign of His eternal covenant between Him and His people” (General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists, Seventh-day Adventists Believe, 281). White further wrote, “Then I was shown a company who were howling in agony. . . . I asked who this company were. The angel said, ‘These are they who have once kept the Sabbath, and have given it up’” (Early Writings, 36). Thus Ellen White established the seventh-day Sabbath as the determinant of who will be saved and who will be lost.

Other Distinctive Beliefs. Adventists further believe that during the “time of trouble,” there will be international Sunday laws mandating worship on Sunday and forbidding worship on Saturday. At that time, “Sunday-keepers” will hunt and kill Sabbath-keepers (White, Great Controversy, 615).

Additionally, Adventists officially disallow wearing jewelry, although wedding rings were approved in the 1980s. They require adherence to the Mosaic food laws and encourage veganism. Further, they officially forbid alcohol, tobacco, and caffeine.

Internal Disagreements. Individuals within Adventism vary widely in their personal theology. Growing numbers are advocating observing the Jewish feasts and holy days as well as practicing historic Adventist lifestyles as outlined by Ellen White, often including veganism, while others are seeking to align their beliefs and practices more with evangelical theology. Consequently Seventh-day Adventism is represented through a variety of perspectives, and it is difficult to know how the movement will maintain cohesion in its present structure.

The historic Adventists are classic Adventists who believe Ellen White is the messenger of God for the remnant church; who practice vegetarianism and abstain from stimulants and spicy foods, including vinegar, mustard, and black pepper; who believe the seventh-day Sabbath is the seal of God; and who believe those who are alive at Jesus’s return will be perfect, standing without a mediator during the time of trouble (White, Great Controversy, 614).

The 1888 Message Movement has drawn on the teaching of Jones and Waggoner first presented in 1888 (see above). This movement teaches “righteousness by faith,” or gratitude for God’s sacrificial love that legally justified all humans. In this “anti-typical Day of Atonement,” which began in 1844, the Holy Spirit is revealing all known sin, and believers will accept their justification by becoming obedient to all the commandments and overcoming all sin. They will accomplish this obedience by faith—acting in gratitude and love—not by works. Jesus will not return until his character is perfectly reflected in his people.

Progressive Adventism is theologically liberal. These Adventists are pluralistic and inclusive. Adventism, they claim, is like a large tent sheltering a wide variety of theological ideas. This movement looks for commonality with all monotheistic religions, including Islam and Judaism, and is represented by magazines such as Spectrum and Adventist Today.

Many evangelical Adventists proclaim the Pauline doctrine of salvation by grace through faith in Christ alone. These Adventists, however, remain tied to seventh-day Sabbath-keeping, soul sleep and conditional immortality, a conviction that they are helping to vindicate God, and a belief that God used Ellen White in some capacity.

Some of the better-known offshoots of Adventism include the Seventh Day Adventist Reform Movement, the Branch Davidians, and Shepherd’s Rod.

Unity in the Midst of Diversity. Although diverse beliefs can be found in Adventism, the church as an organization is not changing. General Conference president Jan Paulsen said, in answer to the suggestions that the church is changing its teaching of its historic doctrines, that such a claim “is a distortion of reality, and nothing could be further from the truth.” He expanded his defense by saying that the “historic sanctuary message based on Scripture and supported by the writings of Ellen White, continues to be held unequivocally.” Moreover, he endorsed the Bible and the writings of Ellen White as the “hermeneutical foundation on which [they] as a church place all matters of faith and conduct. Let no one think that there has been a change of position in regard to this” (section 10).

All Adventists agree on at least four foundational beliefs: the eternal significance of the seventh-day Sabbath; a doctrine of soul sleep that denies the existence of the human spirit and has grave implications for the nature of humans, Christ, sin, and salvation; a doctrine of an ongoing judgment in which God is on trial, humans help vindicate him, and Satan is the scapegoat; and the significance of Ellen White, whom the Adventists call “a continuing and authoritative source of truth” (General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists, Seventh-day Adventists Believe, 247).

Critics of the Seventh-day Adventist movement charge that Adventists add to Scripture by calling Ellen White’s writings a source of truth, multiply the requirements for salvation by requiring seventh-day Sabbath-keeping and old-covenant dietary laws, subtract from the atonement and person of Jesus Christ with their investigative judgment and lingering Arian influence, and divide the body of Christ by requiring worship on the seventh-day Sabbath and by seeing themselves as God’s true “remnant church.”

Bibliography. D. Batchelor, The Trinity; “Are the Dead Really Dead?,” Amazing Facts, https://www.amazingfacts.org/media-library/study-guide/e/4987/t/are-the-dead-really-dead; General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists, Seventh-day Adventists Believe, 2nd ed.; General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists home page, http://www.ad ventist.org/; M. Hook, Desmond Ford: Reformist Theologian, Gospel Revivalist; G. Land, Historical Dictionary of Seventh-day Adventists; Life Assurance Ministries, Inc., home page, http://www.lifeassuranceministries.org/; M. J. Martin, ExAdventist Outreach home page, http://www.exadventist.com; J. Paulsen, “The Theological Landscape: Perspective on Issues facing the World Seventh-day Adventist Church,” Adventist Review; W. Rae, The White Lie; D. Ratzlaff, “Are Adventists Moving to Feast-Keeping?,” Proclamation!; Ratzlaff, Cultic Doctrine of Seventh-day Adventists; Ratzlaff, Truth about Adventist “Truth”; R. Schwartz and F. Greenleaf, Light Bearers: A History of the Seventh-day Adventist Church, rev. ed.; E. G. White, Early Writings; White, The Great Controversy; White, Letter 55, in Selected Messages, vol. 1; R. Wieland and D. K. Short, “The Righteousness by Faith Comparison,” Thought Paper no. 3, repr. from 1888 Re-examined.

C. Tinker

SHABBAT (THE SABBATH), JEWISH. The English word Sabbath comes from the Hebrew word shabbat. The root meaning is “to desist,” “to cease,” “to rest.” The Sabbath begins at sundown on Friday and lasts until sundown of the next day. In addition to prohibited activities, a special meal accompanies the Sabbath observances.

Since the temple was destroyed in AD 70, the Sabbath has become the most important element in Judaism.

The Concepts of the Sabbath. The major concept of the Sabbath in Judaism is that of menuchah (rest), which includes rest of body, mind, and spirit. On this day, work is banished and replaced by rest.

Many minor concepts are involved in the Sabbath. Sabbath is a time for studying the law; it is a time for family companionship; it is a weekly protest against slavery since slaves had to work seven days a week. According to Orthodox Judaism, on the Sabbath Jews receive an additional soul. Furthermore, the Sabbath is a foundation of the faith. The Sabbath gave rise to synagogues. The day is associated with personal salvation because it is a foretaste of the bliss stored up for the righteous in the world to come.

According to Judaism, the Sabbath has three age-long functions. First, it enables one to devote oneself fully, one day a week, to becoming “a kingdom of priests and a holy nation” and, in that way, beautifying one’s life. Second, it prevents one from becoming enslaved to secular activities, showing freedom from enslavement to Egypt. And third, it proves one’s trust in God: that he will provide even without the material gain of working on the Sabbath.

The Laws of the Sabbath. All together the rabbis came up with about fifteen hundred rules and regulations concerning the Sabbath. These were derived from thirty-nine areas of prohibited work on the Sabbath day.

These thirty-nine areas were based on the construction of the tabernacle in the wilderness. The rabbis arrived at their deduction by juxtaposing the passages concerning the construction of the tabernacle and passages prohibiting work on the Sabbath. They interpreted these passages to mean that no work was allowed on the tabernacle on the Sabbath day. Therefore, the prohibited work for the Sabbath day was whatever area of work was required for the tabernacle. The rabbis concluded that there were thirty-nine areas of work on the tabernacle that were forbidden on the Sabbath day. From these thirty-nine areas, they developed many “offspring” or “derivatives” (Hebrew, toledot). They decided which other works done by human beings would fit into these areas. These were other labors of the same area that shared a purpose in common with the tabernacle works. Therefore, they were also forbidden. Through a form of rabbinic logic known as pilpul, they derived many new rules and regulations out of the original thirty-nine areas of work forbidden on the tabernacle on the Sabbath day. By the time all the laws were developed, there were approximately fifteen hundred rules and regulations for the Sabbath day. These are largely still followed in Orthodox Judaism today.

The Essential Elements for Sabbath. Three basic items are essential for Sabbath meal observance: first, challah, an egg bread whose yellow color results from the heavy use of egg yolk; second, wine; and third, candles.

1. Sabbath Foods. Challah bread is the one essential food for the Passover, and it is prepared in a braided form for most Sabbaths. Two loaves are used to symbolize the double portion of manna that God gave for the Sabbath day. As the Sabbath begins on Friday night, the challah bread is broken with a special blessing over it, and it is then dipped in salt before it is eaten because all sacrifices were salted. The name challah itself means “round loaf” or “cake,” and it represents the share or loaf given to the priest during the time when the tabernacle stood, and later, the temple. The Sabbath loaf subsequently retained its old Hebrew name even though it was no longer given to priests.

Traditional Sabbath foods include fish. Any kind of kosher meat is permitted, but according to rabbis, fish is to be preferred for several reasons. First, God promised that Israel would multiply “like the sand of the sea,” and fish comes from the sea. Second, in Hebrew the word for “fish” has the numerical value of seven, which corresponds to the seventh day of the week. And third, just as God always watches over Israel, the eye of the fish is always open.

Another food for the Sabbath is kugel, which is a pudding or a casserole of rice or noodles with raisins.

Another specialty food is cholent, which comes from a word that means “warm.” This was food that was kept warm from Friday into the Sabbath, so that the worshipers could enjoy a warm meal for the Sabbath day.

2. Sabbath Lights. The second essential element for Sabbath observance in Judaism is lights. In ancient times, the last act before the Sabbath began was kindling lights because it was prohibited to kindle fire on the Sabbath. Originally the intent was only to provide light for the Sabbath, but eventually the lights were associated with the Sabbath. Later the rabbis reinterpreted the lights as symbolizing the weekly refilling and rekindling of the lampstand in the temple. Today the candles are lit to symbolize the joy that fills the Jewish home on this day. The creation of light was the first work of God, and God rested from his work of creation on the Sabbath day. Furthermore, according to Judaism, when Adam and Eve sinned, the great light of creation was extinguished. The Sabbath lights manifest the Jewish longing to return to a state of sinlessness, when the first light will reappear in the world to come.

In most Jewish homes today, two candles are lit. Historically, the reason was that in the average Jewish home in talmudic times, there were just three rooms: the kitchen, the living room, and the bedroom. Before the Sabbath began, one light was lit in the kitchen, and one light in the living room, but not in the bedroom, for once the Sabbath began, one could not extinguish the light on the Sabbath day. Obviously, one did not want to have a lighted candle while sleeping. Eventually, lighting the two candles became an established religious rite. Later it was reinterpreted by the rabbis to represent the two versions of the Sabbath commandment: first, Exodus 20:8, which states: “Remember the sabbath day”; and second, Deuteronomy 5:12, which states: “Observe the sabbath day.” The norm today is two candles, but some Jewish homes light seven, while others light ten.

Women kindle the Sabbath lights. It is uniquely the responsibility of the woman to light the candles because, according to the rabbis, when Adam fell, it was really the woman who caused the light to be extinguished, so it is now the woman who is responsible for bringing the light back. After kindling the lights and while saying the blessing, the woman covers her eyes with the palm of her hands. Because the blessing must precede the act, she shields her eyes with the palms of her hands so as not to see or to benefit from the light until after the blessing. This also, according to Judaism, will aid in devotion during prayer.

As she lights the candles and covers her eyes, she will say the following blessing: “Blessed art You, O Lord our God, King of the universe, Who has sanctified us with Your commandments and commanded us to kindle the lights of the Holy Sabbath.”

3. Sabbath Wine. Wine is the third essential element required for the Sabbath observance; everyone will drink a small portion of wine. This will be preceded by the recitation of a blessing: “Blessed are You, O Lord our God, King of the universe, Who created the fruit of the vine.” The expression “fruit of the vine” in Judaism does not refer to grape juice. It refers to real wine that comes from the fruit of the grape. Judaism uses the expression “fruit of the vine” on special occasions.

The Meals of the Sabbath. The Sabbath is an occasion for eating. Altogether one will eat three meals on the Sabbath day. There is also a tradition of eating a fourth meal before the Sabbath actually comes to an end. The first meal is eaten on Friday night, the second meal is eaten on Saturday morning, and the third meal is eaten on Saturday afternoon following the synagogue service.

The Sabbath tablecloth is always white. The history of this custom involves the fact that tablecloths were used only on festive occasions in ancient times, and these were usually white. Eventually the Sabbath became associated with white tablecloths, and later this was reinterpreted to symbolize the manna, which was white.