The evidence from which it is possible to piece together the life and exploits of M. Agrippa is scattered across several types of source material. These include written accounts and inscriptions. From coins and sculptures we have a very good idea of how he looked.
1. Authors
Written sources from the ancient world pose particular problems for modern historians. The approach to writing history then was very different from today. In Ancient History: Evidence and Models (1985), Sir Moses Finley observed that modern scholars tend to treat ancient authors’ works with a reverence and lack of criticism that they do not accord material of other ages. It is particularly problematic for anyone studying the late Republic and principate of Augustus.
Pliny the Elder (Nat. Hist., 7.148–149) and Servius (Ad Georg. 2.162) indicate that Agrippa wrote a memoir – as did many famous Roman generals, such as Marius and Cornelius Sulla. Sadly it is completely lost. The other great loss is large portions of Livy’s history of Rome From the Foundation of the City. We know from the so-called Periochae – a summary by ancient librarians of what each volume contained – that the last forty or so books covered the events of the late Republic down to 9 BCE (ending with the death of Nero Claudius Drusus), but the full text of them has not survived.
A handful of primary sources – that is to say, written by contemporaries or eyewitnesses – have come down to us, notably by Augustus, Nikolaos of Damascus and the works of imperial ‘court poets’ Horace and Vergil. Other surviving accounts are Velleius Paterculus’ brief history of the Roman Empire and Strabo’s sprawling geographical treatise.
All the other extant accounts which mention Agrippa were written decades or even centuries later. The most complete account of his early life and achievements can be pieced together from Appian’s Roman History about Agrippa’s life before Actium; and the derivative history of Cassius Dio, who drew on earlier accounts, but the information he preserves gives a near complete chronology of Agrippa’s life after Actium.
In studying these accounts for evidence of the life and exploits of our subject, we have to be mindful of the difficulties posed by the literature, and understand the motives of their authors and the times in which they wrote, and compare their claims against what is known from archaeological, epigraphical and numismatic sources. Furthermore, while Agrippa was a battle-hardened war fighter, few of the ancient writers had personal military experience and, as a consequence, lacked the insights a soldier learned from actual combat, which means that their accounts of expeditions, campaigns and battles are often flawed or difficult to interpret.
Appian (Appianos, c. 95–c. 165 CE) – An educated man of equestrian rank, Appian served as an official in the administration of his native Alexandria before moving to Rome around 120 CE to practice law and plead cases. In 147 CE he returned to Egypt to take up the office of procurator on the recommendation of M. Cornelius Fronto (tutor of the Emperor M. Aurelius). He wrote Ῥωμαϊκά, a history of Rome in Greek in twenty-four books, of which sections only about half survive. Of these, five (books 13–17) have come to be known collectively as the Civil War referred to by the Latin Bellum Civile and they offer us a robust account of the tumultuous events following the assassination of Iulius Caesar. Using a conflict-based approach to his subject, compared to other ancient world historians Appian offers greater topographical clarity and provides better insight into the strategic decisions made by commanders in combat. His sources may have included the accounts of Asinius Pollio and Messalla Corvinus who fought in the wars as well as Livy and Plutarch. Appian confirms that Agrippa ‘became a friend of Octavius, and some time later served as his deputy against Antonius at the Battle of Actium’ (Bell. Civ. 4.49). He informs us that Agrippa interceded to have a deputy of Brutus removed from the proscription list (4.49). He records Agrippa’s actions during the Perusine War, at Sutrium (5.31), Perusia (5.32) and Fulginiae (5.35). He mentions Agrippa’s victory in Aquitania (5.92). From Appian come the most detailed accounts of the War of Sex. Pompeius. He describes Agrippa’s preparations, such as equipping the ships with the corvus (5.106), the cleansing ceremony at Portus Iulius (5.96), and the battles at Mylae (5.105–5.109), Naulochus (5.116–121); the Illyrian War where Agrippa saw action at Metulus (Illyrike 19–20) and his involvement during the entire Actian War (4.49; 5.31–33, 35, 50, 57, 58, 92, 96, 101, 102, 105–110, 112, 115–122).
Augustus (C. Octavius Thurinus, after 16 January 27 BCE C. Imperator Caesar Augustus Divi filius), 63 BCE–14 CE – Grand-nephew of the Perpetual Dictator and heir to his potent name and vast fortune, Augustus established a form of autocracy within the framework of the traditional Res Publica. He wrote his autobiographical Res Gestae, Things Done, which, upon his death, was distributed and posted across the Roman Empire. In effect, it was his personal attempt to write the first draft of the story and achievements of his own life. In it he acknowledges the contributions of M. Agrippa by name as censor (RG 8) in 28 BCE and as co-organizer of the Ludi Saeculares (22) in 17 BCE. Interesting is what he omits to say about his colleague and friend. He mentions his victory at Actium (25), and the revolts in Gaul, Illyricum and Cantabria (26, 29–30), but not the role Agrippa played in them; and he boasts that he distributed 400 sestertii to each man (15) in 12 BCE, but not that it was in part paid out of proceeds from Agrippa’s estate.
Cassius Dio (L. or Cl. Dio Cassius Cocceianus), c. 155 or 163/164–after 229 CE – Dio was a senator and consul who wrote one of the most complete histories of Roman civilization that has come down to us. Written in Greek in eighty volumes, it took Dio twenty-two years to research and assemble his material for Roman History (Ῥωμαϊκὴ Iστορία). His sources may have included Appian, Livy and Tacitus. Agrippa appears frequently in Books 48 through 54 of Roman History. He notes the year of his death and describes the funeral at which Augustus spoke (54.28). He describes Agrippa the man and praises his virtues at length (54.29.1–3), records his actions during the Perusine War (48.14.1), assignment of the defence of Gaul (48.20.1), his staging the Ludi Apollinares and Ludus Troiae and adopting airs and graces on account of his privileged connection (48.20.2); his early military engagement with Sex. Pompeius (48.20.2), his successful capture of Sipontium (48.28.1), his task to build a fleet of ships (48.49.2–4); his victory in Aquitania, crossing over the Rhine River and award of a triumph, which he declined (48.49.3) and his first consulship (48 Index); his building the fleet (48.49.4–5) and equipping ships with the harpax (48.51.5, 49.3.4), constructing Portus Iulius (48.50.1–3), the award of the golden corona navalis (49.14.3), his campaign against the Delmatae (49.38.3); his self-financed repairs to the Aqua Marcia (49.42.2), repairing public buildings, streets and sewers (49.43.1), which included inspecting the Cloaca Maxima in person (49.43.1), distributing largess to the crowds at the games (49.43.4), expelling astrologers from Rome (49.43.5); his command of the Caesarian forces in the Actian War (50.9.2–3, 50.14.1), the capture of Methone (50.11.3), the capture of Leukas (50.13.5), the defeat of Sosius off the coast of Corcyra (50.14.1–2), his concerns before the Battle of Actium (50.31.2), the naval battle on 2 September 31 BCE (50.32.1–51.1.1), repatriating the legions to Italy (51.3.5), the honours accorded to him, including the blue ensign (51.21.3) and his award of Pompeius Magnus’ palatial house (53.27.5); his loyalty to Augustus (53.27.4), his second consulship (53 Index, 53.1.2), the gift of a tent to match Augustus’ own (53.1.2); his marriage to Claudia Marcella (53.1.2), appointment as censor (52.42.1), sponsorship of the Circensian Games (Dio 53.1.4–5); his programme of building in Rome (53.27.1), including the Saepta Iulia (53.23.1–2), the Diribitorium (55.8.4), the Basilica Neptuni (53.27.1, 56.24) with its spectacular paintings (53.27.1), the sudatorium Laconicum (53.27.1) and the source to supply fresh water to it (54.11.7), which added to the time and cost of construction of the project (54.11.7), the Pantheon (53.27.2–3, 66.24.3) whose doors were flanked by statues of Agrippa and Augustus (53.27.3, 54.1.1), the Sepulchrum or Aedes Agrippae (54.28.5); his presence at Marcellus’ wedding (53.27.5), Agrippa’s move into Augustus’ house (53.27.5), his popularity with the people (53.31.4), the time Augustus gave Agrippa his signet ring (53.30.1–2), his alleged dismissal to the East (53.32.1), his stay in Mytilene (53.32.1), his recall to Sicily and offer of the hand of Iulia in marriage (54.6.5), his attempts to restore order in Rome (49.43.6), his departure to quell an uprising in Gaul (54.11.1–2), his arrival in Hispania to deal with an uprising of the Astures and Cantabri (54.11.3), his squashing of a mutiny by Roman troops and their conduct in the grim war (54.11.4–5), his rejection of the triumph granted him (54.11.6), completion of Aqua Virgo (54.11.7), grant of powers equivalent to Augustus’ (54.12.2), plots against Agrippa (54.15.1), his ownership of the Thracian Cheronese (54.29.5), his acclaim as restorer of Kyzikos’ freedom (54.23.7), the revolt in the Cimmerian Bosporus (54.24.4–6), that he sent his after action report directly to Augustus (54.24.7), the grant of empire-wide powers jointly with Augustus (54.28.1), his departure to deal with the revolt of the Pannonii in Illyricum (54.28.2); his return to Italy and last days in Campania (54.28.2), the funeral in Rome (54.28.3–4), the burial of his ashes in Augustus’ own mausoleum (54.28.5) and the final disrespect shown by many senators (54.29.6).
Cornelius Nepos, c. 110–c. 25 BCE – The contemporary Roman biographer from Gallia Cisalpina and friend of the poet C. Valerius Catullus recorded Agrippa’s emotional reaction when he learned that his father in law, T. Pomponius Atticus, had decided to commit suicide (Atticus 21.1–4).
Eutropius, fourth century CE – Eutropius was a government official based in Constantinople who served the Emperor Julian ‘The Apostate’ (361–363 CE) on his campaign against the Sassanids. He was alive during the reign of Emperor Valens (364–378 CE) to whom he dedicated his Short Roman History (Breviarium Historiae Romanae). This is a compendium in ten books of Roman history from the foundation of the city to the accession of Valens. In it, he mentions Agrippa’s great success in Aquitania (7.5).
Florus (Iulius Florus or L. Anneus Florus or P. Annius Florus), second century CE – The precise identity of Florus continues to be debated (he may have been the poet, rhetorician and friend of the Emperor Hadrian), but the Summary of Livy’s History (Epitome de T. Livio Bellorum Omnium Annorum DCC Libri Duo) in two volumes summarizes all the main wars fought by Roman armies up to the time of his writing. In it he mentions the building of Portus Iulius (2.18.6) and recounts the Battle of Actium (2.21), and the Pannonian revolt in Illyricum (2.24).
Frontinus (Sex. Iulius Frontinus), c. 40–103 CE – Frontinus was an accomplished patrician who rose through the cursus publicus, including the governorship of Britannia and with it command of the army which squashed the Silures of South Wales. Under Emperor Nerva, in 95 CE he was appointed curator aquarum, following in the footsteps of Agrippa. His book De Aqueductu Urbis Romae on the aqueducts and water distribution system of Rome contains details about Agrippa’s meticulous work when serving as aedile on the Aqua Iulia (Aq. 9) as well as the attentiveness and ingenuity of his full time staff (which he remarks was lacking by his own day), the Aqua Virgo (10), the standard type of pipes to be used (24), the infrastructure of tanks and towers managing the water distribution system (98), the full text of the Senatus Consultum regulating and preserving the public fountains after Agrippa’s death (104), and the administration and division of labour of the maintenance crews (116).
Horace (Q. Horatius Flaccus), 65–27 BCE – Horace is regarded by many as Rome’s leading lyric poet from the time of Augustus. His life was almost exactly contemporary with Agrippa’s and, like him, he was considered an outsider. Horace served as an officer in the army of the conspirators and was captured at the Battle of Philippi. Befriended by Maecenas, he came to the attention of Augustus. He wrote the ceremonial Ode for the Century Games (Carmen Saeculare) in 17 BCE at the request of Augustus and Agrippa. In his Satires he describes Agrippa as ‘cunning fox imitating a noble lion’ (Sermones 2.3.186). Horace playfully declined in poetry that he was not grand enough to eulogize the general’s great military achievements in verse (Carmen 1.6). Horace did, however, celebrate Agrippa’s victory over the Cantabri (Epistulae 1.12.26–27).
Josephus (Yosef Ben Matityahu or T. Flavius Josephus), 37–100 CE – The erstwhile leader of the resistance at Yodfat (Jotapata) during the First Jewish War of 66–73 CE, Josephus was a prolific writer under his Flavian benefactors, to whom he owed his life. In his Antiquities of the Jews (Antiquitates Iudaicae), published around 75 CE, he mentions the reason Augustus sent Agrippa to the East (Ant. Iud. 15.10.2), King Herodes’ visit to Mytilene to meet him and the incident with the Gadarenes (15.10.2), Herodes’ invitation to visit Iudaea and the ensuing state visit (16.12–16), the king’s support of Agrippa’s strategy in the Cimmerian Bosporus (16.20–21), Herodes’ success at negotiating the fine on the city of Illium (16.26), Agrippa’s and Herodes’ journey through Asia (16.22–26), preserves the investigation by the tribunal and letters Agrippa wrote to his legati after his verdict on the unlawful confiscation of Temple Tax dues (16.27–30, 16.60, 16.165, 16.167 and 16.169), Agrippa’s return to Rome with Antipatros (Antiquitates Iudaeicae 16.86).
Livy (T. Livius), 59 BCE–17 CE – Regarded by many as ancient Rome’s greatest historian, Livy was known to Augustus and his family. Indeed he encouraged Augustus’ grand-nephew, who later became Emperor Claudius, to study history. Book 129 of Ab Urbe Condita covered the battles of Mylae and Naulochus during the War with Sex. Pompeius and singled out Agrippa for particular mention; 132 described the Illyrian War; and 133 discussed the Actian War. Book 138 gave an account of his last days and death. Beyond the cryptic summaries in the Periochae, the full texts are now entirely lost.
Manlius (M. Manlius or M. Manilius), First Century CE – Roman poet and astronomer about whom little is known, wrote the Astronomicon (1.797–798) which alludes to the fact that Agrippa began his military career at a young age.
Nikolaos of Damaskos, c. 65 BCE-4CE* – Greek-speaking Roman historian and philosopher, Nikolaos was tutor to Kleopatra and became an advisor of King Herodes. He visited Rome in 12 and 8 and after Herodes died in 4 BCE. Of the many books he wrote parts of the Life of Caesar – that is of Caesar Augustus – (Bίος Καῖσαρ) survives. It is one of the most important extant sources for the early years of Agrippa, mentioning that he met the future Augustus while young (BK 7.6), that friends of Augustus – possibly Agrippa among them – were late arriving for Iulius Caesar’s war in Hispania (10–11), that his brother Lucius fought on the side of Cato and the conspirators in the Libyan War (7) and confirms that Agrippa was among the group of friends touring Campania to recruit men to the cause of Caesar’s heir (30). In his own Autobiography, which survives as fragments, he mentions Agrippa’s ire at hearing Iulia almost came to grief at Illium and the trip he took across Asia with Herodes is recorded (F134).
Orosius (Paulus* Orosius), c. 375–after 418 CE – Historian of the Christian Church, priest and student of St. Augustine of Hippo, Orosius wrote the History Against the Pagans (Historiarum Adversum Paganos), a book written to prove the decadence of ancient Roman civilization. In it he mentions Agrippa’s engagement during the wars of Sex. Pompeius (6.18.25–29), his guerilla actions in the Actian War (6.19.6–7), one of the most detailed accounts of the Battle of Actium (6.19.8–10) and his war against the Bosporani (21.28).
Pliny the Elder (C. Plinius Secundus), 23–79 CE – The polymath Pliny the Elder began his career as an active soldier in the Rhine army, seeing three tours of duty (45–51 CE), including one as a praefectus equitum – as a result of which he wrote a single-volume book on throwing the javelin while riding on horseback, which has been lost. Sadly, Pliny’s Bella Germaniae, a history of Rome’s German Wars in twenty volumes, has also not survived, and probably with it an account of Agrippa’s crossing of the Rhine River. Pliny is best known for his encyclopaedic Natural History (Naturalis Historia), which, among its many topics, describes the people and territories of the known world in the first century CE. Pliny discusses Agrippa’s strange birth, unhappy childhood and age at death (Nat. Hist. 7.8), the name of his brother and sister (6.139), a reference to his eye-witness account of Augustus’ sickness before the Battle at Philippi which intimates that he was also there (7.148), his taste for rustic simplicity and the speech he gave on the public ownership of art (35.26), his achievements and legacy, including the Portus Iulius (36.125), the award of the corona navalis (16.7–8), repairs to the aqueducts (36.121), the opening of hundreds of public bathhouses with free admission and improvements to the Circus Maximus (36.24), the decorative artworks displayed in the Saepta Iulia (16.201, 36.29), the spectacular Diribitorium (36.102), the decorations of the Thermae Agrippae (34.62, 36.189) and the Pantheon (36.38), his alleged banishment to the East (7.149), a critique of his Orbis Terrarum (3.16–17), the fact he wrote a memoir (7.148), his gout and attempts to cure himself of it (23.58) and his tortured response to rumours of Iulia’s infidelities (7.6).
Plutarch (Loukas Mestrios Plutarchos, L. Mestrius Plutarchus), c. 46– 120 CE – The Greek speaking biographer, essayist and historian wrote a number of works, most famously Οἱ Βίοι Παράλληλοι (Parallel Lives), which compared the lives of famous Greek and Roman soldiers and statesmen. Plutarch did not write a book about Agrippa per se, but he mentions him in stories concerning M. Antonius, Brutus, Cassius, Cicero, Pompeius Magnus and Sex. Pompeius. He reports that Agrippa was put in charge of leading the high-profile prosecution against the ring leader, C. Cassius Longinus (Plutarch, Brutus 27), his letters urging Caesar to return to Rome (Antonius 73.3) and his marriage to Claudia Marcella (Antonios 87.2).
Seneca the Younger (L. Annaeus Seneca), c. 4 BCE–65 CE – The playwright, Stoic philosopher, statesman, tutor and later advisor to the Emperor Nero recorded the amusing story of a defence lawyer making fun of Agrippa’s missing middle name (Controversiae 2.4.12–13), describes him in almost spiritual terms as a ‘great-souled man’ and also relates that Agrippa’s favourite saying was ‘Harmony makes small things grow; lack of harmony makes great things decay’ (Epistulae 94.46, based on Sallust, Bellum Iugurthinum 10.6).
Servius (Maurus Servius Honoratus), late fourth century CE – Considered in his time as the most learned man in Italy, Servius was a grammarian and scholar who wrote commentaries on the poetic works of Vergil. In the sixteenth century Pierre Daniel published the work with additional material drawn from other antiquarian sources – now lost – as In Vergilii Carmina Commentarii. This commentary on the Aeneid contains a passage that Agrippa was appointed tribune (Ad. Aen. 8.682) and invented the collapsible tower for naval vessels prior to the Battle of Mylae. In his other work (Ad Georg. 2.162) he mentions that Agrippa wrote a memoir.
Strabo (Strabonos), 63/64 BCE–c. 24 CE – The historian, geographer and philosopher Strabo is best known for his Γεωγραφικά (Geography), a seventeen-volume descriptive survey of the world known to the Romans. Begun some time around 20 BCE, Strabo gives us valuable snippets about the relocation of the Ubii nation across the Rhine (Geog. 4.3.4), Agrippa’s road network radiating from Lugdunum (4.6.11), the Orbis Terrarum (2.5.17) and his purchase of artworks in Asia, including the Fallen Lion of Lysippos, to decorate his public buildings. (13.1.18–19).
Suetonius (C. Suetonius Tranquillus), c. 69/75-after 130 CE – Suetonius wrote the De Vita Caesarum (Lives of the Caesars), in which he collected biographical facts, rumours and tidbits about Iulius Caesar and the eleven men who followed him. He records the visit of Agrippa and Augustus to the astrologer in Apollonia (Divus Augustus 94.11), his great-grandson’s contempt for his humble birth (Caligula 23.1), his naming of Portus Iulius in honour of Caesar (Divus Augustus 16.1), his marriage to Claudia Marcella (Divus Augustus 63.1), the aedes Agrippae (Divus Augustus 97.1), the tantrum Agrippa allegedly threw over Marcellus (Divus Augustus 66.3), the birth of Iulia the Younger (Divus Augustus 64), that Agrippina the Elder was his daughter (Caligula 7) and Caligula’s strongly negative reaction to being called a relative of Agrippa (Caligula 23).
Tacitus (P. or C. Cornelius Tacitus), 56–117 CE – Tacitus was a senator who wrote several books during the reign of the Emperor Trajan. He followed in the tradition of the historians of the Republic – notably, Sallust (C. Sallustius Crispus, 86–35 BCE) and Livy – but presented his material in such a way as to stress how different life had become in Imperial times. He describes Agrippa as ‘of humble birth, a good soldier and his partner in victory’ (Annales 1.3) and ‘associate in power’ (3.56.3). He records that when Agrippa requested time to rest and recuperate, Augustus granted it (14.53.3, 55.2–3).
Valerius Maximus, c. 20 BCE–50 CE – Little is known about Valerius Maximus’ personal life. During the reign of Emperor Tiberius he wrote Memorable Deeds and Sayings in Nine Books (Factorum et Dictorum Memorabilium Libri IX), which is a collection of about a thousand stories chosen for the moral guidance they offered, each arranged under one of several themes. In the chapter on friendship he gave the example of Agrippa in relation to Augustus (4.7.7).
Velleius Paterculus (C. or M. Velleius Paterculus), c. 19 BCE–c. 31 CE – Paterculus saw eight years of active service under Tiberius, serving first in Illyricum as a praefectus equitum during the Batonian War of 6–9 CE, and then in Germania as a legatus legionis. He provides a character profile of Agrippa and praises his virtues, especially his work ethic (2.79.1–2), confirms that Agrippa secured a conviction in the prosecution against C. Cassius Longinus (2.69.5), was successful in operating guerilla-style tactics in the run-up to the Battle of Actium (2.84.2), his command at the great battle (2.85.2), the battle itself (2.85.3–4) and compares Agrippa with Maecenas (2.88.2), his departure to Mytilene on account of alleged animosity towards Marcellus (2.93.2), his joining the Fratres Arvales (2.127.1), the popular view that Agrippa would succeed Augustus and his reason for going to the East (2.93.2), his victory over the Cantabri (2.90.1) and the revolt of the Pannonii in Illyricum (2.96.2–3).
Vergil (P. Vergilius Maro), 70–19 BCE – The Augustan era poet is best known for his poem Aeneid, a national epic which has been interpreted as drawing strong associations between Rome’s legendary founder Aeneas and its saviour and renewer Augustus. He lauded the Portus Iulius (Georgics 2.161–164), celebrated his corona navalis (Aeneid 8.683–684), drew the allegory of Agrippa as Achates (Aeneid 1.174–176, 1.188–192) and sang of his contribution at Actium (Aeneid 8.675–684).
2. Coins
Coins were produced with Agrippa’s name and portrait during his lifetime, both at the official mint in Rome and at provincial city mints across the empire. They tell the story of his career and growing influence across the Roman world. The earliest coins were produced outside Italy in the western provinces of Gallia Narbonensis, Gallia Lugdunenis (Gallia Comata), Hispania Tarraconensis (Hispania Citerior) and Baetica (Hispania Ulterior), and in the East in Achaea and Bithynia et Pontus. After his death several coins were issued to commemorate his life by Augustus and his successors. For a full discussion of the numismatic evidence see Roddaz (1984) and Romeo (1998).
(a) Imperatorial Mints (before 27 BCE) During the civil war period following the assassination of Iulius Caesar the triumvirs (Antonius, Caesar and Lepidus) produced silver coins (denarii) at military mints to pay their troops and to purchase supplies, which moved with the army. The coins declare Agrippa’s election as consul and his support of the divine Caesar’s heir.
(b) Imperial Mints (after 27 BCE) After the First Constitutional Settlement Augustus continued the republican policy of contracting out the production of coins to moneyers (tresviri monetales). With the foundation of the imperial mint at Lugdunum in 15 BCE most gold (aureii) and silver coins were made there and only lower denomination copper or bronze (asses, semis, dupondii, sestertii) and brass (sestertii) pieces were minted at Rome in the Temple of Iuno Moneta.
(i) Augustus
(ii) Augustus or Tiberius or Caligula
(iii) Titus
(iv) Domitian
(v) Trajan
(c) Provincial Mints
Gallia Narbonensis
Hispania Ulterior (Hispania Baetica)
Hispania Citerior (Hispania Tarraconensis)
Siciliae
Achaea
Creta et Cyrenarum
Asia
Pontus et Bithynia
* Surmised – not known with certainty.
3. Inscriptions
M. Agrippa’s life and career are attested by carved inscriptions from around the Roman world, including many of the places he visited in person. He is invariably shown as ‘M. Agrippa’ or ‘M. Agrippa L. F.’ or the Greek equivalent, e.g. CIL VI.1.1375 (Rome).
Marking his first consulship with L. Caninius Gallus in 37 BCE there are the Fasti CIL 12, 28, 12, 65, 12, 158–159 (Rome), IV.2437 (Pompeii), V.2813 (Patavium), XI.2105 (Clusium), XIV.82 (Ostia); also Ephemeris VIII, 592 (Casinum, Latium), and CIL VI.4.31270 (Rome) = Dessau 1.128. Citing his second consulship in 33 BCE are CIL 12, 160–161 (Rome) and IX.422 (Venusia) = Dessau 2.1.6123. Numerous inscriptions cite his third consulship of 27 BCE, many found on public buildings in Rome (Fasti Consulares, plate 26, CIL I)2, and across the empire: CIL 12, 160–161 (Rome), XIV.2240 (Mons Albanus), Orelli II, 4899b (Rome), CIL IX.4779 (Forum Novum) and X.2.7559 (Sardinia). Two fragments of the Fasti Praenestini CIL I 1 (Rome) (a) 231, (b) 236 indicates he stepped down on 24 April = Dessau 2.2.8844 interprets that he stepped down on 23 April.
His term as aedile is shown on CIL IV.4.31270 dated to 33 BCE. Confirming grants of tribunicia potestas are CIL III.494, VI.32323.53, IX.3150, IX.3913, XIV.2230 (Mons Albanus), Dessau 3.2.8897 (Ephesus) and IG 12.5.740; and his prefecture CIL IX, 3913 (Alba Fucens) and IX.4677 (Reate) = Dessau 2.1.6543. Confirming him as censor is the Res Gestae, Monumentum Ancyranum 8 (II2) and CIL IX.422 (Venusia) dated to 22 BCE. He is referred to as imperator on several inscriptions including CIL IX.2200 (Telesia), IX.262 (Gnathia) and IX.422 (Venusia) = Dessau 2.1.6123. His role in the Ludi Saeculares of 17 BCE is commemorated on the Monumentum Ancyranum 4.37 and CIL VI.1.877 = Dessau 2.1.5050.
Of his children CIL V.6359 and VI.9901 attest to the birth of Vipsania Agrippina; PIR2 C 1102 to Vipsania Marcella; and the inscriptions documented in A. Plassart, Bulletin de Correspondence Hellénique 50 (1926), pp. 447–448, nos. 88–89 mention Vipsania Agrippina. Agrippa is acknowledged as the father of Agrippina (the Elder) on her gravestone (CIL VI.1.886 (Rome)).
Many buildings were erected by, or in honour of, Agrippa. The existence of the Pons Agrippae in Rome is confirmed by CIL VI.39087, VI.29781 = ILS 6003 (found in the Tiber near the Ponte Garibaldi) and CIL VI.31545 (Ostia). The Thermae Agrippae are confirmed on CIL IV.4.36620 (Rome). The famous bronze letters forming the famous inscription M · AGRIPPA · L · F · COS · TERTIVM · FECIT (plate 17, CIL VI.896 = Dessau 1.129) on the Pantheon confirm Agrippa as the original builder. (The letters are modern copies.) The Sepulchrum –or Aedes Agrippae – is suggested by letters on the so-called Map of Rome in fragments 72 and 103. A monument of M. Agrippa is mentioned in CIL VI.1.1375 = Dessau 1.917a. The Horreae Agrippae are mentioned in CIL VI.2.10026 (Rome) and a vestiarius who worked there is recorded in CIL VI.2.9972 (Rome). A plinth of a column of pavonazetto from Agrippa’s own quarries located in Phrygia is documented as CIL XV.988 (now lost). The Agrippision was a synagogue apparently named after him in Rome according to one of three Greek inscriptions found at the Jewish cemetery in the city (CIG VI.9907 cf. IV.9906).
In Italy, Agrippa was acknowledged as patron in Cubulteria (CIL X.1.4616), Gnathia (CIL IX.262), Puteoli (CIL X.1.1682 = Dessau 1.933) and Rufrae (CIL X.1.4831). Inscriptions suggest Agrippa’s generosity for an unknown new building erected at Brixia (CIL V.4315) and a new basilica at Septempeda (CIL IX.5576). At Pompeii, graffiti scratched on a painted wall (CIL IV.3878) outside the Nucerian Gate, which include the words balneus Agrippae (the rest is illegible), may refer to a bathhouse named after him.
The western provinces also benefited from Agrippa’s generosity. According to Émile Espérandieu the architrave of the Maison Carrée at Nemausus (plate 30) was originally dedicated by Agrippa (usually shown with IMP after his name), but later changed to honour his son, C. Caesar, as presently shown in CIL XII.3155. Also in Nemausus are two monumental architraves from other buildings – perhaps in the adjacent precinct – inscribed with a dedication to Agrippa (CIL XII.3153), and from a bathing complex and temple to Diana (CIL XII.3154). In Lusitania, the theatre at Emerita bears a dedication mounted above the entrance archway (aditus maximus) to the orchestra confirm Agrippa was its benefactor (plate 34, CIL II.472, II.474 = Dessau 1.130). Agrippa was acknowledged as patron in Utia (CIL II.1527).
Inscriptions bearing his name have been found in Greece at Andros (IG 12.5, 1.740), Argos (see K. Chisholm and J. Ferguson, Rome: The Augustan Age, Oxford 1981, pp. 132, 134–35), Athens (IG 3.575 Erechtheion and IG 3.576, Mnemosyne 47.1919), Corinth (American Journal of Archaeology 23 (1919), p. 167), Epidauros (Ephemeris Archaeologike (1885), 84–85 = IG 4.1363), Eresos on Lesbos (IGR 4.7 = IG 12.2.531), Gytheion (IG 5.1.1166), Korkyra (CIL II.1878), Megara (IG 7.64–65), Mytilene on Lesbos (IGR 4.79g = IG 12.2.164; IGR 4.65b = IG 12.2.169; IGR 4.69 = IG 12.2.170; IGR 4.78a = IG 12.2.172), Oropos in Boeotia (Ephemeris Archaeologike (1886), 57–59 = IG 7.349), Sparta (CIG I, 1299, CIL III.494 = IG 5.1.374), Tainaros (CIL III, 491 = IG 5.1), Thassos (IG 12.8.381b and Dessau 2.2.8784); in Asia at Ephesus (plate 36, ILS 8977 – unusual for including ‘IMP’ after Agrippa’s name), Illium (IGR 4.204), Mysia (CIG 2.3609) and Smyrna (Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden, I.1900/I.25); in Lykia at Letoon (Fouilles de Xanthos VII.1981, 23 and 24), Myra (IGR III 719) and Patara (SEG 44, 1208); Kalymnos (Tituli Calymnii, Annuario Scuola Archeologica di Atene 22–23, N.S. 6–7, 1944–45, p. 164, n. 141); and in Syria at Berytus (CIL III.1.156). The city of Kyzikos claimed Agrippa as its official founder (inscription of Antonia Tryphaena, IGR 4) and erected monuments to him (Dittenberger, Syll. 2.799). The city of Agrippia Caesarea (Phanagoria) raised several inscriptions honouring Agrippa (IAO 356, 360 and 363).
Inscriptions for statues erected to him and/or his wife Iulia have been found across the Greek-speaking world at Andros (statue of Iulia, IG 12.5.740), Delos (statue of Agrippa, Dittenberger Syll. 2.1.777 = Rheinisches Museum 22, 1867, p. 292), Myra (statue of Agrippa, IGR 3.719), Mytilene (statue of Agrippa, IGR 4.64 = IG 12.2.204), Paphos (statue of Iulia, The Journal of Hellenic Studies 9 (1888), p. 243, no. 69), Samos (statue of Iulia, IGR 4.1717) and Sestos (statues to him and his wife together, Bulletin de Correspondence Hellénique 4 (1880), p. 517 = IGR 1.821).
A fragment of a Greek translation of Augustus’ laudatio funebris for Agrippa’s funeral is preserved on papyrus as ‘P. Colon. VI 249’ or ‘P. Köln Inv. Nr. 4701 + 4722 Recto’.
In life and death Agrippa was celebrated as ‘benefactor’ in Athens (IG 3.575 Erechtheion), Attica (CIG 1.309, IG 3.575), Mytilene (IG 12.2.203), Oropos (IG 7.349). He was canonized as a ‘saviour’ or ‘saviour god’ in numerous dedications at Mytilene (IGR 4.70a = IG 12.2.171, IG 12.2.164 = IGR 4.79, IG 12.2.166c = IGR 4.67, IG 12.2.168 = IGR 4.68, IG 12.2.169b = IGR 4.65b, IG 12.2.170 = IGR 4.69, IG 12.2.171 = IGR 4.70, IG 12.2.172a = IGR 4.78, IG 12.2.203 = IGR 4.21, IG 12.2.204 = IGR 4.64, and a recently recorded specimen by Christian Habicht, ‘Marcus Agrippa Theos Soter’, Hyperboreus 11, 2005, pp. 242–246. CIL X.3691 and 3691a (Cumae) reveal Agrippa was associated with the worship of these Augustan Lares.
Several inscriptions were erected by freedmen of Agrippa, bearing their master’s instantly recognizable praenomen and nomen genticulum followed by the cognomen derived from their forename when a slave: M. Vispanius Narcissus, a rogator ab scaena (CIL VI.10094, Museo Nazionale Romano, Terme di Diocleziano, Rome, Inv. No. 29340) and the chariot racers M. Vipsanius Calamus, M. Vipsanius Dareus, M. Vipsanius Fautus and M. Vipsanius Migio or Mugio (CIL VI.10046 (Rome)). A certain Agrippaeus Longinus is mentioned on a fragment from Casinum (CIL X.1.5170). A tribe of Agrippia is mentioned on two inscriptions in Corinth (Tribus Agrippia: American Journal of Archaeology 23 (1919), p. 167; J.H. Kent, The Inscriptions: 1926–1950 (Corinth 8:3; Princeton, NJ, American School of Classical Studies, 1966), no. 154).
After his death, Agrippa’s name was evoked in a variety of inscriptions: at Segusio in the Alpes Cottiae, the inscription over the triumphal archway dated 9–8 BCE (BFC 9 (1904), 89 = Ehrenberg and Jones (1955), no. 165); in 18 CE in association with Germanicus Caesar on Samos (IGR 4.980) and at Delphi (Dittenberger, Syll. 2.779D); in connection with games on Kos in the first century CE (Dittenberger, Syll. 3.1065); and of renovations of a building at Brixia under Trajan (CIL V.4315) and to the Pantheon under Septimius Severus (CIL VI.896 = Dessau 1.129).
4. Sculptures
Agrippa was a popular subject for ancient sculptors, particularly during the years 31 BCE-54 CE. Several carvings and busts have been identified as Agrippa, though the identification of some can be – and have been – disputed.
(a) Ara Pacis Augustae, Rome
On the south-facing enclosure wall is possibly the last official depiction of M. Agrippa from life (plate 37). It was unveiled at the time of the inauguration on 30 January 9 BCE on the occasion of the birthday of Augustus’ wife, Livia Drusilla. By this time Agrippa was already dead by almost three years. The only figure on the frieze – ‘S-28’ – who is shown velatus (wearing his toga so that it covers his head) is believed by most scholars to be Agrippa. Slightly taller than the rest, he is shown as a confident and relaxed middle-aged man among the family of the princeps and guests from overseas. The work on the Ara Pacis began in 13 BCE when Agrippa was alive and presentation of him in this way may have been the artist’s attempt to include Augustus’ associate among the members who would have actually been present at the inauguration ceremony. The nose on the Agrippa sculpture was broken off when the structure was destroyed.
(b) Portrait Busts and Statues
At least twenty-one busts have been identified – or labelled – as M. Agrippa. All share varying accentuations of similar characteristics: a squarish, fleshy, clean shaven face, often with dimples in the cheeks; a pronounced chin with a slight double chin; deep set eyes beneath wide and bushy eyebrows, which often sag at the centre above the pupil; a long nose with a slight bridge; and a mop of hair cut short and left tousled, combed to the front with a sweep to the right. Identifications as Agrippa are subjective and are based on comparison with other representations, such as coins and other busts of the time, for comparable style and treatment. For surveys of portraiture of the early Principate and the issues associated with identification see Boschung (1993), Fittschen (1987), Kiss (1975) and Rose (1997).
Each sculpture is an individual piece, the product of the unique talent of its artist, not the uniformity of a machine. Several appear to be copies of a common reference model. The bust in the Museo Archeologico Statale, Vibo Valentia in the Calabria region of southern Italy, has surface incrustation and wear but still preserves the heavy eyebrows, deep eyes and shape of the iconic face seen on the coin struck by Caligula (BMCRE I 122). The head is tilted slightly down and the expression is introspective.
In similar style, the better preserved bust in the Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome (inv. 2670) has a more youthful look. The bust was found at the Theatre of Marcellus where it may have once adorned the scaena frons. Measuring 37cm, the bust of white marble has damage to the nose, chin and left cheek and chips in both ears. The head has a slight downward tilt – consistent with it being mounted high on a decorative theatre backdrop – and there is a wistfulness in the subject’s expression.
If the portrait bust (plate 2) from the Theatre of Marcellus shows a young looking Agrippa, that from Pisa in the Museo dell’Opera del Duomo (inv. 1963, 89) has a decidedly more mature appearance. Carved from lava stone, the bust measures 31cm. Despite the missing nose, the bust shares the distinctive eyebrows and double chin recognizable in the others.
The portrait bust discovered by Gavin Hamilton in 1792 was one of several of members of the imperial family found during excavations to the east of the temple at Gabii in the supposed area of the forum. Later part of the Borghese Collection, it was sold in 1807 to the French state along with 159 other busts and 154 statues and moved to the Louvre, Paris (inv. MA 1208) where it is today. Allowing for the small nick in the nose (which has been repaired) and ears and the polishing of the surfaces in modern times, this bust is one of the most iconic images of Agrippa to survive. At 46cm it is also one of the largest. The portrait is highly naturalistic and has all the characteristic features associated with Agrippa’s visage. The sculptor has captured the man in a candid and unemotional mood.
Similar stylistically to the Gabii statue bust is another (plate 3) in the Louvre (MA 3554) which originally came from Rusicada (Philippeville) in Algeria (Roman Numidia). The bust is now missing the top of the head from above the hairline up, the nose and the neck below the jaw. The top and back surfaces are flat and there is a piece of a metal pin suggesting the lost part of the bust was attached separately in antiquity. The remaining portion measures 22cm. The quality of the workmanship is of the highest order, for example in the way the sculptor carved the fleshiness of the cheeks into the white marble. It has been dated to the reign of Claudius.
The Museo degli Uffizi, Florence has in its extensive collection a bust of Agrippa (inv. 1914, no. 90) which was found in Rome and at one time may have been owned by Lorenzo de’ Medici. It too bears remarkable similarities to the Gabii head (inv. MA 1208). The 68cm bust of white marble has repairs to the nose and ears and sits on a modern stand.
The Villa Spigarelli, Anzio (Roman Antium) has an Agrippa which is almost identical to the bust in Florence (inv. 1914, no. 90). Carved from a block of white marble it is an excellent state of preservation. Antium was a resort town frequented by members of Augustus’ family and his successors. The Villa Spigarelli was built on the site of an upscale Roman residence. The bust has also been dated to the reign of Claudius.
In the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek in Copenhagen are two busts. The best preserved (inv. 608) is 42cm high. The surface of the white marble is scuffed and the nose is broken. The hair is swept forward, the centre waving to the right. The unfinished rear and neck, scored with rough chisel marks, suggests it was part of a sculpture which stood against a wall where the back would not be seen. The face exudes toughness and confidence, betraying a serious, no nonsense personality. The second bust (inv. 609) shows Agrippa wearing a headband (corona navalis). It is also unfinished on the rear and right sides and the random chisel marks on these surfaces indicate the piece was placed against a wall and that it was intended to be viewed only from the front. The fragment measures 48cm high by 24cm wide, the face itself just 21.5cm. The features are badly worn, the chin and nose are broken and the surface texture is marked, but two deep furrows are still clearly visible. The bust conveys both the gravitas and modesty of the victor of battles on land and sea yet whose face bears the personal cost of war experienced firsthand.
In the Musée Saint-Raymond in Toulouse is a bust (inv. 30002) which was originally part of a statue group from Colonia Urbs Iulia Baeterrae (modern Béziers, Hérault), a city founded for veterans of Legio VII in Gallia Narbonensis. Carved out of white marble, it was probably once part of a togate statue. The fragment is 32cm high, of which the head alone measures 24.5cm, and is missing the nose. The face appears narrower than the Ny Carlsberg (inv. 608) and other examples.
The bust in the Palazzo Spado, Rome (inv. 234) was severed at the neck in antiquity and is fitted to a modern replica of the base for display. Carved of fine grain white marble the face measures just 19.5cm and features a notably narrow face. The bust portrays a composed and calm individual, but the downward sloping eyebrows and expression of the lips hint at a melancholic mood. On stylistic grounds it has been dated to the reign of Tiberius.
Sharing the same squarish shape of the Copenhagen (inv. 608) bust is the head in the Museum at the University of Bochum, Germany. Cut from white marble with a crystalline composition, the stone has a greenish yellow colouration. Of the many busts to survive, this one, with its heavy eyebrows, cheek dimples and unemotional stare typifies more than most the ‘classic’ look of Agrippa.
A badly damaged head, believed to come from Ancona or somewhere in the Marche region of central Italy, has disappeared since its discovery and is known only from photographs in the archive of the Archaeological Institute of the University of Heidelberg, Germany. The white marble bust is notable for the heavy eyebrows, which arch upwards, and the brow with four deep furrows.
The incomplete bust (statue inv. 91422, head inv. 932) in the Lucus Feroniae Museum at Capena near Rome has been re-assembled from many fragments. It is similar in appearance to the specimens in Bochum and Copenhagen (inv. 608). Carved from Pentelic marble from quarries near Athens, Greece, at 32cm it was originally part of a statue that stood 1.77m tall. It is detailed to a very high standard, particularly the deep eyes, heavy eyebrows and three furrows on the brow. Unusual in busts of Agrippa, there is a dimple in the chin. The portrait conveys strength of character and assured self-confidence. Stylistically it is very similar to the Agrippa (S-28) on the Ara Pacis Augustae.
From the Esquiline Hill in Rome, and now in the Jandolo Collection, is a bust carved from white, fine grain marble measuring 34cm high. It was originally part of a statue from which it was severed, and the nose is modern. A serious, almost scowling Agrippa is shown with his head covered with a fold of his toga as he does on the Ara Pacis.
The bust in the British Museum, London (inv. 1881) also comes from a togate state of Agrippa displayed originally on the island of Capri. Some 46cm high, the portrait is well preserved, and the finish is exceptional. The toga, which covers the head, is smashed from the body at the rear of the head, though a long section is preserved on the left side. The tip of the nose is a modern restoration. Agrippa has a slimmer face in this interpretation and the artist has imbued the subject with a calm but authoritative appearance.
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York has an exceptional bronze bust (inv. 14.130.2) found on 11 August 1904 in the forum at Segusium (Susa, Piedmont). A full 31cm high, it originally came from a full statue, small pieces of which have been found close to the find site. The accompanying fragmentary inscription indicates it was dedicated to Agrippa by a son of Cottius, the client king and praefectus of the Alpine district who died around 13 BCE, providing a terminus post quem for the piece. The artist has created a bust of Agrippa as an idealized figure – the eyebrows are narrow and arch upwards, but there is no double chin or dimples in the cheeks and the hair line at the front is a neat fringe. The eyes, which would have been enamelled, are now missing, but even without them, the face portrays an individual who is confidant and commanding.
The Museo Gregorian Profgano in Vatican City has a togate statue (inv. 9951) from the theatre at Caere in southern Etruria which stands 2m tall. The head, measuring 25cm high, is carved of quality Greek marble. Though identified as Agrippa it looks more like busts of Tiberius Caesar (from the side) or Drusus the Elder (from the front), yet the shape of the face, wide downward curving eyebrows and furrowed brow displayed on this statue are characteristics of the Agrippa from Capri in the British Museum (inv. 1881).
The bust (plate 1) in the Pergamon Museum, Berlin (inv. 1858), was found in the pritaneion or executive building of Magnesia al Meandro, a town near Ephesus in Asia Minor. Carved of white marble, the fine bust, which extends to the base of the neck, is 44cm high and in very good condition, allowing for scuffing on the tip of the nose. The eyes and head turn slightly to the left. Two furrows score the brow and the hair parts above the bust’s left eye. The sculptor has produced a portrait of a man calmly looking into the distance.
Excavations in the theatre (or odeon) at Colonia Augusta Buthrotum (Butrint) produced larger-than-life size early Imperial statues of Augustus, Livia and Agrippa. The bust, now in the Archaeological Museum in Tirana, Albania (inv. 583), shows a youthful Agrippa – there is no double chin and the furrows on the brow are light – which is quite different from the other specimens. There is the look of an analytical mind in this face. Carved of white marble, the head is in a good state of preservation, allowing for surface contamination. It measures 36cm from the top of the head to the base of the neck.
Also from Butrint, and on display at the onsite archaeological museum, is a weather damaged bust. It was found in the so-called Tower of Inscriptions. The style of this sculpture is similar to the one from Ancona or in the Palazzo Spada (inv. 234). The bust shows signs of weathering with discolouration on the left side, the nose of this specimen has broken off and there is a chip in one of the ear lobes.
The Six Collection in Amsterdam has a marble bust which came originally from Rome. Measuring 32cm high, the white marble bust has stylistic similarities to the one from Butrint now in Tirana (inv. 583).
Several busts were recarved in antiquity to transform the original subject into another person. One of these (plate 24) is the colossal, heroic and muscular statue of Agrippa from the Grimani Collection in the Archaeological Museum in Venice (inv. 11). The lower portion of the 3.17m high nude statue has been assembled from fragments, including the pedestal, feet, legs, thighs as well as the right arm. The face shows distinct signs of having been abraded to alter the brow and eyebrows. It may have originally had the head of M. Antonius based on its resemblance to a bust of him in Narbonne.
The most comprehensive recent analysis of sculptures of our subject is by Ilaria Romeo (Rome 1998). She identifies three distinct and successive ‘types’, which she argues correspond to a ‘phase’ in Agrippa’s career. The first emerges as the man as military commander transitions to becoming associate of Augustus and a member of the gens Iulia. The busts found at Vibo Valentia and Gabii (Ibid, pp. 47–55) she proposes date to this period. They are characterized by youthful, somewhat idealized features – thick tousled hair and heavy eyebrows. At the height of his career he appears as a mature individual with a fuller face, an increasingly furrowed brow, crows’ feet around the eyes and the beginnings of a double chin, and presented with the toga covering the head, such as he appears on the Ara Pacis (Ibid, pp. 55–60). The third type she identifies share the characteristics of a bust found at Butrint, displaying a less naturalistic style, where the hair is less dense and the fringe combed forward over the brow, covering a receding hairline (Ibid, p. 60).
(c) Cameos
Several cameos produced in the Roman period depict Agrippa. The Bibliothèque National in Paris has two cameos. The first is a two-sided cameo carved from agate. Measuring 35mm × 628mm the obverse has a profile of Agrippa facing left wearing his combined corona navalis and muralis on his head and a commander’s paludamentum over his shoulder. The second, measuring 34mm × 648mm, shows a laureate head of Augustus (left) facing a head of Agrippa crowned with a corona rostrata and muralis (right).
The Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge, England has an onyx cameo (inv. P. 35 (CM)) which measures 95mm × 95mm showing Agrippa in profile facing left wearing a corona navalis.
The Medagliere Capitolino, Rome has an exquisite cameo (inv. 6738) of incised carnelian. Measuring 1.9cm in diameter, the finely carved, naturalistic profile of Agrippa shows him facing left wearing his combined corona navalis and muralis.
Agate was the choice of material of the artist of the cameo in the Pappalardo Collection, Catania. The piece is oval in shape and 60mm high. The beautiful portrait, which faces right, recalls the profile of the Agrippa in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek (inv. 608).