NOTES

INTRODUCTION

1. 1. Global News Wire estimates the size of the market for ascorbic acid (“Global Ascorbic Acid Market Poised to Surge from USD 820.4 Million in 2015 to USD 1083.8 Million by 2021,” August 24, 2016, https://globenewswire.com/news-release/2016/08/24/866422/0/en/Global-Ascorbic-Acid-Market-Poised-to-Surge-from-USD-820-4-Million-in-2015-to-USD-1083-8-Million-by-2021-MarketResearchStore-Com.html).

CHAPTER 1. A DISEASE OF MARINERS

1. 1. Quoted in William Byron, Cervantes: A Biography (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1978), 115.
2. 2. The history of Portuguese exploration and the events leading up to and surrounding the voyage of da Gama are from Roger Crowley, Conquerers: How Portugal Forged the First Global Empire (New York: Random House, 2015).
3. 3. All quotations and descriptions of the voyage of Vasco da Gama are from Ernest George Ravenstein, ed., A Journal of the First Voyage of Vasco de Gama 1497–1499 (1898; repr., London: Hakluyt Society, 2017).
4. 4. Ravenstein, A Journal of the First Voyage of Vasco da Gama, 26.
5. 5. Kenneth J. Carpenter, The History of Scurvy and Vitamin C (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 1.
6. 6. Stephen R. Bown, Scurvy: How a Surgeon, a Mariner, and a Gentleman Solved the Greatest Medical Mystery of the Age of Sail (New York: Thomas Dunne, 2003), 18.
7. 7. Richard Hawkins, The Observations of Sir Richard Hawkins, Knight, in His Voyage into the South Sea in the Year 1593 (London: Hakluyt Society, 1847; San Francisco: Elibron Classics, 2005).
8. 8. Hawkins, The Observations of Sir Richard Hawkins, 82.
9. 9. William Dalrymple, The Anarchy (New York: Bloomsbury, 2019), 5.
10. 10. Sir Clements R. Markham, ed., The Voyages of Sir James Lancaster, KT., to the East Indies (Miami: Hard Press, 2014).
11. 11. Markham, The Voyages of Sir James Lancaster, 62.
12. 12. Carpenter, The History of Scurvy, 21.
13. 13. C. Lloyd and J. L. S. Coulter, Medicine and the Navy, 1200–1900(Edinburgh: E. and S. Livingstone, 1961).
14. 14. Robert Hitchinson, The Spanish Armada (New York: Thomas Dunne, 2014), 203–4.
15. 15. Carpenter, The History of Scurvy, 7–10.

CHAPTER 2. CATASTROPHE AND ENLIGHTENMENT

1. 1. Stephen R. Bown, Scurvy: How a Surgeon, a Mariner, and a Gentleman Solved the Greatest Medical Mystery of the Age of Sail (New York: Thomas Dunne, 2003), 68.
2. 2. The account of Anson’s voyage is from the journal published under his name: George Anson, A Voyage around the World, ed. Richard R. Walters (London: Paean, 2011). Also see Bown, Scurvy, 47–69.
3. 3. Arthur Herman, How the Scots Invented the Modern World (New York: Crown, 2001).
4. 4. Louis H. Roddis, James Lind: Founder of Nautical Medicine (New York: Henry Schuman, 1950); Ralph Stockman, “James Lind and Scurvy,” Edinburgh Medical Journal 33 (1926): 329–50.
5. 5. James Lind, A Treatise on the Scurvy, 3rd ed. (London, 1772; repr., Birmingham, AL: Classics in Medicine Library, 1980), 150.
6. 6. Quoted by Bown, Scurvy, 82.
7. 7. Lind, A Treatise on the Scurvy, 243.
8. 8. Lind, A Treatise on the Scurvy, 522.

CHAPTER 3. AN UNLIKELY HERO AND A PARTIAL VICTORY

1. 1. Francis E. Cuppage, James Cook and the Conquest of Scurvy (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994).
2. 2. Stephen R. Bown, Scurvy: How a Surgeon, a Mariner, and a Gentleman Solved the Greatest Medical Mystery of the Age of Sail (New York: Thomas Dunne, 2003), 166.
3. 3. J. C. Beaglehole, The Life of Captain James Cook (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1974).
4. 4. J. Cook, “The Methods Taken for Preserving the Health of the Crew of His Majesty’s Ship the Resolution during Her Late Voyage around the World,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society London 66 (1776): 402–6; B. J. Stubbs, “Captain Cook’s Beer: The Antiscorbutic Use of Malt and Beer in Late 18th Century Sea Voyages,” Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 13 (2003): 129–37.
5. 5. R. D. Leach, “Sir Gilbert Blane, Bart, MD FRS (1749–1832),” Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England 62 (1980): 232–39; J. G. Penn-Barwell, “Sir Gilbert Blane FRS: The Man and His Legacy,” Journal of the Royal Naval Medical Service 102 (2016): 61–66; M. Wharton, “Sir Gilbert Blane Bt (1749–1834),” Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England 66 (1984): 375–76.
6. 6. Gilbert Blane, Observations on the Diseases of Seamen, 2nd ed. (London: Joseph Cooper, 1789), 92, Kindle.
7. 7. Blane, Observations of the Diseases of Seamen, 2,567.
8. 8. Blane, Observations on the Diseases of Seamen.
9. 9. Blane, Observations of the Diseases of Seamen, 611.
10. 10. Blane, Observations of the Diseases of Seamen, 625.
11. 11. Blane, Observations of the Diseases of Seamen, 1,750.
12. 12. Blane, Observations of the Diseases of Seamen, 1,750.
13. 13. Steven Johnson, The Ghost Map (New York: Riverhead, 2007).
14. 14. Leach, “Sir Gilbert Blane.”
15. 15. James Dugan, The Great Mutiny (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1965), 56.
16. 16. Dugan, The Great Mutiny.
17. 17. Dugan, The Great Mutiny, 103.

CHAPTER 4. STEPS FORWARD AND BACK

1. 1. Christopher Lloyd, “The Introduction of Lemon Juice as a Cure for Scurvy,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 35 (1961): 123–32; J. H. Baron, “Sailors’ Scurvy before and after James Lind—A Reassessment,” Nutrition Reviews 67 (2009) 315–32; M. Harrison, “Scurvy on Sea and Land: Political Economy and Natural History, c. 1780–c. 1850,” Journal for Maritime Research 15 (2013): 7–25.
2. 2. H. Chick, “The Discovery of Vitamins,” Progress in Food and Nutrition Science 1 (1975): 1–20.
3. 3. G. C. Cook, “Scurvy in the British Mercantile Marine in the 19th Century, and the Contribution of the Seamen’s Hospital Society,” Postgraduate Medical Journal 80 (2017): 224–29.
4. 4. Cook, “Scurvy in the British Mercantile Marine.”
5. 5. David I. Harvie, Limeys: The True Story of One Man’s War against Ignorance, the Establishment and the Deadly Scurvy (Stroud, UK: Sutton Publishing, 2002), 215–24.
6. 6. Kenneth J. Carpenter, The History of Scurvy and Vitamin C (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 98–132.
7. 7. Chick, “The Discovery of Vitamins.”
8. 8. R. Christison, “On Scurvy. Account of Scurvy as It Has Lately Appeared in Edinburgh, and of an Epidemic of It among Railway Labourers in the Surrounding County,” Monthly Journal of Medical Science 13, no. 74 (1847): 1–22.
9. 9. M. Harrison, “Scurvy on Sea and Land: Political Economy and Natural History, c. 1780–c. 1850,” Journal for Maritime Research 15 (2013): 7–25.
10. 10. W. Baly, “On the Prevention of Scurvy in Prisoners, Pauper Lunatic Asylums, Etc.,” London Medical Gazette 1 (1843): 699–703.
11. 11. Cecil Woodham-Smith, The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845–1849 (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1980).
12. 12. P. P. Boyle and C. O. Grada, “Fertility Trends, Excess Mortality and the Great Irish Famine,” Demography 23, no. 4 (1986): 543–62.
13. 13. C. Ritchie, “Contributions to the Pathology and Treatment of the Scorbutus, Which Is at Present Prevalent in Various Parts of Scotland,” Monthly Journal of Medical Science 12, no. 13 (1847): 38–49.
14. 14. Carpenter, The History of Scurvy, 123–26.
15. 15. R. K. Aspin, “The Papers of Sir Thomas Barlow, BT, KVCO, FRS, PRCP (1845–1945),” Medical History 37 (1993): 333–40.
16. 16. T. Barlow, “On Cases Described as ‘Acute Rickets’ Which Are Probably a Combination of Scurvy and Rickets, the Scurvy Being an Essential, and the Rickets a Variable, Element,” Medical and Chirurgical Transactions 66 (1883): 159–220.
17. 17. T. Barlow, “The Bradshaw Lecture on Infantile Scurvy and Its Relation to Rickets,” British Medical Journal 2, no. 1767 (1894): 1029–34.
18. 18. A. F. Hess and M. Fish, “Infantile Scurvy: The Blood, the Blood-Vessels and the Diet,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 8 (1914): 385–405.
19. 19. Carpenter, The History of Scurvy, 134.
20. 20. Stephen R. Bown, Scurvy: How a Surgeon, a Mariner, and a Gentleman Solved the Greatest Medical Mystery of the Age of Sail (New York: Thomas Dunne, 2003), 82–83.
21. 21. A. H. Smith, “A Historical Inquiry into the Efficacy of Lime-Juice for the Prevention and Cure of Scurvy,” Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps 32 (1919): 93–116, 188–208; L. G. Wilson, “The Clinical Definition of Scurvy and the Discovery of Vitamin C,” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Science 30 (1975): 40–60.
22. 22. Carpenter, The History of Scurvy, 145.
23. 23. E. A. Wilson, “The Medical Aspect of the Discovery’s Voyage to the Antarctic,” British Medical Journal 2, no. 2323 (1905): 77–80.
24. 24. Edward A. Wilson, Diary of the “Discovery” Expedition (London: Blanford Press, 1966), 287.
25. 25. Wilson, “The Medical Aspect of the Discovery’s Voyage to the Antarctic.”
26. 26. Roland Huntford, The Last Place on Earth (New York: Modern Library, 1999).
27. 27. Wilson, “The Clinical Definition of Scurvy and the Discovery of Vitamin C.”

CHAPTER 5. A DIFFERENT KIND OF NUTRIENT

1. 1. Elmer V. McCollum, A History of Nutrition (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1957), 75–81.
2. 2. F. G. Hopkins, “The Earlier History of Vitamin Research,” Nobel lecture, December 11, 1929, www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1929/hopkins/lecture/; R. D. Semba, “The Discovery of the Vitamins,” International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research 82 (2012): 310–15.
3. 3. Kenneth J. Carpenter, Beriberi, White Rice and Vitamin B (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 10–14; K. C. Carter, “The Germ Theory, Beriberi, and the Deficiency Theory of Disease,” Medical History and Bioethics 21 (1977): 119–36; Semba, “The Discovery of the Vitamins.”
4. 4. Medical Research Committee Special Report No. 20, Report on the Present State of Knowledge Concerning Accessory Food Factors (Vitamines) (London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1919).
5. 5. Carpenter, Beriberi, 10–14.
6. 6. A. Bay, “Mori Ōgai Mori and the Beriberi Dispute,” East Asian Science, Technology and Society: An International Journal 5 (2011): 573–779.
7. 7. Carpenter, Beriberi, 35–46.
8. 8. C. Eijkman, “Antineuitic Vitamin and Beriberi,” Nobel lecture, 1929, www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1929/eijkman/lecture/.
9. 9. G. Grijns, “Over Polyneuritis Gallinarum,” Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor Nererlandsch-Indië 41 (1901): 3–110. Published in English in G. Grijns, Researches on Vitamins 1900–1911 (Gorinchem: J. Noorduyn en Zoon N.V., 1935), 1–108.
10. 10. Eijkman “Antineuitic Vitamin and Beriberi.”
11. 11. Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970).
12. 12. A. Holst, “Experimental Studies Relating to ‘Ship Beri-Beri’ and Scurvy,” J Hygiene 7 (1907): 619–33. A. Holst, and T. Frølich “Experimental Studies Relating to Ship Beri-Beri and Scurvy: II. On the Etiology of Scurvy.” Journal of Hygiene 7 (1907): 634–71.
13. 13. Elmer V. McCollum, A History of Nutrition (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1957), 201–28.
14. 14. E. V. McCollum and W. Pitz, “The ‘Vitamine’ Hypothesis and Deficiency Diseases,” Journal of Biological Chemistry 31 (1917): 229–53.
15. 15. F. G. Hopkins, “Feeding Experiments Illustrating the Importance of Accessory Factors in Normal Dietaries,” Journal of Physiological Sciences 44 (1912): 425–60.
16. 16. A. Maltz, “Casimer Funk, Nonconformist Nomenclature, and Networks Surrounding the Discovery of Vitamins,” Journal of Nutrition 143 (2013): 1013–20; A. Piro, G. Tagarelli, P. Lagonia, A. Tagarelli, and A. Quattrone, “Casimer Funk: His Discovery of the Vitamins and Their Deficiency Disorders,” Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 57 (2010): 85–88.
17. 17. C. Funk, “On the Chemical Nature of the Substance Which Cures Polyneuritis in Birds Induced by a Diet of Polished Rice,” Journal of Physiology 43 (1911): 395–400.
18. 18. J. C. Drummond, “Note on the Role of the Anti-Scorbutic Factor in Nutrition,” Biochemical Journal 13 (1919): 77–80.
19. 19. Patricia Fara, A Lab of One’s Own: Science and Suffrage in the First World War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018).
20. 20. Lynn Brindan, Alison Brading, and Tilli Taney, eds., Women Physiologists: An Anniversary Celebration of their Contributions to British Physiology (London: Portland Press, 1993).
21. 21. H. Chick, E. M. Hume, R. F. Skelton, and A. Henderson Smith, “The Relative Content of Antiscorbutic Principle in Limes and Lemons,” Lancet (November 30, 1918): 735–38.
22. 22. A. Henderson Smith, “A Historical Inquiry into the Efficacy of Lime-Juice for the Prevention and Cure of Scurvy,” Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps (1919): 188–208.
23. 23. H. Chick, E. J. Dalyell, M. Hume, H. M. M. Mackay, and A. Henderson Smith, “The Etiology of Rickets in Infants,” Lancet 2 (1922): 7–11.
24. 24. E. V. McCollum and M. Davis, “The Necessity of Certain Lipins in the Diet during Growth,” Journal of Biological Chemistry 15 (1913): 167–75.
25. 25. McCollum and Pitz, “The ‘Vitamine’ Hypothesis and Deficiency Diseases.”
26. 26. McCollum and Davis, “The Necessity of Certain Lipins in the Diet during Growth.”
27. 27. Drummond, “Note on the Role of the Anti-Scorbutic Factor in Nutrition.”
28. 28. Drummond, “Note on the Role of the Anti-Scorbutic Factor in Nutrition.”
29. 29. F. G. Hopkins, “The Analyst and the Medical Man,” Analyst 31 (1906): 385–404.

CHAPTER 6. THE VITAMIN HUNTERS

1. 1. S. S. Zilva, “The Isolation and Identification of Vitamin C,” Archives of Disease in Childhood 10 (1935): 253–64.
2. 2. A. Harden and S. S. Zilva, “The Antiscorbutic Factor in Lemon Juice,” Biochemical Journal 12 (1918): 259–69.
3. 3. Ralph W. Moss, Free Radical: Albert Szent-Gyorgyi and the Battle over Vitamin C (New York: Paragon House, 1988).
4. 4. A. Szent-Gyorgyi, “Lost in the Twentieth Century,” Annual Review of Biochemistry 32 (1963): 1–15.
5. 5. A. Szent-Gyorgyi, “Observations on the Function of Peroxidase Systems and the Chemistry of the Adrenal Cortex,” Biochemical Journal 22 (1928): 1387–1410.
6. 6. J. L. Svirbely and C. G. King, “The Preparation of Vitamin C Concentrates from Lemon Juice,” Journal of Biological Chemistry 94 (1931): 483–90.
7. 7. J. L. Svirbely and A. Szent-Gyorgyi, “Hexuronic Acid as the Antiscorbutic Factor,” Nature 129 (1932): 576; J. L. Svirbely and A. Szent-Gyorgyi, “The Chemical Nature of Vitamin C,” Biochemical Journal 26 (1932): 865–70.
8. 8. S. S. Zilva, “Hexuronic Acid as the Antiscorbutic Factor,” Nature 129 (1932): 943; S. S. Zilva, “The Isolation and Identification of Vitamin C.”
9. 9. Szent-Gyorgyi, “Lost in the Twentieth Century.”
10. 10. C. G. King and W. A. Waugh, “The Chemical Nature of Vitamin C,” Science 75 (1932) 357–58.
11. 11. W. A. Waugh and C. G. King, “Isolation and Characterization of Vitamin C,” Journal of Biological Chemistry 97 (1932): 325–31.
12. 12. Svirbely and Szent-Gyorgyi, “Hexuronic Acid as the Antiscorbutic Factor.”
13. 13. Szent-Gyorgyi, “Lost in the Twentieth Century.”
14. 14. W. N. Haworth, “The Structure of Carbohydrates and of Vitamin C,” in Nobel Lectures: Chemistry 1922–1941 (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1966).
15. 15. A. Szent-Gyorgyi and W. N. Haworth, “Hexuronic Acid (Ascorbic Acid) as the Antiscorbutic Factor,” Nature 131 (1933): 24.
16. 16. A. Szent-Gyorgyi, “Oxidation, Energy Transfer, and Vitamins,” in Nobel Lectures: Physiology or Medicine 1922–1941 (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1965); W. N. Haworth, “The Structure of Carbohydrates and of Vitamin C,” in Nobel Lectures: Chemistry 1922–1941 (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1966).
17. 17. G. J. Cox, “Crystallized Vitamin C and Hexuronic Acid,” Science86 (1937): 540–42.

CHAPTER 7. SCURVY FOR SCIENCE

1. 1. J. C. Drummond and A. Wilbraham, “William Stark, M.D.,” Lancet 226 (1935): 459–62.
2. 2. Adrian Tinniswood, The Royal Society and the Invention of Modern Science (New York: Basic, 2019), 78.
3. 3. J. H. Crandon, C. C. Lund, and D. B. Dill, “Experimental Human Scurvy,” New England Journal of Medicine 223 (1940): 353–69; J. H. Crandon and C. C. Lund, “Vitamin C Deficiency in an Otherwise Normal Adult,” New England Journal of Medicine 222 (1940): 748–52.
4. 4. Lawrence K. Altman, Who Goes First? The Story of Self-Experimentation in Medicine (New York: Random House, 1987), 250–55.
5. 5. J. Pemberton, “Medical Experiments Carried out in Sheffield on Conscientious Objectors to Military Service during the 1939–45 War,” International Journal of Epidemiology 35 (2006): 556–58; Medical Research Council, Vitamins: A Survey of Present Knowledge, Medical Research Council Special Reports Series No. 167 (London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1932).
6. 6. M. Pijoan and E. L. Lozner, “Vitamin C Economy in the Human Subject,” Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital 75 (1944): 303–14.
7. 7. R. E. Hodges, E. M. Baker, J. Hood, H. E. Sauberlich, and S. E. March, “Experimental Scurvy in Man,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 22 (1969): 535–48; R. E. Hodges, J. Hood, J. E. Canham, H. E. Sauberlich, and E. M. Baker, “Clinical Manifestations of Ascorbic Acid Deficiency in Man,” Amerian Journal of Clinical Nutrition 24 (1971): 432–43.
8. 8. S. K. Shah, F. G. Miller, D. C. Darton, D. Duenas, C. Emerson, H. Fernandez Lynch, E. Jamrozik, N. S. Jecker, D. Kamuya, M. Kapulu, J. Kimmelman, D. Mackay, M. J. Memoli, S. C. Murphy, R. Palacios, T. L. Richie, M. Roestenberg, A. Saxena, K. Saylor, M. J. Selgelid, V. Vaswani, and A. Rid, “Ethics of Controlled Human Infection to Address COVID-19,” Science 368 (2020): 832–34.

CHAPTER 8. NORMAL SCIENCE

1. 1. C. S. Johnston, F. M. Steinberg, and R. B. Rucker, “Ascorbic Acid,” in Handbook of Vitamins, ed. J. Zempleni, 4th ed. (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2007), 489–520.
2. 2. M. Levine, “New Concepts in the Biology and Biochemistry of Ascorbic Acid,” New England Journal of Medicine 314 (1986): 892–902; I. B. Chatterjee, A. K. Mujumder, B. K. Nandi, and N. Subramanian, “Synthesis and Some Major Functions of Vitamin C in Animals,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 258 (1975): 24–47; J. Mandl, A. Szarka, and G. Banhegyi, “Vitamin C: Update on Physiology and Pharmacology,” British Journal of Pharmacology 157 (2009) 1097–1110; Johnston, Steinberg, and Rucker, “Ascorbic Acid.”
3. 3. Mandl, Szarka, and Banhegyi, “Vitamin C: Update on Physiology and Pharmacology.”
4. 4. Johnston, Steinberg, and Rucker, “Ascorbic Acid.”
5. 5. N. L. Parrow, J. A. Leshin, and M. Levine, “Parenteral Ascorbate as a Cancer Therapeutic: A Reassessment Based on Pharmacokinetics,” Antioxidants and Redox Signaling 19 (2013): 2141–56.
6. 6. N. Smirnoff, “Ascorbic Acid Metabolism and Function: A Comparison of Plants and Animals,” Free Radical Biology and Medicine 122 (2018): 116–29; G. Drouin, J. R. Godin, and B. Page, “The Genetics of Vitamin C Loss in Vertebrates,” Current Genomics 12 (2011): 371–78; I. B. Chatterjee, “Evolution and the Biosynthesis of Ascorbic Acid,” Science 182 (1973): 1271–72; A. Nandi, K. Mukhopadhyay, M. K. Ghosh, D. J. Chattopadhyay, and I. B. Chatterjee, “Evolutionary Significance of Vitamin C Biosynthesis in Terrestrial Vertebrates,” Free Radical Biology and Medicine 22 (1997): 1047–54; A. R. Fernie and T. Tohge, “Ascorbate Biosynthesis: A Cross-Kingdom History,” eLife 4 (2015): e07527.
7. 7. P. Aghajanian, S. Hall, M. D. Wongworawat, and S. Mohan, “The Roles and Mechanisms of Action of Vitamin C in Bone: New Developments,” Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 30 (2015): 1945–55; Johnston, Steinberg, and Rucker, “Ascorbic Acid.”
8. 8. N. Gest, H. Gaitier, and R. Stevens, “Ascorbate as Seen through Plant Evolution: The Rise of a Successful Molecule?” Journal of Experimental Botany 64 (2013): 33–53; B. N. Ivanov, “Role of Ascorbic Acid in Photosynthesis,” Biochemistry (Moscow) 79 (2014): 282–89; Y. Leshem, “Plant Senescence Processes and Free Radicals,” Free Radical Biology and Medicine 5 (1988): 39–49; Smirnoff, “Ascorbic Acid Metabolism and Function: A Comparison of Plants and Animals”; N. Smirnoff and G. L. Wheeler, “Ascorbic Acid in Plants: Biosynthesis and Function,” Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 35 (2000): 291–414.
9. 9. Mandl, Szarka, and Banhegyi, “Vitamin C: Update on Physiology and Pharmacology.”
10. 10. S. England and S. Seifter, “The Biochemical Functions of Ascorbic Acid,” Annual Review of Nutrition 6 (1986): 365–406.
11. 11. Johnston, Steinberg, and Rucker, “Ascorbic acid.”
12. 12. Mandl, Szarka, and Banhegyi, “Vitamin C: Update on Physiology and Pharmacology..”
13. 13. K. J. Nytko, N. Maeda, P. Schafli, P. Spielman, R. H. Wengler, and D. P. Stiehl, “Vitamin C Is Dispensable for Oxygen Sensing in Vivo,” Blood 117 (2010): 5485–93.
14. 14. Johnston, Steinberg, and Rucker, “Ascorbic Acid.”
15. 15. S. Hasselhot, P. Tveden-Nyborg, and J. Lykkesfeldt, “Distribution of Vitamin C Is Tissue Specific with Early Saturation of the Brain and Adrenal Glands Following Differential Oral Dose Regimens in Guinea Pigs,” British Journal of Nutrition 113 (2015): 1539–49.
16. 16. C. C. Carr and S. Maggini, “Vitamin C and Immune Function,” Nutrients 9 (2017): 1211, https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9111211; H. Hemila, “Vitamin C and Infections,” Nutrients 9 (2017): 339–56; W. R. Thomas and P. G. Holt, “Vitamin C and Immunity: An Assessment of the Evidence,” Clinical and Experimental Immunology 32 (1978): 370–79.
17. 17. Alfred F. Hess, Scurvy: Past and Present (Philadelphia: Lippencott, 1920). Available at http://chla.library.cornell.edu.
18. 18. P. W. Washko, Y. Wang, and M. Levine, “Ascorbic Acid Recycling in Human Neutrophils,” Journal of Biological Chemistry 268 (1993): 15531–35.

CHAPTER 9. THE PASSION OF LINUS PAULING

1. 1. The details of the biography of Linus Pauling are from Thomas Hager, Force of Nature: The Life of Linus Pauling (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995).
2. 2. L. Pauling, “The Nature of the Chemical Bond: Application of Results Obtained from the Quantum Mechanics and from a Theory of Paramagnetic Susceptibility to the Structure of Molecules,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 53 (1931): 1367–400.
3. 3. L. Pauling, R. B. Corey, and H. R. Branson, “The Structure of Proteins: Two Hydrogen-Bonded Helical Configurations of the Polypeptide Chain,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 37 (1951): 205–11; L. Pauling and R. B. Corey, “Atomic Coordinates and Structure Factors for Two Helical Configurations of Polypeptide Chains,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 37 (1951): 235–40; L. Pauling and R. B. Corey, “The Structure of Synthetic Polypeptides,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 37 (1951): 241–50; L. Pauling and R. B. Corey, “The Pleated Sheet, a New Layer Configuration of Polypeptide Chains,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 37 (1951): 251–56; L. Pauling and R. B. Corey, “The Structure of Feather Rachis Keratin,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 37 (1951): 256–61; L. Pauling and R. B. Corey, “The Structure of Hair, Muscle and Related Proteins,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 37 (1951): 261–71; L. Pauling and R. B. Corey, “The Structure of Fibrous Proteins of the Collagen-Gelatin Group,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 37 (1951): 272–81; L. Pauling and R. B. Corey, “The Polypeptide-Chain Configuration in Hemoglobin and Other Globular Proteins,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 37 (1951): 282–85; L. Pauling and R. B. Corey, “Configurations of Polypeptide Chains with Favored Orientations around Single Bonds: Two New Pleated Sheets,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 37 (1951): 729–40.
4. 4. L. Pauling, H. A. Itano, S. J. Singer, and I. C. Wells, “Sickle Cell Anemia: A Molecular Disease,” Science 110 (1949): 543–48.
5. 5. L. Pauling and R. B. Corey, “A Proposed Structure for the Nucleic Acids,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 39 (1953): 84–97.
6. 6. L. Pauling, “Orthomolecular Psychiatry,” Science 160 (1968): 265–71.
7. 7. Linus Pauling, Vitamin C and the Common Cold (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1970).
8. 8. G. Ritzel, “Critical Evaluation of the Prophylactic and Therapeutic Properties of Vitamin C with Respect to the Common Cold,” Helvetica Medica Acta 28 (1961): 63–68.
9. 9. L. Pauling, “The Significance of the Evidence about Ascorbic Acid and the Common Cold,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 68 (1971): 2678–81.
10. 10. D. W. Cowan, H. S. Diehl, and A. B. Baker, “Vitamins for the Prevention of Colds,” JAMA 120 (1942): 1268–71; T. R. Karlowski, T. C. Chalmers, L. D. Frenkel, A. Z. Kapikian, T. L. Lewis, and J. M. Lynch, “Ascorbic Acid for the Common Cold: A Prophylactic and Therapeutic Trial,” JAMA 231 (1975): 1038–42; T. W. Anderson, G. H. Beaton, P. N. Corer, and L. Spero, “Winter Illness and Vitamin C: The Effect of Relatively Low Doses,” Canadian Medical Association Journal 112 (1975): 823–26; T. W. Anderson, D. B. W. Reid, and G. H. Beaton, “Vitamin C and the Common Cold: A Double-Blind Trial,” Canadian Medical Association Journal 105 (1972): 503–8; T. W. Anderson, G. Suranyi, and G. H. Beaton, “The Effect on Winter Illness of Large Doses of Vitamin C,” Canadian Medical Association Journal 111 (1974): 31–36; J. L. Coulehan, K. S. Reisinger, K. D. Rogers, and D. W. Bradley, “Vitamin C Prophylaxis in a Boarding School,” New England Journal of Medicine 290 (1974): 6–10; C. W. M. Wilson and H. S. Loh, “Common Cold and Vitamin C,” Lancet 1 (1973): 638–41.
11. 11. T. C. Chalmers, “Effects of Ascorbic Acid on the Common Cold,” American Journal of Medicine 58 (1975): 532–36.
12. 12. Chalmers, “Effects of Ascorbic Acid on the Common Cold”; M. H. M. Dykes and P. Meier, “Ascorbic Acid and the Common Cold: Evaluation of Its Efficacy and Toxicity,” JAMA 231 (1975): 1073–79; T. W. Anderson, “Large-Scale Trials of Vitamin C,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 258 (1975): 498–504.
13. 13. Linus Pauling, Vitamin C, the Common Cold, and the Flu (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1976).
14. 14. E. T. Creagan, C. G. Moertel, J. R. O’Fallon, A. J. Schutt, M. J. O’Connell, J. Rubin, and S. Frytak, “Failure of High-Dose Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) to Benefit Patients with Advanced Cancer: A Controlled Trial,” New England Journal of Medicine 301 (1979): 687–90.
15. 15. C. G. Moertel, T. R. Fleming, E. T. Creagan, J. Rubin, M. J. O’Connell, and M. M. Ames, “High-Dose Vitamin C versus Placebo in the Treatment of Patients with Advanced Cancer Who Have Had No Prior Chemotherapy: A Randomized Double-Blind Comparison,” New England Journal of Medicine 312 (1985): 137–41.

CHAPTER 10. VITAMINS, BUSINESS, AND POLITICS

1. 1. Dan Hurley, Natural Causes: Death, Lies, and Politics in America’s Vitamin and Herbal Supplement Industry (New York: Broadway, 2006); Paul A. Offit, Do You Believe in Magic? The Sense and Nonsense of Alternative Medicine (New York: HarperCollins, 2013).
2. 2. E. D. Kantor, C. D. Rehm, M. Du, E. White, and E. L. Giovannucci, “Trends in Dietary Supplement Use among US Adults from 1999–2012,” JAMA 316 (2016): 1464–74; D. M. Eisenberg, R. C. Kessler, C. Foster, F. E. Norlock, D. R. Calkins, and T. L. Delbanco, “Unconventional Medicine in the United States,” New England Journal of Medicine 328 (1993): 246–52; J. J. Galche, R. I. Bailey, N. Potischman, and J. T. Dwyer, “Dietary Supplement Use Was Very High among Older Adults in the United States in 2011–2014,” Journal of Nutrition 147 (2017): 1968–76; S. P. Murphy, D. Rose, M. Hudes, and F. E. Viterii, “Demographic and Economic Factors Associated with Dietary Quality for Adults in the 1987–88 Nationwide Food Consumption Survey,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 92 (1992): 1352–57.
3. 3. D. M. Qato, J. Wilder, P. Shumm, V. Gillet, and C. Alexander, “Changes in Prescription and Over-the-Counter Medication and Dietary Supplement Use among Older Adults in the United States, 2005 versus 2011,” JAMA Internal Medicine 176 (2016): 473–82.
4. 4. U. S. Food and Drug Administration, “Dietary Supplements,” https://www.fda.gov/Food/DietarySupplements/default.htm.
5. 5. S. M. Schmitz, H. L. Lopez, D. Mackay, H. Nguyen, and P. Miller, “Serious Adverse Events Reported with Dietary Supplement Use in the United States: A 2.5 Year Experience,” Journal of Dietary Supplements 17 (2020): 227–48, https://doi.org/10.1080/19390211.2018.1513109.
6. 6. A. I. Geller, N. Shehab, N. J. Weidle, M. C. Lovegrove, B. J. Wolpert, B. B. Timbo, R. P. Mozersky, and D. S. Budnitz, “Emergency Department Visits for Adverse Events Related to Dietary Supplements,” New England Journal of Medicine 373 (2015): 1531–40.
7. 7. J. Calahan, D. Howard, A. J. Almalki, M. P. Gupta, and A. I. Calderon, “Chemical Adulteration in Herbal Medicinal Products: A Review,” Planta Medica 82 (2016): 505–15; D. M. Marcus, “Dietary Supplements: What’s in a Name? What’s in the Bottle?” Drug Testing Analysis 8 (2015): 410–12.
8. 8. Katherine Eban, Bottle of Lies (New York: HarperCollins, 2019).
9. 9. Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical Bond (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1960).

CHAPTER 11. LESSONS LEARNED

1. 1. Medical Research Council, Vitamins: A Survey of Present Knowledge, Medical Research Council Special Reports Series No. 167 (London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1932), 10.
2. 2. A. E. Carroll, “Health Facts Aren’t Enough. Should Persuasion Become a Priority?” New York Times, July 22, 2019.
3. 3. B. Nyhan, J. Reifler, S. Richey, and G. L. Freed, “Effective Messages in Vaccine Promotion: A Randomized Trial,” Pediatrics 133 (2014): 835–42.
4. 4. R. J. Blendon, C. M. DesRoches, J. M. Benson, M. Brodie, and D. E. Altman, “Americans’ Views on the Use and Regulation of Dietary Supplements,” Archives of Internal Medicine 161 (2001): 805–10.
5. 5. A. J. Bollet, “Politics and Pellagra: The Epidemic of Pellagra in the U.S. in the Early Twentieth Century,” Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 65 (1992): 211–21.

CHAPTER 12. A GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED

1. 1. Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium and Carentenoids (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2000).
2. 2. Y. Li and H. E. Schelhorn, “New Developments and Novel Therapeutic Perspectives for Vitamin C,” Journal of Nutrition 137 (2007): 2171–84.
3. 3. M. Levine, C. Conry-Cantelena, Y. Wang, R. W. Welch, P. W. Washko, K. R. Dhariwal, J. B. Park, A. Lazarev, J. F. Graumlich, J. King, and L. R. Cantilena, “Vitamin C Pharmacokinetics in Healthy Volunteers: Evidence for a Recommended Daily Allowance,” Proceedings of the National Academies of Science 93 (1996): 3704–9; M. Levine, Y. Wang, S. J. Padayatty, and J. Morrow, “A New Recommended Dietary Allowance of Vitamin C for Healthy Women,” Proceedings of the National Academies of Science 98 (2001): 9842–46.
4. 4. Food and Nutrition Board, Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium and Carentenoids.
5. 5. A. Kallner, D. Hartmann, and D. Hornig, “Steady-State Turnover and Body Pool of Ascorbic Acid in Man,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 32 (1979): 530–39.
6. 6. Food and Nutrition Board, Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium and Carentenoids.
7. 7. V. R. Young, “Evidence for a Recommended Daily Allowance for Vitamin C from Pharmacokinetics: A Comment and Analysis,” Proceedings of the National Academies of Science 93 (1996): 14344–48.
8. 8. Public Health England, Government Dietary Recommendations (London: The Stationery Office, 2016), https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/618167/government_dietary_recommendations.pdf.
9. 9. G. Bjelakovic, D. Nikolova, L. L. Gluud, R. G. Simonetti, and C. Gluud, “Antioxidant Supplements for Prevention of Mortality in Healthy Participants and Patients with Various Diseases,” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews CD007176 (2012).
10. 10. G. Bjelakovic, D. Nikolova, R. G. Simonetti, and C. Gluud, “Antioxidant Supplements for Prevention of Gastrointestinal Cancers: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” Lancet 364 (2004): 1219–28.
11. 11. Bjelakovic, Nikolova, Simonetti, and Gluud, “Antioxidant Supplements for Prevention of Gastrointestinal Cancers.”
12. 12. H. Hemila and E. Chalker, “Vitamin C for Preventing and Treating the Common Cold,” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews CD000980 (2013).
13. 13. G. Ritzel, “Critical Evaluation of the Prophylactic and Therapeutic Properties of Vitamin C with Respect to the Common Cold,” Helvetica Medica Acta 28 (1961): 63–68; N. W. Constantini, G. Dubnov-Raz, B. Eyal, E. M. Berry, A. H. Cohen, and H. Hemila, “The Effects of Vitamin C on Upper Respiratory Infections in Adolescent Swimmers: A Randomized Trial,” European Journal of Pediatrics 170 (2011): 59–63; B. H. Sabiston and M. W. Radonski, “Health Problems and Vitamin C in Canadian Northern Military Operations,” Defence and Civil Institute of Environmental Medicine Report 74-R-1012 (1974): www.mv.helsinki.fi/home/hemila/CC/Sabiston_1974_ch.pdf; E. M. Peters, J. M. Goetzsche, B. Grobbelaar, and T. D. Noakes, “Vitamin C Supplementation Reduces the Incidence of Postrace Symptoms of Upper-Respiratory-Tract Infection in Ultramarathon Runners,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 57 (1993): 170–74.
14. 14. Hemila and Chalker, “Vitamin C for Preventing and Treating the Common Cold”; H. Hemila, “Vitamin C and Infections,” Nutrients 9 (2017): 339–56; C. Jacobs, B. Hutton, T. Ng, R. Shorr, and M. Clemons, “Is There a Role for Oral or Intravenous Ascorbate (Vitamin C) in Treating Patients with Cancer? A Systematic Review,” Oncologist 20 (2015): 210–23; M. A. Moser and O. K. Chun, “Vitamin C and Heart Health: A Review Based on Findings from Epidemiological Studies,” International Journal of Molecular Science 17, 8 (2016): 1328, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms17081328.
15. 15. H. Gerster, “No Contribution of Ascorbic Acid to Renal Calcium Oxalate Stones,” Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 41 (1997): 269–82.
16. 16. S. Wu, G. Wu, and H. Wu, “Hemolytic Jaundice Induced by Pharmacological Dose Ascorbic Acid in Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency,” Medicine 97, no. 51 (2018): e13588.

APPENDIX: SELECTED FOOD SOURCES OF VITAMIN C

1. 1. National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements, “Vitamin C,” https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminC-HealthProfessional/.