Z

ZABUR. An Arabic word from the pre-Islamic period, zabur referred to “writ” or “writings.” Eventually, Muslims employed the term in the Qur’an to identify the revealed heavenly books (sura 3:184; 26:196) and, with its more common use, to refer in particular to the Psalms of David (4:163; 17:55; 21:105). The term is used twice in the hadith to refer to the Psalms of David (Al-Bukhari, 4.628; Al-Tirmidhi, 654). Though the Tawrat (Torah), Zabur (Psalms), Injil (Gospel), and Qur’an compose 4 of the 104 divisions of the “eternal tablet” revealed by Allah throughout history, according to Muslims the only uncorrupted revelation, which possesses highest authority, is the Qur’an.

See also ISLAM, BASIC BELIEFS OF; MUHAMMAD; QUR’AN

Bibliography. J. L. Esposito, ed., The Oxford Dictionary of Islam; H. A. R. Gibb and J. H. Kramers, eds., Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam.

J. Holden

ZARATHUSTRA (NIETZSCHE). Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) appropriated the name of the sixth-century-BC Persian prophet Zarathustra (Zoroaster) for his own literary creation. Also Sprach Zarathustra (Thus Spake Zarathustra) was published in four separate parts: the first two in 1883, the second in 1884, and the fourth (after Nietzsche’s mental breakdown) in 1892. This use of the name is highly ironic insofar as the historical Zarathustra (hereafter, Zoroaster) and Nietzsche’s figure (hereafter Zarathustra) are antithetical to each other in many significant respects.

1. Zoroaster taught a religion that chose light over dark, and his followers extolled the sun deity Mithra. When Zarathustra decided to return to society, he said farewell to the sun and set his face to enter darkness.

2. Zoroaster asserted the reality of Ahura Mazda, the one true God. Zarathustra’s message to the world was that God is dead.

3. According to Zoroaster, God, who is the truth, is opposed by the devil, who is the lie. Zarathustra believed that sometimes the devil had some truth on his side.

4. Zoroaster taught that there is an absolute distinction between good and evil, and that the destiny of human beings depends on their siding with good over evil. Zarathustra attempted to convince his listeners that they must go beyond both good and evil.

5. Zoroaster predicted a cataclysmic end to time, at which point there would be a final judgment and a final redemption for all. Zarathustra declared that time is a never-ending repetition of all events.

At the core of Nietzsche’s thought is the affirmation of one’s life. “My happiness ought to justify existence itself,” proclaims Zarathustra to the crowd (Kaufmann, 125), and all aspects of his philosophy, including those specifically associated with Zarathustra, need to be understood along this line:

1. The death of God. When Zarathustra came down from his mountain, he was surprised to learn that not everyone had yet heard that God was dead. God, for Nietzsche, is a concept that has to be shoved aside in order for human beings to come to full realization of their humanity. As long as there is a God inflicting his standards, not to mention his cloying love and pity on human beings, they will never become what they could by themselves.

2. The transcendence of good and evil. It is not that Zarathustra wants people to do evil things or deliberately violate proper behavior. His goal is much further; he wants them to wean themselves off there being standards of good and evil altogether. Zarathustra sees human beings as trying to achieve total conformity with one another. “No shepherd and one herd! Everybody wants the same, everybody is the same: whoever feels different goes voluntarily into a madhouse” (Kaufmann, 130). Nietzsche’s prophet proclaims that, instead, all people ought to choose their actions on the basis of their personal preference alone.

3. The Overman. The goal of Zarathustra’s message is that human beings should eventually attain a higher stage of life, called the “Overman” (Übermensch, often also translated as “superman”). He declares that “man is a rope, tied between beast and Overman—a rope over an abyss” (Kaufmann, 126). Just as the human being is superior to animals, so Overman will be superior to human beings. He will have greater knowledge, greater power, and greater happiness than any present human being.

However, we need to be clear about several important items concerning Overman. First, Nietzsche is not here (or anywhere else, for that matter) talking about a “race” or “nation” of superior beings. Even though Nietzsche has sometimes been accused of being a proto-Nazi, the fact is that the only thing he detested more than nationalism in general was German nationalism. If an Overman will arise, his first distinctive will be that he is an individual, not affiliated with any “herd.” Second, the Overman is not the product of biological evolution. Darwinism explains the development of races and groups through factors beyond their control, but the Overman becomes what he will be on the basis of his personal decision to assert himself and his life, in flagrant disregard of all others if necessary. Zarathustra himself is not the Overman; he points the way, but he also shows in his personal struggles how difficult it will be for anyone to become Overman.

4. Eternal recurrence. As a metaphysical doctrine, the idea of the infinite repetition of all events is highly problematic, but it would be silly to take it that way for Nietzsche. Zarathustra does present an argument on its behalf—namely, that, given an infinite amount of time, any configuration of items in the universe must be repeated an infinite number of times; but Nietzsche’s point is hardly to advocate such a dubious cosmology for its own sake. Instead, he is saying that Zarathustra and all other human beings must be willing to affirm all of their lives, even the minutest and most trivial parts, to the point of being willing to live them over and over again. Think of the most mediocre person you know or the most annoying day you have ever had, and accept that they will come around again and again an infinite number of times. Zarathustra’s reaction to this idea at first is nausea, but he slowly learns to accept it.

Zarathustra is an interesting literary creation, representing both the struggles and the arrogance of Nietzsche’s thought. It is hard not to get caught up in the humor of the parodies or the exaggerated pathos of this prophet. However, if one steps back and looks at Zarathustra’s message with discernment, one should wonder why anyone should accept his ideas. There is neither rational grounding nor hope, only a desperate attempt at self-assertion, which ultimately can be nothing more than an empty cry into an empty void.

See also ZOROASTER; ZOROASTRIANISM

Bibliography. W. Kaufmann, ed., The Portable Nietzsche.

W. Corduan

ZEN BUDDHISM. Zen claims to contain the essence of Buddhism, that enlightenment is achievable not merely in this lifetime but here and now. Derived from Chinese Ch’an, and etymologically from the Sanskrit dhyana (“mind training” / meditation), Zen (as a noun) refers to a rigorous, disciplined meditation system, but it is routinely used adjectivally to mean spontaneous yet disciplined, tranquil yet rigorous, engaged yet detached, and overall spiritually uplifting—amazon.com lists books on everything from Zen golf to Zen cooking, from Zen motorcycling to Zen sex.

Ch’an Buddhism came to China through the introduction of dhyana by the Indian Buddhist monk Bodhidharma in AD 520, joining Taoism and Confucianism in spiritual dialogue and becoming associated with the martial arts. It had taken root as Zen in Japan by the twelfth century. The characteristics of the enlightened mind—namely, peacefulness, fearlessness, and spontaneity—have had a lasting influence on Japanese culture.

Zen is based on the Perfection of Wisdom sutras, the Diamond Cutter Sutra, and other Mahayana texts. Zen has in common with Mahayana Buddhism the belief that everyone has the potential to achieve enlightenment, but this lies dormant because of ignorance. However, Zen uniquely proposes that this Buddha potential is awakened not so much by the accumulation of merit, the study of scripture, paying homage to images, or the practice of rites and ceremonies but rather by a sudden breaking through the boundaries of logical thought. Thus enlightenment (satori) is an individual intuitive experience that is indescribable, as it is beyond the constructs of reason, logic, or language. It is claimed that this is what Gautama Buddha experienced under the Bodhi tree in Bodhgaya. Zen practice is usually done in the zendo (meditation hall) under the guidance of a Zen master (roshi), but the precise path to satori varies among the three schools of Zen.

Rinzai Zen, introduced from China to Japan by Eisai in AD 1191, emphasizes meditation on paradoxical statements called koans. Originally the utterances of Chinese Ch’an masters, koans have been compiled into a number of volumes but also shortened into pithy, nonlogical statements. One does not so much study the koan as experience its nonlogic and hence transcend conceptualization in the mind—thus one breaks down the duality of subject-object, good-bad, I-you/it. In shattering duality, one realizes one’s own Buddha mind and achieves satori. “The sound of one hand clapping” is a well-known koan.

Soto Zen, introduced from China to Japan by Dogen in 1227, prefers “silent illumination” or mere sitting (zazen), usually in the lotus position, with eyes cast down and counting one’s breathing. No mental effort should be made toward enlightenment, so as to purge the mind, through silence, of all conceptualization and fantasy. The aim is to become aware of the mind’s incessant activity without being drawn into it or identifying with it. There is no object on which to meditate (like a koan)—it is assumed that the mind in and of itself is pure. Therefore, the meditator’s aim is to get out of the way, so that this innate Buddha-mind can manifest. Zazen claims to open the practitioner to wisdom and compassion by returning constantly to the present moment.

Obaku Zen, a later arrival in Japan (1654) combines the Rinzai practice of koan with the Pure Land Buddhist practice of recitation of the nembutsu, that is, the continuous invocation of Amitabha Buddha.

Zen priests have been influential in the history and culture of Japan, serving as diplomats and administrators. Zen is patriotic, encouraging prayers for the emperor, and hence was influential among the samurai and informs the martial arts today. Zen monastic centers are usually self-sufficient due to the belief that a monk shouldn’t eat if he doesn’t work: as with other aspects of life, the work ethic comes from spontaneity and naturalness, and hence a harmonious aesthetic dominates life. Japanese art, literature, theater, poetry, flower arrangement, calligraphy, and the tea ceremony all have their roots in Zen. Formal Zen practitioners and adherents number around ten million in Japan today.

Zen became popular in the West from the 1960s onward, due to the influence of D. T. Suzuki (1870–1966), who, in being the first to attempt to repackage Zen for the West, promoted Zen as the pure experience of unmediated encounter with reality and the spontaneous living in harmony with that reality—in essence, the mystical experience he believed was common to all the world’s religions. New lineages (master-disciple relationships) have been established since then—the Diamond Sangha being a notable one, established in 1959 by Robert Aitken and based in Hawaii. Strong Zen centers in the US have been influential (for example, the San Francisco Zen Center), although these have not been without their scandals.

The strongest school in the US is Soto, although the first established was Rinzai. Western Zen is marginalizing the Japanese cultural elements of Zen, deemphasizing the doctrinal, philosophical, and ritualistic elements, while the Western roshis are steering Zen toward meditation practice alone, consistent with Suzuki’s initial agenda. As with most Buddhist lineages in the West, there is a significant degree of cross-pollination between Zen schools, but also with vipassana (insight meditation from within Theravada Buddhism), due to their common practice of meditation. Zen practitioners may often embrace other non-Zen practices, including elements of Western psychology, hence becoming syncretistic and eclectic. Most Zen practitioners are Caucasian, affluent, and university educated, and remain lay, fitting their practice into hectic schedules, often punctuating the year with longer sesshins, or retreats.

A new generation of Western Zen teachers is emerging, who show charismatic leadership and a serious commitment to transmission of the dharma. Some have had extensive training in Japan and are fluent in several Asian languages. Some have been initiated into a number of Buddhist traditions. Teaching is often formalized in popular retreats that are supported by a plethora of commodities, specifically zafus (meditation cushions) and books. Some teachers have specialized; for example, Roshi Bernard Glassman is a proponent of Engaged Buddhism, promoting a proactive involvement in social issues. A Zen sangha has struggled to form in the West due to issues of work, child raising, and authority. Practitioners are experimenting with innovations, notably the possibility of hybridizing with the Unitarian Universalist churches of America.

See also BUDDHISM; DHARMA; KOAN; MAHAYANA BUDDHISM; SANGHA; SATORI; TAOISM/DAOISM

Bibliography. C. Humphreys, Zen Buddhism; C. S. Prebish and M. Baumann, Westward Dharma: Buddhism beyond Asia; C. S. Prebish and K. K. Tanaka, The Faces of Buddhism in America; D. T. Suzuki, An Introduction to Zen Buddhism.

H. P. Kemp

ZEND-AVESTA. See AVESTA

ZHUANG-ZI/CHUANG-TZU. The Taoist holy book Zhuang-zi (“Master Zhuang”; also spelled Chuang-tzu) has been an integral part of Chinese religion and philosophy since it was written more than two millennia ago. Though traditionally the entire volume (consisting of thirty-three chapters) was ascribed to Zhuang-zi (ca. fourth century BC), most contemporary scholars of ancient Chinese history think it more likely that Zhuang-zi authored only the first seven chapters and that various of his students and other thinkers influenced by his teachings wrote the remainder of the book. Broadly speaking, Zhuang-zi’s thought can be characterized as skeptical and pluralistic. One of his main arguments is that since human perceiving and knowing are both severely limited and heavily influenced by linguistic and cultural factors, people should refrain from making universal value judgments and be cautious in drawing sweeping conclusions about most matters. He also contends that each person’s innate behavioral dispositions, in conjunction with that individual’s unique life experiences, create proclivities to interpret and evaluate the world that must not be accepted or employed uncritically. This approach to epistemology is exemplified in the second chapter of the text in a section often referred to as the Butterfly Dream. Here it says that Zhuang-zi had a dream in which he was a butterfly and did not realize his personal identity. After waking, he was unsure whether he was Zhuang-zi (and merely had dreamed of being a butterfly) or was actually a butterfly having a dream of being Zhuang-zi.

See also TAOISM/DAOISM

Bibliography. T. C. Chung, The Dao of Zhuangzi: The Harmony of Nature; S. Coutinho, Zhuangzi and Early Chinese Philosophy: Vagueness, Transformation and Paradox; C. Hansen, “Zhuangzi,” in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2017/entries/zhuangzi/; H. D. Roth, “Who Compiled the Chuang-tzu,” in Chinese Texts and Philosophical Contexts, edited by H. Rosemont; Roth, ed., A Companion to Angus C. Graham’s Chuang Tzu; B. Watson, trans., Zhuangzi: Basic Writings.

H. W. House

ZION, MORMON BELIEFS ABOUT. According to Mormon teaching, Zion is primarily the name that God gives to his people, but it has other definitions as well. In the period that is called the “latter days” as commenced by LDS founder Joseph Smith Jr., Zion refers to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints; all of North and South America is said to make up the land of Zion. Smith specifically declared that Jackson County, Missouri—a place where Adam lived on the American continent, according to LDS teaching—would become the site of the New Jerusalem, or the City of Zion. This New Jerusalem is distinct from the city of Jerusalem in Palestine. Together these two cities will become capitals for the kingdom of God during the millennial reign of Jesus (Doctrine and Covenants 45:66–67; 57:2; 58:7). A special temple location in Independence, Missouri, was specified by Smith in 1832 as he declared that “this generation shall not all pass away until an house shall be built unto the Lord” (Doctrine and Covenants 84:4–5). Mormon leaders, including apostle Orson Pratt in 1870, believed that this temple would be completed in that generation. However, it was never built. Today a small splinter group called the Church of Christ (Temple Lot), also known as Hedrickites, owns the land designated for the temple.

See also CHURCH OF JESUS CHRIST OF LATTER-DAY SAINTS; PRATT, ORSON; SMITH, JOSEPH, JR.

Bibliography. B. R. McConkie, Mormon Doctrine; Joseph Fielding Smith, Doctrines of Salvation.

E. Johnson

ZIONISM. Zionism was and still is an international movement advocating the return of the Jewish people to their ancestral homeland in Israel, together with the consequent restoration of Jewish sovereignty in Palestine. Zionism derives from the Hebrew word Tsion, the name of the hill in Jerusalem where the third Jewish monarch, King Solomon, constructed the Jewish temple, though the location of Zion changed to various locations in Jerusalem during the centuries. For many Jews, Zion came to represent the entire political and religious existence of Israel itself and encapsulated the desire of Jews—conquered and dispersed first by the Babylonians in 586 BC and later by the Romans in AD 68—to return to their homeland.

Theodor Herzl and Early Zionism. Like the term Zion, modern Zionism from the beginning included both political and religious elements. Though there were many antecedent figures, the father of modern Zionism was Theodor Herzl. Born in 1860, Herzl moved with his family to Vienna, where he ultimately earned a doctorate in law. A talented writer and journalist, Herzl encountered anti-Semitism, both personally at the university and in the surrounding culture in Paris, where he worked as a journalist. Though at first Herzl believed anti-Semitism could be addressed through Jewish-gentile dialogue, the pogroms in Russia and events such as the Dreyfus case (in which a French military officer was falsely accused and convicted of a crime because he was Jewish) convinced him that anti-Semitism was endemic to all humankind, and thus a more radical solution was needed. Herzl’s political answer came in his book The Jewish State in 1896, wherein he argued that Jews must unite as one people and establish a Jewish state with the help and consent of the world powers. He proposed a Zionist organization to work toward the practical realization of this goal. Though many leaders were less than enthusiastic, the Jewish masses in Eastern Europe responded favorably, and the first of six Zionist Congresses was convened in Basel, Switzerland, in 1897. Herzl attempted to obtain a charter for an Israeli state in Palestine but was blocked by Turkey, which ruled Palestine at the time. However, the Zionist movement led a number of Jews who had suffered persecution in Eastern Europe to emigratine to Palestine in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

After the defeat of the Ottoman Turks in World War I, Great Britain supported the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine, and the League of Nations approved a British mandate over Palestine in 1922. Members of the Zionist movement advised the British and Jewish settlers, who continued to pour into the land, farming and building up the cities.

After World War II. The horrifying nature of the Nazi persecution of European Jews and the consequent Holocaust convinced many Jews that only the Zionist realization of a homeland could provide them with security. They flooded into Israel despite the efforts of Britain and the surrounding Arab countries to contain them. The Holocaust also made nations more sympathetic to the Jewish plight, resulting in the United Nations’ partitioning of Palestine into Jewish and Arab states in 1947. When Britain gave up its mandate in May 1948 and Zionists proclaimed an Israeli state, the Arab League nations attacked unsuccessfully, and warfare ceased in 1949 under UN mediation. Despite several wars between Israel and its Arab neighbors and constant terrorism, the Zionist movement has realized its primary goal of establishing a nation state for the Jewish people. Zionism, with its doctrine of a self-determining Jewish state where all Jews are welcome, continues to be a force that unites secular and religious, conservative and liberal Jews in Israel and around the world to the present day.

See also JUDAISM

Bibliography. The American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise, “Israel: Zionism,” Jewish Virtual Library, http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/zionism; I. Epstein, Judaism; J. Phillips, Exploring the World of the Jew.

H. W. House

ZOHAR. The Zohar (whose full title, Sefer ha-Zohar, means literally “book of splendor”) is the best-known and most influential text of kabbalah, the Jewish mystical tradition. Its main body was most likely written by a Spanish Jew named Moses de León and distributed by him around AD 1285.

Kabbalah has two main strands: the speculative, which involves the contemplation of God and of the emanation of beings from him, and the methodical, which teaches the techniques for achieving a vision of God. The Zohar falls mainly into the first category, providing an insider’s knowledge into the state of the universe. The life of the mystical adept is essentially an outworking of the truths about God and the world, not an implementation of techniques.

The Zohar is written in Aramaic. It includes more than twenty treatises of varying subject matter, length, and style. However, Gershom G. Scholem, undoubtedly the most respected scholar of kabbalah of the twentieth century, argued that almost all of them bear the direct imprint of de León’s hand. Most of the treatises are either commentaries on the Bible or cosmological speculations. What unites them is that they purport to have been disclosed by Rabbi Simeon ben Yohai, who lived in Palestine in the second century AD, a claim that is undoubtedly spurious.

As indicated above, the Zohar covers a number of subjects, but it does maintain a fairly consistent understanding of God and the universe, which serves as esoteric knowledge for the truly pious person. The most important features are the following:

1. En sof. This term refers to God as he is in himself. God is one. He is all. There can be no other being beside himself.

2. The sefiroth. God has disclosed himself by way of a set of emanations, called the sefiroth (or sephirot). These are not creatures or angels or just manifestations of God; they are God. Their translated names are supreme crown, understanding, knowledge, judgment, beauty, love, splendor, foundation, endurance, kingdom. They do not appear in one long string but follow a more complex, double pattern, in which beauty connects with most elements on both sides.

3. Creation. Creation does not constitute a second kind of being alongside God. Despite appearances to the contrary, creation is also ultimately a direct self-giving of God. Consequently, as the pious Jew obeys the Torah in all respects, even without mystical pursuits, he makes contact with God in all phases of his life. Perhaps this “democratic” aspect of the Zohar contributed to its exceptional acclaim over the centuries.

4. Sitra ahra. This is “the other side,” the reality of evil. A part of the Zohar’s surprising teaching is that evil is not completely external to God but arose when the side of God manifesting wrath and judgment severed itself from the side of love and grace.

5. Devekuth. The person who understands all the requisite mysteries and lives by them may eventually achieve a direct union (but not identity) with God, called devekuth.

See also DEVEKUTH; KABBALAH; MYSTICISM

Bibliography. G. Scholem, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism.

W. Corduan

ZOROASTER. Zoroaster (Greek; Persian: Zarathustra) was a poet and philosopher, born in northeastern Persia (Iran) as part of the Spitama family. Very little is known about his life, except from his writings, specifically his Divine Songs, the Gathas. When he lived is debated by scholars, as the Gathas give no clue. The range of possible times for his birth spans nearly a thousand years, from 1500 to 550 BC. Although his birthplace is often said to be in eastern Persia/Iran, it may also have been in Afghanistan (farther east) or Turkmenistan (farther north).

In his poetry, Zoroaster wrote that he was a spiritual seeker during his teens and young adulthood, but at age thirty he received the “revelation” about the god Ahura Mazda and how to attain salvation that would become known as Zoroastrianism. Zoroaster’s converts were at first few, the first being his cousin, Maidhyoimanha. His new offer of salvation to anyone who would follow his teachings angered the established religious hierarchy and caused suspicion among the general populace. Because of his controversial new faith, he faced major persecution in virtually every country to which he traveled, causing his family and disciples to move often.

At age forty-two, Zoroaster received an audience with King Vishtaspa, in a region of northeastern Persia, near the Aral Sea. The king, along with his wife, Queen Hutaosa, and their children, converted to Zoroaster’s philosophical religion of “good words, good thoughts, and good deeds.” The king then urged his subjects to convert as well, and Zoroaster and his system came into favor. Tradition states that Zoroaster lived to old age, dying at seventy-seven, peacefully, in his sleep.

His philosophy predated so-called positive mental attitudes by thousands of years. He believed that goodness and evil were not innate but the freewill direction of the thoughts of the individual. To become a morally correct being, a person must create goodness in his mind, and the transfer from thought to deed comes naturally.

Zoroaster is not to be confused with the fictional character Zarathustra in Thus Spake Zarathustra, by Friedrich Nietzsche, in which Nietzsche develops his personal philosophy through his literary figure.

See also AHURA MAZDA; AVESTA; DUALISM; GATHAS; ZARATHUSTRA (NIETZSCHE); ZOROASTRIANISM

Bibliography. M. Boyce, Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices; A. Jafarey, Good Conscience: The Rational Religion of Zarathushtra; M. L. West, The Hymns of Zoroaster: A New Translation of the Most Ancient Sacred Texts of Iran; Zoroastrian Association of Greater New York, The Good Life: An Introduction to the Religion of Zarathushtra.

Ergun Caner

ZOROASTRIANISM. Zoroastrianism is an ancient monotheistic religion centered in Persia (modern Iran) and is named for its founder, Zoroaster (Persian: Zarathustra). It centers on the ancient dualistic struggle of the good creator god Ahura Mazda and the evil spirit Angra Mainyu. Humans participate in this struggle by remaining pure and following the teachings of the religion’s founding prophet, Zoroaster.

History. No one is sure when Zoroaster lived and taught. Tradition and ancient sources put it as early as 6000 BC. This is most likely an exaggeration. Some argue for a date as late as 600 BC, based on a Pahlavi text saying Zoroaster lived 258 years before Alexander’s invasion. However, these texts were written in the first century AD, possibly as much as five hundred years after Alexander. Based on internal linguistic and external archaeological and sociological evidence, most scholars today date Zoroaster to between 1500 and 1200 BC. The language of the sacred writings of Zoroastrianism strongly resembles other writings from the same period and shows an intimate familiarity with the social conditions and practices of the period.

Zoroastrianism has both enjoyed official support and suffered intense persecutions throughout its history. Zoroastrians fled to northern Afghanistan and India to escape Muslim persecution, and in modern times they have sought refuge in Australia, South America, and the US. Probably due to persecution, Zoroastrianism has become a very insular religion. Zoroastrians do not proselytize, and they almost never allow those outside the religion to convert. There are approximately 145,000 to 200,000 Zoroastrians today, but due to falling birth rates, the number of Zoroastrians is expected to dramatically decrease in the next fifty years.

Beliefs. Ahura Mazda is the god of Zoroastrianism. He is the eternal and uncreated creator of the universe. He is inherently and totally good and will ultimately prevail over Angra Mainyu and his evil forces. Everything he created was good and free from evil before Angra Mainyu began to attack it. Ahura Mazda has six “emanations,” called Amesha Spentas (Persian, “holy immortals”) that assist him; each represents an aspect of Ahura Mazda and an element of the universe: good purpose / animals (especially cattle), truth and righteousness / fire, desirable rule / minerals, holy devotion / earth, wholeness/water, and immortality/plants. Fire and water are especially important in Zoroastrianism. Adherents normally pray in the presence of fire (or any source of light) because they see it as a medium through which spiritual wisdom flows. As Zoroastrianism developed, fire temples began to be used to preserve sacred fires and serve as gathering places for Zoroastrians to worship. Although all the elements should be kept pure, water, as the source of wisdom, is carefully protected from defilement.

In Ahura Mazda’s continual struggle against the forces of evil, his principal antagonist is Angra Mainyu, who constantly seeks to bring disorder and destruction to Ahura Mazda’s creation. It is not an eternal battle, for Ahura Mazda will eventually prevail and evil will end.

Humankind is the chief creation of Ahura Mazda, and as such its chief goal according to Zoroastrianism is keeping evil at bay through good thoughts, good words, and good deeds. Good thoughts and words consist of worshiping Ahura Mazda and venerating the Amesha Spentas. Good deeds consist of keeping oneself from becoming defiled through a highly organized and detailed set of purity laws. Some of these include destroying “impure” or harmful creatures (like toads and wasps), avoiding the flow of blood, performing cleansing rituals involving washing with increasingly pure substances (starting with cattle urine, then sand, then water), and avoiding contact with dead things (especially the bodies of the righteous because it is thought that evil spirits concentrate around the righteous in an effort to hamper them). Because of their belief in the impurity of dead things, Zoroastrians do not bury their dead. Rather, they construct towers of stone and allow the bones to bleach in the sun at the top of the tower. The bones are then placed inside the tower and dissolved with acid.

Zoroastrians are also expected to pray at appointed times during the day, and especially at midnight, when it is believed the forces of evil are at the height of their power. The most important prayer, akin to the Lord’s Prayer in Christianity, is the Ahunvar. It is the first prayer a Zoroastrian child learns, saying, “He [Ahura Mazda] is as much the desired Master as the Judge according to asha. [He is] the doer of the acts of good purpose, of life. To Ahura Mazda [is] the kingdom, whom they have established as pastor for the poor” (Boyce, 34–35).

There are seven festivals celebrating Ahura Mazda and the six Amesha Spentas. They are spread through the year and generally correspond to agricultural and celestial events (e.g., the equinoxes, planting, harvest).

Zoroastrians believe that a person’s good and evil will be weighed at death. If the person’s good outweighs the bad, that person is escorted across a bridge by a beautiful maiden into paradise. If the bad outweighs the good, the bridge becomes as narrow as a knife edge, and the person is dragged by a horrible hag into hell. Hell is a place not of suffering but of nonfeeling, lacking both joy and sorrow. Paradise is not perfect, however, for happiness can be achieved only with the reunion of the spirit and the body.

At the end of time (called frashegird, meaning “renovation” or “healing”), when evil has been totally overcome and the universe is returned to its original perfection, Ahura Mazda will resurrect all people. He will melt all the gold in the world and with it purge the world of evil. Zoroastrian teaching says, “The righteous will wade as if through warm milk, and the evil will be scalded.” Once again people will be judged, but this time those whose deeds were more evil than good will be punished, then forgiven. All people will be made immortal and will no longer suffer hunger, sickness, or death, but will live in the presence of Ahura Mazda for eternity.

See also AMESHA SPENTAS; AVESTA; DUALISM; SACRED FIRE; ZOROASTER

Bibliography. M. A. Boyce, Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices; G. W. Carter, Zoroastrianism and Judaism.

R. L. Drouhard