The earliest methods of preserving meat and fish—and to a certain extent fruit and vegetables—relied on the seasons, the elements and natural resources. In Southern Europe, this meant salt, sun and oil. In the North, a good steady north-easterly blow might do the trick, plus some salty spray and wood smoke. In Iceland and many other parts of Scandinavia, the wind-drying of cod and haddock, split open and laid on racks or ‘stocks’, still produces supplies of ‘stockfish’, a food with the consistency of chipboard and the aroma of a teenage boy’s socks. The secret is lots of butter and strong jaws—then it’s delicious.When the weather becomes too warm, the curers move over to ‘klipfish’, cod that is first salted, then dried on the rocks or ‘klippe’.
The Scandinavians have also refined other ways of curing fish, particularly herring and salmon, which set the pickling standard for the rest of the world. From the Middle Ages onwards, the herring industry was quite literally the backbone of the economy of half a dozen North European nations—Holland, Germany and the Scandinavian countries, not to mention parts of England and Scotland. Before ice, refrigeration and fast transport, virtually all the catch had to be preserved by pickling or smoking. Barrels of pickled ‘white’ herring and smoked ‘reds’ were shipped by the boatload from one European port to another. But the pickling of herring wasn’t simply a commercial trade: it was an essential domestic craft as well.
For many years, the uncrowned queen of the pickled herring in the UK was Anna Hegarty, who owned Anna’s Place in Stoke Newington, North London, and put on her special show for delighted customers night after night. She showed us the making of the classic pickled herring, and also the famous ‘Three kinds of Herring’—a dish that struck a chord in our memories of Reykjavik and Oslo. For this speciality, the salt-cured fish is—of course—prepared in three different ways, then eaten with dark rye bread and unsalted butter.
Anna’s greatest triumph, though, was undoubtedly gravadlax (gravlax in Danish).We think her version of this method of salting and marinating salmon is still unequalled in England. Twenty years ago you would be hard pressed to find it anywhere in Britain; these days it is elbowing its close cousin, smoked salmon, from restaurant menus across the land. The word gravadlax means literally ‘buried salmon’, and refers to the ancient practice of preserving fish in pits.When fishermen were far from home, they would pack sides of salmon between layers of birch bark and fir branches, weight them down with stones and bury them in a pit on the shore or in the cold Scandinavian earth. Later the fish were salted first, then stored in a kind of underground larder reinforced with rocks or a heavy wooden door.
These days, many other fish will also do the trick: Norfolk restaurateur, Bernard Phillips, showed us that it’s possible to make an imitation—a ‘poor man’s gravlax ’—with grey mullet, sea bass or even trout.
But there’s more to pickling in Scandinavia and Northern Europe than fish. The Germans have sauerkraut, a classic speciality of salted and fermented cabbage, which is virtually their national dish. Elsewhere, there are dill-pickled cucumbers, baby beetroots lightly pickled and garnished with caraway seeds, mushrooms and tomatoes.We have even sampled a kind of sweet pickled broccoli as part of a Danish breakfast.
There’s no better description of pickles and preserves on the Swedish table than this litany of good things, described by the French traveller Paul du Chaillu in 1871. He was in Gotenburg:
‘I was led to a little table, called smorgasbord, around which we all clustered and upon which I saw a display of smoked reindeer meat, cut into small thin slices; smoked salmon with poached eggs; fresh raw sliced salmon, called graflax, upon which salt had been put about an hour before; hard-boiled eggs; caviare; fried sausage; a sort of anchovy, caught on the western coast; raw, salted Norwegian herring, exceedingly fat, cut into small pieces; sillsalat, made of pickled herring; small pieces of boiled meat, potato etc. with olive oil, and vinegar; smoked goose-breast; cucumbers, soft brown and white bread, cut into small slices; knackebrod, a sort of flat, hard bread made of coarse rye flour and flavoured with aniseed; siktadt bread, very thin, and made of the finest bolted flour; butter; gammal ost, the strongest old cheese one can taste, and kummin ost, a cheese seasoned with caraway; three crystal decanters, containing different kinds of branvin [spirits]; renadt, made from rye or potatoes; pomerans, made from renadt, with the addition of oil or bitter orange and somewhat sweet, and finkelbranvin, or unpurified spirit.’
(Quoted in European Peasant Cookery by Elisabeth Luard)
The Scandinavians still have a great fondness for pickled herring, and each family seems to have its own special recipe. These days the starting point is usually salted and skinned herring fillets, which can be bought in cans or tubs from good supermarkets, specialist delicatessens and Scandinavian food stores.
Once pickled, the herring can be used in countless ways. A glance through any Scandinavian recipe book will provide you with scores of ideas for salads, garnishes and dressings.
MAKES ABOUT 1 kg (2 lb)
1 kg (2 lb) SALT HERRING FILLETS
3 RED ONIONS, SLICED
300 ml (10 fl oz) WHITE VINEGAR
2x15 ml SPOONS (2 TABLESPOONS) SUGAR
2 BAY LEAVES
2x5 ml SPOONS (2 TEASPOONS) JUNIPER BERRIES
2x5 ml SPOONS (2 TEASPOONS) ALLSPICE BERRIES
1x5 ml SPOON (1 TEASPOON) BLACK PEPPERCORNS
Remove the fillets from their liquor, then soak overnight in a bowl of cold water.
Next day, drain the fillets and pat dry. Arrange in a dish and cover with red onions, which add colour as well as flavour.
Heat the vinegar with 300 ml (10 fl oz) water in a saucepan and add the sugar and bay leaves, juniper berries, allspice berries and peppercorns. Bring to the boil and cook for 10 minutes. Leave to cool, then pour the spiced vinegar over the fish and onions, making sure they are completely covered. Leave in a cool place for at least 48 hours before serving. These herring will keep for up to a month in the fridge, provided they are always covered with vinegar.
This recipe is for pickling small fresh herring. They are not salted before pickling, so the dish is only intended to keep for about 3 days.
MAKES ABOUT 1 kg (2 lb)
1 kg (2 lb) FRESH HERRING
2x5 ml SPOONS (2 TEASPOONS) SALT
1x15 ml SPOON (1 TABLESPOON) SUGAR
1x5 ml SPOON (1 TEASPOON) WHITE MUSTARD SEEDS
1x5 ml SPOON (1 TEASPOON) BLACK PEPPERCORNS
600 ml (1 PINT) WHITE VINEGAR
4x15 ml SPOONS (4 TABLESPOONS) CHOPPED FRESH DILL
It is worth knowing how to prepare and fillet a whole herring: scrape off any loose scales, then cut off the head and tail, split open the belly and remove the guts. Next, take out the backbone. Put the fish belly-side down on a board and press along the whole length of the back with your thumb, then turn the fish over and ease the backbone away from the flesh with a knife; most of the smaller bones will come away as well. Rinse the fish and drain well on a cloth.
Put the salt, sugar, mustard seeds, peppercorns and vinegar in a pan, bring to the boil and simmer for 10 minutes, then set aside to cool.
Line the bottom of a deep dish with a layer of dill, then arrange some fish on top, fleshy sides down. Sprinkle more dill on top and add another layer of fish, finishing with a layer of dill. Pour over the cold spiced vinegar, making sure the fish are completely covered. Stand the dish in a cool place for at least 24 hours and up to 48 hours, depending on how strong a pickle you like. The herrings are then ready for eating.
Another Scandinavian variation on the theme: this time the starting point is cooked herring. It is a good way of preserving any leftovers from a fresh herring feast.
MAKES ABOUT 1 kg (2 lb)
2 ONIONS, SLICED
1 kg (2 lb) WHOLE HERRING, COOKED
2x15 ml SPOONS (2 TABLESPOONS) SUGAR
2 BAY LEAVES
2x5 ml SPOONS (2 TEASPOONS) ALLSPICE BERRIES
600 ml (1 PINT) WHITE VINEGAR
SPRIGS OF FRESH DILL OR FENNEL
Arrange the onions on the bottom of a large shallow dish and put the herring carefully on top, preferably in a single layer.
Put the sugar, bay leaves and allspice in a pan with the vinegar, bring to the boil and simmer for 10 minutes, then set aside to cool. Pour the cold pickle over the fish, making sure they are completely covered. Leave for 24 hours before using. Scatter sprigs of fresh dill or fennel over the dish just before serving. This pickle should be consumed within 3 days.
Rollmops are famous throughout Scandinavia and Germany. They are also well known in Britain, although most commercial versions sold in pubs and delicatessens are an acidic travesty of the real thing. At its best, a rollmop is one of the finest kinds of pickled herring; it needs only some potatoes and a green salad as accompaniments.
6 HERRING
50 g (2 oz) SALT
2 BAY LEAVES
1x5 ml SPOON (1 TEASPOON) CLOVES
1x5 ml SPOON (1 TEASPOON) WHITE MUSTARD SEEDS
1x5 ml SPOON (1 TEASPOON) BLACK PEPPERCORNS
600 ml (1 PINT) WHITE VINEGAR OR CIDER VINEGAR
1 ONION, THINLY SLICED
2 PICKLED DILL CUCUMBERS, THINLY SLICED
Scale the herrings, cut off their heads and tails and gut them thoroughly. Wash well, then remove the backbone (see p. 117), but leave them as double fillets.Make up a brine with the salt and 600 ml (1 pint) water and let the fish soak for about 3 hours.
To prepare the pickle, boil the bay leaves, cloves, mustard seeds and peppercorns in the vinegar for 10 minutes, then set aside to cool.
Remove the fish from the brine and dry well. Roll each fillet around a slice of onion and a slice of pickled cucumber and secure with a toothpick. Pack the rollmops into a straight-sided jar or dish and cover with the cold spiced vinegar, including the bay leaves and spices. Seal and leave in a cool place for 3-4 days before serving. They will keep well for up to 2 months in the fridge, provided the fish is always completely covered with vinegar.
Gaffelbitar, or herring tit-bits, are bite-sized morsels of salted and spiced fish. They are one of Scandinavia’s favourite foods and have something of a following in Britain and the USA as well. They have only been produced in their present form since 1906, when a man named Alfred Bovik had the notion of packing herring in barrels on board ship with a special mixture of salt, sugar and spices. He provided the captains of the boats fishing off Iceland with bags of his mixture and instructions as to how it should be used. Then he waited. The result was a prototype of gaffelbitar.
This method of curing produces a transformation: the fish looks more like an obscure sort of raw ham, the flesh is soft, pink and succulent, and the aroma is curiously exquisite. In practice, gaffelbitar can only be produced successfully on a large scale, some of the original recipes calling for Spanish hops and sandalwood, and the process is still very time consuming. It is possible, however, to make a very passable imitation at home using the following recipe. Once cured, there are countless ways of using and serving the fish: they are perfect with crisp radishes and rye bread; they can be used to top all kinds of open sandwiches; they go well with pickled dill cucumbers; and can be made into salads with apples, potatoes, onions and any kind of creamy dressing.
12 FRESH HERRING FILLETS
300 ml (10 fl oz) WHITE VINEGAR
100 g (4 oz) SUGAR
50 g (2 oz) SEA SALT
2x5 ml SPOONS (2 TEASPOONS) ALLSPICE BERRIES
2x5 ml SPOONS (2 TEASPOONS) BLACK PEPPERCORNS
1 ONION, SLICED
2x15 ml SPOONS (2 TABLESPOONS) CHOPPED FRESH DILL
Clean the herring fillets and leave them to dry on a cloth.Mix 1.2 litres (2 PINTS) water and the vinegar together and soak the herring for a couple of hours. Meanwhile, crush the sugar, salt, allspice and peppercorns roughly using a pestle and mortar.
Rinse the herring and drain them well, rub them all over with the salt and spice mixture. Sprinkle the bottom of a deep dish or crock with some of the salt mixture, then pack in some herring—skin side upwards—onion slices and dill in layers, sprinkling more of the salt between the layers. Finish with a layer of onion and a final sprinkling of salt.
Cover the dish and stand it in a cool place for at least 24 hours and up to 48 hours depending on how strong a pickle you like. The fish are then ready for use. If stored in the fridge, they will remain good for about 5 days.
These were once known as ‘saure lappen’ or ‘sour lobes’, because they were made from double fillets of herring opened out like the pages of a book. Nowadays they are normally made from single fillets, which can be bought from most fishmongers. The simplest way to serve these German-style pickled herrings is to put them in a dish with a little red pepper and onion from the pickle, pour sour cream over them and eat them with potato salad.
6 HERRING (OR 12 HERRING FILLETS)
50 g (2 oz) SALT
1x5 ml SPOON (1 TEASPOON) BLACK PEPPERCORNS
1x5 ml SPOON (1 TEASPOON) MUSTARD SEEDS
2 DRIED RED CHILLIES
600 ml (1 PINT) DISTILLED WHITE VINEGAR
1 ONION, SLICED
1 RED PEPPER, DE-SEEDED AND CUT INTO STRIPS
Get the fishmonger to fillet the fish for you, or follow the method given on p.117. Mix the salt with 600 ml (1 PINT) water, add the herring and set aside to soak for 2-3 hours. Put the peppercorns, mustard seeds and chillies in a pan with the vinegar, bring to the boil and simmer for 10 minutes, then set aside to cool.
Drain the herring and leave on tea-towels to drain. Lay them in a large shallow dish, cover with slices of onion and strips of red pepper, then pour the cold pickle over them. Leave in a cool place for at least 3 days before using. They will keep well in the fridge for up to 2 weeks.
This classic method of marinating salmon has been perfected throughout Scandinavia and recipes vary a great deal. Restaurateurs cure whole fish split into sides, but it is possible to make a perfectly good version using a middle cut or a cheaper tail-end piece.
Clean, scale and bone the salmon, or get the fishmonger to do it for you. Divide into two fillets.
FOR EACH 450 g (1 lb) OF PREPARED FISH, USE THE FOLLOWING:
2x15 ml SPOONS (2 TABLESPOONS) SEA SALT
1x15 ml SPOON (1 TABLESPOON) WHITE SUGAR
1x15 ml SPOON (1 TABLESPOON) CRUSHED BLACK PEPPERCORNS
FRESHLY CHOPPED DILL
Lay 1 fillet of fish, skin side downwards, in a shallow stainless steel or glass dish. Grind together the salt, sugar and peppercorns and sprinkle evenly over the fleshy side. Then put on a generous amount of chopped fresh dill. Lay the other fillet on top, skin side upwards.
The fish then needs to be covered with a large plate or wooden board and weighted down. Put in the refrigerator for at least 24 hours or up to 48 hours if the salmon weighs more than 1.5 kg (3 lb): the fish should be turned every 12 hours.
Although the fish is ready to eat after the marinating is complete, it will keep well in the refrigerator for up to 1 week.
To serve, scrape off the salt and spices, and slice the fish thinly like smoked salmon. Alternatively, cut the flesh straight downwards towards the skin in thick chunks. Classically gravlax is eaten with rye bread, potato salad and dill mustard sauce.
More economical, but equally interesting versions of gravlax can be made with many different kinds of fish. Norfolk chef Bernard Phillips showed us his way with grey mullet and suggested other fish such as sea bass and trout.
The basic idea is the same, but he has a few variations, including skinning the fish and wrapping the fillets in cling film while they are marinating. He also adds brandy to the salt and sugar mixture.
Clean and prepare the fish as above, but also remove the skin.
FOR EACH 450 g (1 lb) PREPARED FISH USE THE FOLLOWING:
2x15 ml SPOONS (2 TABLESPOONS) SEA SALT
1x15 ml SPOON (1 TABLESPOON) WHITE SUGAR
FRESHLY CHOPPED DILL
1x15 ml SPOON (1 TABLESPOON) BRANDY
Mix the salt, sugar and dill in a bowl and add enough brandy to form a thick paste. Blend well.
Line a shallow tray or bowl with cling film. Spread some of the salt mixture on it and lay 1 fillet, skinned side down, in the centre. Spread the fish liberally with more of the mixture, then place the second fillet on top, skinned side upwards. Cover with the rest of the mixture.Wrap up the fillets with cling film. Put a plate or weighted board on top and leave in a cool place for at least 24 hours. The fish is best served with a dill mustard sauce, and will keep for up to 1 week in the fridge.
Fermented, or ‘barrel cabbage’, is one of the classic Middle European peasant specialities. It is an ancient, seasonal method of preserving aimed at providing supplies of cabbage through the winter and into the spring, when the first green leaves of fresh cabbage re-appear. Sauerkraut is normally made in bulk—50 cabbages at a time, shredded and packed in wooden barrels, and checked every week through the winter to ensure that the stuff isn’t spoiling.
This is a scaled down version, for those who are interested and want something special to go with roast pork, sausages or rye bread and sour cream.
Use firm heads of autumn cabbages such as Dutch white, Savoy or drumhead.
MAKES ABOUT 1 kg (2 lb)
1 kg (2 lb) CABBAGE
25 g (1 oz) SALT
A FEW CARAWAY SEEDS
Choose a firm cabbage, wash and remove the outer leaves and stalk. Line a thoroughly cleaned and sterilised jar or earthenware crock with a few leaves. Shred the rest of the cabbage very finely and mix well with the salt and caraway seeds. Pack into the container, pressing the cabbage down hard. Put a few whole leaves on top, then cover. It is essential that the cover rests directly on the cabbage and is weighted down to exclude the air.
Leave the container at room temperature for about 1 week. During this time a brine will form and cover the cabbage. If necessary, top up with more brine: 25 g (1 oz) salt to 1.2 litres (2 PINTS) water. Soon the cabbage will start to ferment and a foam will start to appear on top. Skim this off periodically. After 2–3 weeks, fermentation should stop and the cabbage will be ready to eat. It should be rinsed and drained well to get rid of excess salt before serving.
This German recipe calls for green tomatoes ‘small enough to eat whole’, which means growing cherry tomatoes for the purpose and picking the fruit while they are green, firm and fresh. This is an extraordinary pickle. Once you have tasted it you will never again forget that the tomato really is a fruit. It goes well with cheese, even better with pâtés and terrines.
MAKES ABOUT 2.25 kg (5 lb)
2.25 kg (5 lb) GREEN TOMATOES, 2.5 cm (1 INCH) DIAMETER MAXIMUM,STEMS REMOVED
1.2 LITRES (2 PINTS) WHITE VINEGAR
6 CLOVES
1x2.5 cm (1 INCH) CINNAMON STICK
½ SMALL NUTMEG (OR 2 BLADES MACE)
PINCH SALT
450 g (1 lb) WHITE SUGAR
600 ml (1 PINT) WHITE-WINE VINEGAR
Place the tomatoes in a large pan with the white vinegar. Stir very gently and bring to the boil, then strain immediately. (The liquor can be thrown away or saved for making chutney.) Transfer the tomatoes very carefully into a bowl, taking care not to split the skins.
Boil the cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg or mace, salt and sugar with the wine vinegar in a separate pan, then pour hot over the tomatoes. Cover and leave for 24 hours.
Strain off the liquid, boil up again, but this time leave to cool before pouring over the tomatoes. Leave for a further 24 hours.
On the third day, heat the tomatoes and the liquid together, but do not boil. Lift out the tomatoes with a slotted spoon and pack them carefully into warmed jars. Throw out any that have accidentally split their skins because they will ruin the effect of the pickle.
Reduce the liquid until it turns slightly syrupy, then strain off the spices and pour the cooling pickle over the tomatoes, making sure they are completely covered. Cover and store for 3 months before opening.
The Scandinavians are very fond of pickled beetroot: it is a regular feature on the cold table, it is used as a relish for meats, and the pickling liquor is sometimes added to dishes of pickled herrings to give colour and sweetness. This recipe is best made with whole baby beetroots, the size of golf balls. Unlike the English version, this pickle is very light and can be served and eaten the day after it has been made; it isn’t intended for long keeping.
10 BABY BEETROOTS
150 ml (5 fl oz) CIDER VINEGAR
50 g (2 oz) SUGAR
1x5 ml SPOON (1 TEASPOON) SALT
2x5 ml SPOONS (2 TEASPOONS) CARAWAY SEEDS
Wash the beets well and cook them for 5–10 minutes until just tender, then peel and set aside to cool. Boil the vinegar with 150 ml (5 fl oz) water and the sugar and salt in a pan for 5 minutes, then remove from the heat and set aside to cool.
Pack the beets into a deep bowl or jar and cover with the cold vinegar. Sprinkle with caraway seeds and store in a cool place for a day before using.
This is Scandinavia’s favourite pickled vegetable, although this recipe actually originated with the Swedish community in the USA. It can be made with whole baby cucumbers, 7.5-10 cm (3-4 inches) long, or with ‘spears’ from larger specimens. Use it as part of a summer salad or to accompany pickled herrings and other delights on the smorgasbord.
MAKES ABOUT 2.25 LITRES (4 PINTS)
600 ml (1 PINT) WHITE VINEGAR
600 ml (1 PINT) WATER
100 g (4 oz) COOKING SALT
1 kg (2 lb) CUCUMBERS, WASHED AND CUT INTO SPEARS
2 HEADS DILL OR 2x15 ml SPOONS (2 TABLESPOONS) DILL SEEDS
2 CLOVES GARLIC
6 BLACK PEPPERCORNS
VINE LEAVES (OPTIONAL)
Combine the vinegar, water and salt and heat to boiling. Pack the washed and prepared cucumbers vertically into clean, hot 600 ml (1 pint) jars. Add a dill head or 1x15ml spoon (1 tablespoon) seeds to each jar, along with a clove of garlic, 3 peppercorns and—perhaps—a vine leaf for added visual effect and to help maintain crispness.
Once the pickling liquor has cooled, fill the jars, leaving 1.5 cm (1/2 inch) space at the top. Finally, the jars need to be steam sealed. Take a large pan and line it with a towel (this prevents the jars from coming into direct contact with the pan itself). Add plenty of water and bring to the boil. Place the jars in the pan, making sure that the water level is two-thirds of the way up. Allow to boil for 45 minutes. Then check the seal: if it is tight, the jars are ready. If not, repeat the sealing treatment. Remove, leave to rest and store in a cool, dry place. Once opened, keep in the fridge and use up quickly.
(Adapted from Garden Way’s Keeping the Harvest by Nancy Chioffi and Gretchen Mead)
Pickled Cocktail or Pearl Onions
There is apparently an old German proverb that says ‘sour makes cheerful’. No doubt this reflects a love of sweet-and-sour pickles! The Germans distinguish between silberzwiebeln (cocktail onions), which are about hazelnut size, and even smaller pearl onions. Both are pickled in similar fashion.
As an alternative, try using fresh baby sweetcorn instead of onions. Leave them whole, blanch them and follow the recipe given below.
MAKES ABOUT 450 g (1 lb)
450 g (1 lb) COCKTAIL OR PEARL ONIONS
300 ml (10 fl oz) WHITE-WINE VINEGAR
50 g (2 oz) SUGAR
1x5 ml SPOON (1 TEASPOON) WHITE MUSTARD SEEDS
25 g (1 oz) FRESH ROOT GINGER, PEELED AND THINLY SLICED
Peel or rub the skins off the onions and plunge into boiling water for about 10 seconds to blanch them. Drain and leave to cool.
Heat the vinegar in a saucepan with the sugar, mustard seeds and ginger and boil for 10 minutes, then remove from the heat and allow to cool.
Pack the onions in cleaned sterilised jars and pour over the vinegar with the spices. Cover and store in a cool place for 1 week before opening. The onions will last well for up to 1 month.